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Pillais Institute of Information Technology & Engg. Page 1

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Contents

1.

Introduction

What is Oil Spill

Causes of Oil Spill

Appearance Oil Spills

Effects of Oil Spill

2.

Oil Spills in Mumbai 2010

About a Disaster

Cause of the Accident

Ecological Impact

Salvage Operation

Effect on Environment

Toxic Effects Of Crude Oil Constituents in Water

Loss due to Oil Spill

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Causes of Oil Spill

Oil spills are hazardous to the environment and can be dangerous

or deadly to affected people and animals. There are a number of factors

which can lead to oil spills, and many occur during the transport of oil across

waterways such as oceans.

Oil is commonly transported by barges, tankers, pipelines, and trucks,

each of which has its own imperfections that can lead to an oil accident.

Tankers and barges can crash or run into unexpected land that causes a crack

or hole which allows oil to escape. Likewise, pipelines which transport oil

underground can develop leaks or cracks that allow oil to seep into the

environment. Oil shipping trucks can also instigate an oil spill in the event of

an accident. Some oil can escape while it is being moved from one vessel to

another, a process called lightering. Uncontrollable factors such as hurricanes

and other violent weather can cause tankers or barges to wreck or can damage

offshore drilling facilities, incidents that can lead to oil spills.

Oil spills can occur during other phases of production, such as when

oil is being extracted from an oil well or being converted into other products

at a refinery. Human mistakes as well as equipment failure are common

causes of accidents in such situations. Sometimes oil is even spilled

intentionally as an act of war or vandalism. Illegal dumping of oil is another

deliberate act that causes harm to the environment.

Since importing and exporting oil is a major mechanism of world

trade, oil spills often happen in the ocean during long international commutes.

The degree of effort involved in cleaning up an oil spill depends on the

quantity of oil that is spilled, the type of oil, the cooperation of the weather in

cleanup efforts as well as the location of the spill. Lighter oils, such as

gasoline, have a tendency to evaporate into the air and are therefore generally

easier to clean up. A spill in the ocean is often relatively easier to clean up

than a spill in a smaller lake, though cleaning any spill is a complicated

undertaking.

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When oil is spilled into the ocean, the movement of the waves causes

some of the oil to emulsify in the water. Some of the mixture sinks to the

bottom of the ocean where it sticks to rocks and sand. Some of the spilled oil

is consumed by microorganisms in the water, and some is broken down by

the sun. Still, some of the spilled oil is transported by the current onto land,

affecting the sand, rocks, grass and trees.

Oil spill prevention and cleanup procedures are monitored by

organizations such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the United

States Coast Guard. Such organizations enact policies aimed at preventing

spills, training for oil clean up and making companies accountable for

accidents.

APPEARANCE OF OIL SPILLS

When spilled at sea, oil forms a slick which drifts with the wind and

current, and subsequently breaks up into smaller slicks (patches), usually

interspersed with the areas of relatively thin sheen, and scatters over areas

which, with time, become very large. With a change in wind direction oil

already deposited on shores might refloat. After being at sea for some time

most crude oils and heavy refined products will form a water-in-oil emulsion

(chocolate mousse) which increases their volume and viscosity and changes

their colour. Oil or emulsion can also become mixed with algae and debris.

Three main groups of oil can be distinguished in accordance with their

appearance when floating on the sea surface:

Light refined products (petrol, gasoil, kerosene) which spread uniformly on

big surfaces and undergo strong evaporation and rapid natural dispersion

processes, often resulting in their total disappearance in 2 to 3 days. They

form thin sheens.

Heavy refined products (fuel No. 6 and most types of fuel oils used by

merchant ships) which are very viscous spread less rapidly and do not

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disappear naturally. These form dark thicker patches, separated by areas of

intermediate and thin sheens. May form emulsions.

Crude oils whose characteristics and behaviour vary greatly according to their

type and origin. Usually these rapidly break into areas of dark, thicker oil

interspersed with areas of intermediate and thin sheens. Most crude oils will

form emulsions within 2448 hours.

In general terms, the thick parts of an oil slick have dull (dark) colours, the

colour of patches of intermediate thickness is blue or iridescent (rainbow),

and the thinnest parts of a slick appear as areas of grey or silvery sheen.

Sheen consists of only small quantities of oil but is the most visible

proof of pollution. Frequently, thick patches are discovered in the midst and

windward of an area covered by sheen (silver,

grey or iridescent).

Thick patches represent big quantities of oil. Generally, black or dark

brown at the early stages of pollution, but once emulsified may appear as

brown, red, orange or yellow patches.

TABLE 1 gives an indication of relations between the appearance (colour) of

an oil slick, approximate thickness of oil and the approximate volume of oil

(in cubic meters) the slick contains per

unit of surface area (square kilometers).

TABLE 1: APPEARANCE/ THICKNESS/ VOLUME OF OIL ON THE SEA SURFACE.APPEARANCE/

COLOURAPPROX.THICKNESS(m)

APPROX.VOLUME(m3/km2)

silvery sheen 0.02-0.05 0grey sheen 0.1 0.1

iridescent (rainbow) sheen 0.3 0.3Blue 1.0 1

blue/brown 5.0 5brown/black 15-25 15-25

dark brown/black >100 >100

brown/red/orange/yellowmousse

>1mm

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Effects of Oil Spill

Overall, the effects of an oil spill depend on a variety of factors,

including the weather and other environmental conditions, the composition of

the oil and how close it gets to shore. But here are some ways an oil spill can

impact marine life, including seabirds and sea turtles.

Effect On Fish

When oil stops floating on the surface, it starts to sink into the sea. It

reduces the oxygen content in the water and can kill or contaminate fish and

smaller organisms important to the underwater ecosystem. An oil spill can

also take a toll if large numbers of fish eggs or larvae are exposed to it.

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Effects On Marine Mammals

When mammals such as whales and dolphins swallow oil, it can clog

their lungs and make it difficult for them to breathe. It also disrupts their

ability to communicate. Marine mammals could die of poisoning because

they could eat fish exposed to the oil.

Effects On Birds

Birds that swim and dive for food can get their feathers coasted with

oil, making it difficult for them to fly. It also destroys their waterproofing and

insulation, thus exposing them to overheating. If they swallow the oil, it

damages their internal organs and could lead to death. Oil spills can also

disrupt migratory patterns by contaminating areas where migrating birds

normally stop. For instance, the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 at Alaska

killed 250,000 to 500,000 sea birds.

Effects On Coastal Marshes, Mangroves, Wetlands

The plants absorb the oil which chokes their roots and damages the

fragile eco-system. Spill can affect nesting and breeding cycles as well as

seasonal migrations of various species.

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Oil Spills in Mumbai

About a Disaster

The Mumbai oil spilloccurred after the Panama-flagged MVMSC

Chitra and MV Khalijia 3 collided off the coast of India near Mumbai on

Saturday, 7 August 2010 at around 9:50 A.M local time. MSC Chitra, which

was outbound from South Mumbai's Nava Sheva port, collided with the

inbound Khalijia-III, which caused about 200 cargo containers from MSC

Chitra to be thrown into the Arabian Sea. Khalijia-III was apparently

involved with another mishap on 18 July 2010.

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Cause of the Accident

Preliminary investigations suggest that the accident occurred as a result

of communication errors. An inquiry is being conducted by the Directorate

General of Shipping and a report is expected to be tabled in a month. The

captains of the two ships have blamed each other for the mishap. Captain

Laxman Dubey of the Khalija-III alleged that he attempted to establish radio

contact with the MSC Chitra thrice but received no response.

Captain M Ranjit Martin, who was at the helm of the Chitra, said that it

was negligence on the part of Captain Dubey that led to the accident. He

claimed that the Khalija-III was not in a good condition after being grounded

by Mumbai port authorities earlier in July. The vessel had been moving into

the port when it collided with the Chitra. The Geneva headquartered

Mediterranean Shipping Company, which owns the Chitra, has stood by its

captain on the issue.

Ecological Impact

The impact is already being felt along the Mumbai coastline, with fish

and other marine creatures being found covered with oil. The oil slick has

entered the sensitive mangrove belt and is likely to damage the environment

there. The shores along the green mangroves are coated with slick black oil.

Containers of pesticide are also thought to have spilled over and this is

causing alarm to environmentalists.

The government had banned fishing in the region soon after the collision

occurred. The state fisheries department is carrying out random sampling at

various locations throughout the city. The state government has appointed the

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute and Goa-based

National Institute of Oceanography to assess the environmental impact of the

accident.

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TheEnergy and Resource Institute (TERI) has volunteered to clean up

the oil spill with its indigenously developed and patented formula of bacteria

called as'Oil Zapper.' The process uses bacteria to clean-up the oil slick. This

might help do away with the effects of the spill.

Salvage Operation

SMIT Salvage is continuing with operations to clear the containers from

the channel. It has cleared about 60 containers from the sea. The cleanup

operation will be tedious and time consuming as it takes many hours to lift a

container by employing metal ropes and a crane. A floating crane and two

tugs have been employed to tow and pick up containers drifting in the

channel.

SMIT is also pumping out the remaining fuel from the MSC Chitra to

avoid any further spill. Attempts to straighten the ship, which is dangerously

tilted, failed because of the weather conditions. The Chitra is tilted at an angle

of about 75 degrees. Shipping officials estimate that clearing the ill-fated shipcould take a few months.
http://www.teriin.org/http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46http://www.teriin.org/

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Effect on Environment

The situation is chilling. A snake which came in from the sea was

covered in oil and chemicals and was struggling. Neither could it go back into

the sea as it is filled with oil, nor could it remain in the open in the baking

sun. The oil spill has turned deadly. And its not just this one snake.

Fishermen claim that their fishing nets in the sea are all covered with oil.

No one is willing to buy such fish. The marine life here is contaminated. This

has been confirmed by initial reports carried out by the state government. The

oil slick has even entered the sensitive mangrove belt. While the government

is working towards a swift clean up, environmentalists fear it may be too late.

Environmentalists worry that the oil slick will enter the mangroves and

mudflats and once that happens nothing can be done to clean it up. Moreover

he believes that India has the technology or the intent.

The Environment Minister Thiru Jairam Ramesh claims that removing

the entire oil from the sea will take 45 days. Comprehensive detailed

investigation on damage on mangrove forest will be done by Maharashtra

Pollution Board. And while the leak may have been plugged, going by the

extent to which the slick has spread, it will be a while before the villagers can

return to the seas for their livelihood.

As the crisis related to the oil spill off Mumbai coast becomes bigger, its

business as usual in the metropolis. Even as mangroves turn black due to the

oil slick and toxic chemical bottles get washed ashore, at the Mumbai docks

fish continues to be brought in and hundreds of fishermen continue to go out

to sea.

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Over 31 containers with hazardous chemicals are still missing and need

to be found. Debris can still be seen floating in the waters. The water around

the damaged MSC Chitra is clear but that is because the ship is in deep sea

and the debris is getting washed ashore.

But the fishermen claim there is no need to panic. They are worried

people will stop eating fish, affecting their business in turn.

The crisis related to the oil spill off Mumbai coast becomes bigger. Even

as mangroves turn black due to the oil slick and toxic chemical bottles get

washed ashore, at the Mumbai docks fish continues to be brought in and

hundreds of fishermen continue to go out to sea. Over 31 containers with

hazardous chemicals are still missing and need to be found. Debris can still

be seen floating in the waters. The water around the damaged MSC Chitra is

clear but that is because the ship is in deep sea and the debris is getting

washed ashore. But the fishermen claim there is no need to panic. They are

worried people will stop eating fish, affecting their business in turn. They

claim that there is no connection between the oil spill and fish. Despite thewarnings of the state government and Environment Ministry for the

fisherman of Mumbai it is business as usual. They insist there is nothing

wrong. For them it is just another day.

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TOXIC EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL CONSTITUENTS

IN WATER

There are several compounds or classes of compounds originating from

crude oil possessing toxic properties. The most important and well-known

among them and their potential health aspects are described briefly below:

1. M ineral Oil :

This constitutes a class of several sparingly soluble (in water) aliphatic

and aromatic hydrocarbons of petroleum origin. While some individual

compounds from this group may be acutely toxic, a great majority are

comparatively harmless. Because of this vast difference in the toxic

properties it has been reported as difficult to establish a numerical criterion

which would be applicable to all types of oils. Extensive research had shown

that tolerance limits of these products to human health far exceed the odour

and taste thresholds if they are present in water. In other words, humans tend

to refuse to drink water containing mineral oils due to smell and odourreasons at much lower concentrations than toxic threshold levels. World

Health Organization (WHO) had set a maximum permissible limit (MPL) of

0.3 mg/L of mineral oil in drinking water in their 1976 standards, but later in

I984 this limit was removed. However, API continues to impose an MPL of

0.3 mg/L in the drinking water.

2. Benzene:

This compound is known to be carcinogenic. Children and adults,

drinking water containing more than l00ug/L for a life time, are at an

increased cancer risk.API has not set any maximum permissible limit for this

compound in drinking water. However, WHO suggested a guideline value of

l0ug/L in 1984.

3. Toluene :

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This is a constituent of crude oil having a significant solubility in water

(515 mg/L). It is less toxic than benzene. A daily consumption of upto 700

ug/L through drinking water is considered to be safe for adults. API did not

set any safe limit for this compound, however, WHO proposed a guideline

value of 1000 ug/L in drinking water.

4. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons CPAH):

This is a class of more than 20 organic compounds, some of which are

known to be extremely toxic to human health. These compounds have very

limited solubility in water but can continuously leach into water from crude

oil tar balls over extended period of time. Many PAHs are shown to be

mutagenic in bacterial systems and produce skin tumors in some test animals.

It has also been presumed that some occupation-associated skin cancers

observed in man is due to exposure to some of the PAHs. EPA has set a MPL

of 0.2ug/L for these compounds in drinking water. W.H.O. has set a limit of

0.01ug/L for benzo [a] pyrene, one of the wellstudied compounds among

PAHs, mainly due to the fact that this compound is associated in water with

other PAHs of known carcinogenicity.

5. Phenolic Compounds:

Many phenolic compounds are known to be present in petroleum crude.

They are mostly non-toxic in trace concentrations. But some chlorophenols,

produced as a result of chlorination, are reported to be toxic if consumed in

small concentrations in drinking water. For example, 2,4,6 - trichlorophenol

is a chemical carcinogen that might increase the cancer rate in man if present

in sufficient quantities. EPA has set an M.P.L. of 2ug/L for phenolic

compounds in drinking water. Many phenols can be detected by their taste

and odor at concentrations far below1ug/L.

6. Chloroform and Total Tr ihalomethanes :

These compounds do not primarily originate from crude oil but could be

formed in water on chlorination as a result of reaction between chlorine and

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some crude oil constituents. Chloroform and some other halogenated

compounds, included in the class of total trihalomethanes, and are known to

have carcinogenic property. EPA has limited the maximum permissible limit

for chloroform and total trihalomethanes in drinking water at 30 and 250ug/L,

respectively.

7. Phthalate Esters :

Esters of phthalic acid are reported to be a class of contaminants usually

found in water originating from wide industrial use of plastic based materials.

Though scanty data is available on the toxicity of phthalates in humans this

class of compounds have been included in US EPAs priority pollutants list

for drinking water. A concentration of 0.1 mmol per Kg body weight per day

has been suggested as a threshold value for all phthalates.

Major findings of the studies are summarized below:

(a) Mineral Oil:

Fig. 1 indicates the variation of mineral oil contents in sea water and

product water samples during the reported period. While the majority of the

samples indicated a mineral oil concentration of close to zero (below

detection limit), a few of them had concentrations ranging from 0.02 - 0.1

mg/L.Several samples immediately collected from all intakes and near the

mouth of the intake bay did not show a repetition of the results, but one

sample collected close to a navy boat anchored in the lagoon showed high

levels of both mineral oil and phthalate esters. It was obvious that the source

of this contamination was some spillage from the boat. It is known that somelighter fractions of crude oil such as hydrocarbons sparingly dissolve in

water. Hydrocarbons with the smallest carbon numbers and their derivatives

dissolve the most while those of higher molecular weights dissolve the least.

But the low molecular weight: compounds are the most volatile hence their

disappearance from the sea water under the turbulent conditions is quite

rapid. It may be seen from that mineral oil concentration in product water

were less than 0.03 mg/L in all samples but two. That this was true even

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during the worst period of the crisis prove that the precautionary measures

taken by various pollution control agencies were quite effective. However,

one point of concern is the occurrence of traces of mineral oil in the product

water when the same is present in sea water. This may indicate that MSF

process is not capable to completely remove the organic contaminants present

in sea water. It is difficult to make a quantitative assessment of this problem

from the current data, and will require a separate and detailed study most

effectively by using pilot plant, since most of the physico-chemical

parameters governing an MSF process cannot be duplicated in laboratory

scale experimental set up.

(b) Polvnuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons :

This class of compounds were specifically monitored using selected ion

monitoring (SIM) technique due to their known toxicity and the stringent

regulatory control imposed by EPA (MPL = 0.2ug/L) in drinking water.

(c) Benzene and Toluene :

Both benzene and toluene have considerable solubility in water, 1780 and

515 mg/L respectively, and both are present in crude oil in significant

quantities. Benzene was detected in sea water twice during this period but it

did not appear in the product water However, toluene appeared more

frequently in sea water samples at concentrations ranging from 0-

0.6ug/LToluene was detected four times in product water as well, the

maximum concentration being 0.34ug/L. Though EPA did not impose a

maximum permissible limit for both these compounds in drinking water,

WHO (1984) had set a limit of l0ug/L for benzene, which is more toxic of the

two. Once dissolved, toluene remains in water for longer periods than

benzene, since the former has higher boiling point. Frequent appearance of

toluene in sea water samples is consistent with this assumption.

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(d) Phenolic Compounds :

No phenolic compounds were detected during this period with any

consistency. Once when the Mumbai Oil Spill intake sea water was suspected

to be contaminated by spillage of diesel oil from Navy boat phenol appeared

in small traces in product water (

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detection limit (

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well as desalination sources. They were assumed to be leached into water

from plastic piping and plumbing materials. They are not known to be highly

toxic; their tolerance limits reported to vary from 15-350 mg/L in drinking

water depending on individual compounds.

A wide variety of phthalate esters were detected in contaminated sea

water samples collected from the proximity of the navy boat anchored in the

Mumbai Oil Spill intake lagoon. All of them have very high boiling points

(greater than 220oC). But surprisingly, trace amounts of several of these

esters were detected in the product water samples as well when the intake sea

water was contaminated by spills from the navy boats. Though the total

concentrations of all these esters detected in product water were always very

low (below toxic levels) it is surprising how such high boiling point organics

in sea water were carried into the distillates. The Center is currently

investigating this problem using laboratory scale experimental set up.

However, scaled-up studies on a pilot plant will be essential to fully elucidate

this phenomenon as the physico-chemical parameters governing the MSF

process cannot be duplicated on laboratory scale set up.

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Loss due to spill

Four billion dollar of trade will be lost if the oil spill off the Mumbai

coast is not dealt with by the weekend. The situation has already prompted

exporters and importers to ask the government for financial relief,.

The recent oil spill off the Mumbai coast has disrupted cargo traffic at

JNPT and Mumbai port. And if the situation is not addressed by the end of

the week (15th august 2010), the Federation of Indian Export Organizations

(FIEO) estimates that USD 4 billion of trade cargo will be lost.

After all, these two ports handle 60% of Indias container traffic. The

FIEO says that losses are mounting with each day of delay. It pegs losses to

Indian importers and exporters at USD 20 million by the end of the week.

The Federation is now asking the government to help contain these financial

losses by waiving demurrage, detention and other charges which arise from

suspension of operations at the ports.

Oil companies, meanwhile, are putting on a brave face, for now. Theysay that fuel production at their Mumbai plants are normal, and add that the

port disruption will not mean a shortage of supplies, for the time being.

ONGC is also working to compensate for the blocked ports by diverting

crude to its two facilities through pipeline.

This measure, it says, will ensure supplies are not impaired. Officials at

oil marketing companies IOC, BPCL and HPCL agree, saying they have

enough inventories to survive this crisis.

The Maharashtra government is going all out to assure the people that

port activities will resume as soon as possible. But experts point out that if

port operations remain suspended past the 15th of august, Mumbai could run

out of fuel.

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