5 M The Emperor

countries — a situation which in many endured until the last third or soof the twentieth century, effectively frustrating their political evolution.

In the United States it was from the outset the middle classes whoseized power and vigorously pursued their agenda of economic development and commercial expansion. The American Revolution was truly arevolutionary movement, while the Latin American wars of independence were largely aristocratic assertions of self-interest against themother country. The caudillos and the demagogues pursued their owninterests, sometimes brutally, sometimes in an enlightened way, poweralternating between the two all too often, and both based on the cult ofpersonality. As economic growth and the expansion of the middle classhave at last occurred in the course of the last third of the twentiethcentury, it has become possible to suggest that the era of extremes haspassed. How quickly economic and political co-operation between theLatin American nations will follow remains to be seen.

The Liberators threw off the Spanish yoke — one of the greatest military achievements in human history. In their inability to establish viableor stable political structures, although most wanted to do so, they werethe victims of their time and place; and they were aware of their failure.The tragedy was that this failure, exacerbated by a vicious circle of political and economic underdevelopment, was to last the best part of acentury and a half. The cycle may now have been broken; if so, the independence and self-respect for which the Liberators fought so hard mayat last be in prospect for the millions of Latin America.

Chronology

1750 Birth of Francisco de Miranda in Caracas1759 Accession of Charles III of Spain1763 Ambrose Higgins arrives in Buenos Aires1775 Outbreak of American War of Independence

Birth of Thomas, later IxDrd Cochrane, near Edinburgh1777 Ambrosio O'Higgins becomes Captain-General of Santiago de Chile1778 Birth of Bernardo O'Higgins in Concepcion, southern Chile

Birth of Jos^ de San Mardn in Yapeyii, north of Buenos Aires1781 Execution of Tupac Amaru II in Cuzco1783 Birth of Simon Bolfvar in Caracas

Desertion of Miranda from the Spanish army to the United StatesBirth of Agustfn de Iturbide in V Iadolid, New SpainEnd of the American War of Independence

1785—89 Miranda's grand tour of Europe1788 Accession of Charles IV of Spain1789 Start of French Revolution1792 Miranda Joins French revolutionary army1 7 9 3 M i r a n d a a r r e s t e d1795 Miranda released; meets Napoleon

Bernardo O'Higgins arrives in LondonAmbrosio O'Higgins becomes Viceroy of Peru

1 7 9 7 M i r a n d a fl e e s F r a n c e1798 Birth of Pedro de Braganza in Lisbon1799 Bolivar arrives in Spain1 8 0 1 D e a t h o f A m b r o s i o O ' H i g g i n s ^1804 Napoleon's coronation in Paris1805 In Rome, Bolfvar swears to liberate South America1806 Miranda's Leander expedition leaves New York for Venezuela

Defeat of Popham and Beresford's expedition to Buenos Aires1807 Napoleon invades Spain and Portugal; Portuguese court flees Lisbon for Rio de

Janeiro1 8 0 8 M i r a n d a r e t u r n s t o L o n d o n

Whitelocke's expedition defeated in Buenos AiresTumult of Aranjuez forces abdication of Charles IV and succession of Ferdinand VIINapoleon deposes Ferdinand VII and instals Joseph BonaparteVenezuela swears loyalty to anti-French junta formed in Seville

1810 Seville junta overthrownCaptain-General of Venezuela overthrown

526 Chronology

Boh'var travels to London as Venezuela's emissary, meets MirandaChile declares independenceHidalgo and Allende's uprising in New SpainBuenos Aires declares independence and invades Spanish Upper PeriBoh'var and Miranda return to VenezuelaDefeat of the Argentinians by Spain in Upper PeruVenezuela declares independenceMiranda appointed commander-in-chief in VenezuelaDefection of San Martm from Spanish armyHidalgo loses the Battle of Calderon and is executedVenezuelan earthquake kills 20,000Miranda appointed dictator of VenezuelaSiege of Morelos's forces at Cuautla, south of Mexico CityBolivar routed at Puerto CabelloMiranda sues for peace with Spain-Miranda betrayed into captivity by Boh'varCarrera seizes power in ChileLiberals seize power in Cadiz and promulgate new constitutionBolivar flees to Cartagena and composes Cartagena ManifestoBoh'var embarks on River Magdalena expeditionMorelos proclaims constitution of Chilpancingo in New SpainBoh'var crosses the Cordillera Oriental and wins Battle of CucutaBoh'var marches on Venezuela and captures MeridaThe Spanish reinvade ChileBoh'var proclaims the War to the DeathBoh'var recaptures CaracasBoh'var defeated at the Battle of La PuertaEvacuation of CaracasBolivar flees Venezuela for CartagenaSan Martin becomes Governor of Cuyo in western ArgentinaO'Higgins loses Battle of Rancagua in ChileChilean exodus across the AndesCapture and execution of Morelos in New SpainBoh'var captures Santa Fe de BogotaDefeat of Napoleon in SpainReturn of Ferdinand VIIRestoration of absolutism in SpainBattle of Waterloo marks final defeat of NapoleonBoh'var sails from Cartagena to JamaicaMorillo's army sails from SpainSpanish capture CartagenaBoh'var writes Jamaica LetterBoh'var travels to HaitiBoh'var lands again in VenezuelaBolivar escapes back to HaitiBolivar returns to VenezuelaDeath of Miranda in gaol in CadizSan Martin's army crosses the AjidesSan Martin and O'Higgins win the Battle of ChacabucoSan Martin and O'Higgins take SantiagoBolivar establishes his base on the OrinocoBolivar executes his rival Manuel PiarD „ _ ; i : 1 _ _

181I

1812

1813

1814

527

Bolivar captures Guayana and Angostura1818 Bolivar meets Jose Antonio Paez, leader of the llaneros

Boh'var defeated at El Semen

Spanish reinvasion of ChileSpanish defeat of O'Higgins at Cancha RayadaSan Martin wins Battle of Maipu

1819 Boh'var holds Congress of AngosturaBoh'var crosses the plains of Casanare and the AndesBoh'var wins the Battle of Boyaca and retakes Santa Fe de Bogotd

1 8 2 0 A d m i r a l L o r d C o c h r a n e t a k e s V a l d i v i a

Mutiny in Cadiz restores the 1812 constitutionBoh'var invades VenezuelaBoh'var concludes an armistice with the Spanish commander MorilloExecution of Jose Miguel Carrera in ArgentinaSan Martin's and Cochrane's expeditionary force leaves Chile for Peru by seaCochrane's capture of the Esmeralda

1821 End of armistice in VenezuelaBolivar wins decisive Batde of Carabobo and declares independence of Cran

C o l o m b i a

Attempted revolution in Rio de Janeiro crushedPlan of Iguala issued by Iturbide in New Spain; Mexico becomes independentSan Martin occupies LimaCochrane hijacks San Martin's treasure ship

1822 Boh'var wins Battle of Bombona in southern ColombiaBoh'var enters Quito; meets Manuela SaenzBolivar's soliloquy on ChimborazoCochrane re tu rns to Ch i lePedro declares Brazil independent and becomes EmperorBohvar meets San Marti'n in GuayaquilSan Marti'n abdicates power and returns to ChileIturbide becomes Emperor of MexicoCanning promulgates his Latin American doctrineEarthquake in Valparaiso

1823 Bol ivar takes control of LimaO'Higgins deposed in ChileBoh'var forced out of LimaCochrane captures Bahia and MaranhaoFollowing French intervention, absolutism reimposed in Spain under

F e r d i n a n d V I IIturbide abdicates as Emperor of Mexico and leaves for EuropeMonroe Doctrine promulgated by United States

1824 Boh'var wins Battle of Juni'nSucre wins Battle of Ayacucho: final defeat for Spanish forces in Latin AmericaSan Marti'n departs for exile in EuropeCochrane subdues PernambucoIturbide returns to Mexico, where he is executed

1825 Boh'var travels to Cuzco and PotosICochrane re turns to Br i ta in

1826 Boh'var draws up constitution for Bolivia, installing Sucre as presidentBoh'var draws up constitution for PeruCongress of PanamaDeath of the Empress Leopoldina of BrazilR r * l f v a r P i = > r i i

f - 1

Bol ivars reconci l iat ion with PaezBrazil gives up the Banda Oriental, which becomes UruguayDeath of CanningSucre is overthrown in BoliviaConvention of Ocana dissolved; Bolivia becomes dictator of Gran ColombiaCoup and assassination attempt against Boli'var in Santa Fe de BogotaSucre defeats invading Peruvians at Portete de TarquiBoli'var travels to Quito and GuayaquilSan Martin returns to Buenos Aires, thence to Europe againBoli'var returns to Santa Fe de BogotaBoli'var departs for the coastSucre assassinatedDeath of Boli'var at San Pedro AlejandrinoAbdication of Emperor Pedro IPedro arrives in Oporto; siege of the city beginsEnd of the siege of OportoPedro captures LisbonDeath of PedroDeath of O'Higgins in PeruDeath of San Marti'n in BoulogneDeath of Cochrane (now Earl of Dondonald) in London

Dramat is Personae

Francisco de Miranda, the Precursor (1750-1816)His jriefidsJuan Manuel de Cagigal, Spanish generalGeorge Washington, US PresidentPrince Potemkin, Russian chief ministerCatherine the Great, Empress of RussiaThomas Paine, American revolutionaryJ. P. Brissot, French revolutionaryGeneral Dumouriez, French army commanderMarquise de Custine, French courtesanWi l l i am P i t t , B r i t i sh P r ime M in i s te rLord Grenville, British Prime MinisterNicholas Vansittart, British politicianThomas Jefferson, US PresidentJames Madison, US Secretary of StateAdmiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, British naval commanderLord Castlereagh, British Foreign SecretaryGeorge Canning, British Foreign SecretaryArthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), British army commanderSarah Andrews, his mistressLady Hester Stanhope, friend in LondonMarquess Wellesley, British Foreign SecretaryHis followersAntonio Narino, New Granadan independence leaderCarlos Maria de Alvear, Argentinian independence leaderBernardo O'Higgins, Chilean independence leaderAndres Bello, Venezuelan poet and statesmanLuis Lopez Mendez, Venezuelan diplomatHis enemiesBernardo del Campo, Spanish ambassador to Court of St JamesKing Charles IV of SpainManuel Codoy, Spanish chief ministerKing Ferdinand VII of SpainFouquier-Tinville, Chief French revolutionary prosecutorRobespierre, leader of French radicals i