ocean sprawl da

8/16/2019 Ocean Sprawl DA

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Spatial Mapping DA


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Advice This is a very interesting disad that I think could be seized upon by a good team andused even more strategically during the year. The argument is that, in the squo,

Obama is performing a spatial ocean mapping process to determine and thenallocate the best parts of the oceans for renewable energy/ fossil fuels/ shing etc.!ut this will be completed in "#$%, so the a&rmative would interrupt that processand derail the ability of mapping to solve for ocean sprawl.

The main thing to note is the answer to 'why isn(t the a&rmative assumed in themapping). * couple of arguments. +irst, the mapping is done by "#$% anda&rmatives have to be immediate, otherwise it robs negative disad ground bydelaying like this disad for e-ample. econd there is a double bind. If thea&rmative is assumed in the mapping, then vote negative on presumption. If not,then they link.

Overall, this should be couched as an impact turn to any fossil fuel a0 and mayeven be better read on solvency. I think winning spatial ocean mapping good/ solvesnow/ is a prerequisite to e0ective energy development is a slayer.

*&rmatives, likewise, should nd it easy to win the claim 'alternative energy failseven with mapping). That(s the main argument in the "*1.


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1NC

Spatial ocean planning underway to prevent “ocean sprawl”-the afrmative destroys the plans due to sprawl- ills ocean

sustaina!ility"arthtal #1$ 2arthTalk, 2*3T4T*56 is a registered trademark of 2 7 The2nvironmental 8agazine, '9Ocean sprawl9: eas as new ;ild ;est), http://thetimes7tribune.com/news/health7science/ocean7sprawl7seas7as7new7wild7west7$.$=> , ?anuary $>, "#$@

%& ' recently heard the term (ocean sprawl)( which was a new one on me*+e all now (sprawl( as it mani,ests itsel, a!ove sea level* ut in theoceans. Can you enlighten. *: ;e are all familiar by now with Aurban sprawlA 7the uncontrolled spread of urban development into areas beyond the city. !utenvironmentalists warn that the ne/t ,rontier in sprawl is on the high

seas) where the proli,eration o, 0shing) shipping) tourism) resource

e/traction) energy development ) military e/ercises and other human

activity has !egun to call into uestion 2ust how vast our oceans really

are* *ccording to the nonprot Batural 3esources Cefense 1ouncil, our oceans

are already under siege ,rom pro!lems lie pollution) over0shing and

acidi0cation) and increased industrial activity o3shore - leading to ( ocean

sprawl( - will 2eopardi4e the ,ood) 2o!s and recreation we have come to

depend on the oceans to provide* 't5s hard to !elieve) given how muchplanning goes into various types o, development and human activity onland) that the oceans are still lie the +ild +est - with various entities

staing claims on huge stretches o, open water ,or di3erent purposes* A

promising approach to com!at ocean sprawl is called coastal and marine

spatial planning 6 CMS7 8 , a ,orm o, 4oning ,or the seas to help de0ne who

can do what and where* 9he National :ceanic and AtmosphericAdministration says CMS7 identi0es areas most suita!le ,or various typeso, activities* A8arine planning places sound science and the best availableinformation at the heart of decision7making and brings federal, state, tribal andother partners together to cooperatively develop coastal and marine spatial plans,ABO** says. AThis process is designed to decrease user conDict, improve planningand regulatory e&ciencies, decrease associated costs and delays, engage a0ectedcommunities and stakeholders, and preserve critical ecosystem functions andservices.A Eresident !arack Obama9s "#$# Bational Ocean Eolicy directs BO** andother federal agencies to work with ocean users, industries and coastalcommunities on ways to implement CMS7 in America5s o3shore waters toprevent ocean sprawl at home while setting an e/ample ,or other nationsaround the world. Bine regional planning bodies are now tasked with developingdetailed plans for their own regions by early "#$%, at which point federalpolicymakers will begin to coordinate implementation. In response to momentum on18E, a coalition of industries, including o0shore energy, shipping, sheries,recreation, mining and others, formed the ;orld Ocean 1ouncil to have a say in how

http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/health-science/ocean-sprawl-seas-as-new-wild-west-1.1617979http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/health-science/ocean-sprawl-seas-as-new-wild-west-1.1617979http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/health-science/ocean-sprawl-seas-as-new-wild-west-1.1617979http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/health-science/ocean-sprawl-seas-as-new-wild-west-1.1617979


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and where marine spatial planning is implemented. The group organized a Bational!usiness +orum on 8arine patial Elanning in "#$$ and will take part in a ;orldOcean ummit in an +rancisco in +ebruary. 9hose o, us who appreciate the seacertainly hope that CMS7 and other approaches will succeed in turning the

tide ,or oceans and not !e undermined !y special interests only

concerned with !ottom lines *

And mapping will !e completed in ;? arah 1hasis is a senior attorney at the Batural 3esources Cefense1ouncil, Inc. B3C1. he has worked at B3C1 for more than F# years and currentlyserves as Cirector of its Ocean Initiative. 4er advocacy for oceans and coastalwaters has been wide7ranging. he has worked to protect sensitive ocean areasfrom o0shore oil drilling, promote the clean up of polluted waters at the nation(sbeaches, strengthen coastal zone management and oil spill prevention programs,and improve domestic and international sheries management. he helpedconvince 1ongress to pass legislation requiring an end to unsustainable harvest ofocean sheries and has successfully promoted state initiatives to strengthen oceanprotections. In recognition of her work, 8s. 1hasis was selected as the rst 1oastalteward of the Gear by the Bational Oceanic and *tmospheric *dministration. 8s.1hasis has participated in a wide variety of commissions and coalitions includingserving on the 8arine !oard of the Bational 3esearch 1ouncil and three yearssta&ng B3C1(s Eresident while he served on the Eew Oceans 1ommission. he is an*dHunct Erofessor of 1linical 5aw at the Bew Gork niversity chool of 5aw. In "##=,she received the mith 1ollege 8edal awarded to women who have risen to the topof their elds while contributing their talent and e-pertise to the improvement ofothers( lives, 'Obama(s Ocean Elan ;ill 4elp top Ocean prawl),

http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/schasis/obamasJoceanJplanJwillJhelpJstJ$.html ,Cecember $@, "##>

*fter making strong recommendations for a landmark national ocean policy ineptember, Eresident Obama(s Ocean Eolicy Task +orce has turned its attention to'stage two) of its e0ort to increase federal ocean protection. 9his stage proposesa ,ramewor ,or a process called coastal and marine spatial planning )which can help America manage the increasing amount o, industrialpressure on our seas while protecting them ,rom ,urther degradation* Today, the administration released the details of its Interim 1oastal and 8arinepatial Elanning +ramework and, once again, the outlook is promising. 5et mee-plainK ;hat is coastal L marine spatial planningM ;e look to our seas to satisfy a

lot of demands N from food to energy, shipping, recreation and the discovery of newmedicines. 1oastal L marine spatial planning 8E is the process of planning aheadand identifying spaces in the ocean and coastal waters that are appropriate forvarious uses, separating incompatible uses, while at the same time ensuring thatthe environment and marine life are protected. 8E allows us to identify in advanceareas where certain industrial uses make sense, and areas where they don(t. :thercountries ) such as Australia) Norway and the Netherlands) are using MS7to improve management o, their ocean resources* Some states have donethis as well* @or e/ample) Massachusetts is completing a comprehensive

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ocean management plan and hode 'sland is in the process o, developingone* 4ighlights of the Obama *dministration(s 1oastal and 8arine patial Elanning+ramework: Today, Eresident Obama(s Ocean Eolicy Task +orce released its proposedrecommendations for how *merica can plan for the future of our oceans using 8E. These recommendations will be available for a


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enewa!le development o, the ocean ey to renewa!le energyleadership- suo increasing renewa!le ,ocusHA: #1


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!iodiversity and ecosystem function arguments for conserving marine ecosystems also e-ist, Hust as they do forterrestrial ecosystems, but these arguments have thus far rarely been raised in political debates. +or e-ample,besides signicant tourism values 7 the most economically valuable ecosystem service coral reefs provide,worldwide 7 coral reefs protect against storms and dampen other environmental Ductuations, services worth morethan ten times the reefs9 value for food production. nQ%< ;aste treatment is another signicant, non7e-tractive

ecosystem function that intact coral reef ecosystems provide. nQ%= 8ore generally, Aocean ecosystemsplay a ma2or role in the glo!al geochemical cycling o, all the elements that

represent the !asic !uilding !locs o, living organisms, carbon, nitrogen, o-ygen,phosphorus, and sulfur, as well as other less abundant but necessary elements.A nQ%Q In a very real anddirect sense, therefore, human degradation o, marine ecosystems impairs theplanet5s a!ility to support li,e* Maintaining !iodiversity is o,ten critical tomaintaining the ,unctions o, marine ecosystems* 1urrent evidence shows that, ingeneral, an ecosystem5s a!ility to eep ,unctioning in the ,ace o, distur!anceis strongly dependent on its !iodiversity) (indicating that more diverseecosystems are more sta!le.A nQ%> 1oral reef ecosystems are particularly dependent on theirbiodiversity. S"


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worldwide have been observing the gathering of this threat for three decades now,and what was once a mere possi!ility has passed through probability to nearcertainty* Indeed not one o, more than ?>F to "##F doubted thatanthropogenic warming is occurring. 'In legitimate scientic circles,) writes 2lizabeth 6olbert, 'it isvirtually impossi!le to 0nd evidence o, disagreement over the fundamentals of global warming .) 2vidence from a vast international scientic monitoring e0ortaccumulates almost weekly, as this sample of newspaper reports shows: aninternational panel predicts 'brutal droughts, Doods and violent storms across theplanet over the ne-t century)V climate change could 'literally alter ocean currents, wipe away huge portions of *lpine nowcaps and aid thespread of cholera and malaria)V 'glaciers in the *ntarctic and in reenland are melting much faster than e-pected, andKworldwide, plants are bloomingseveral days earlier than a decade ago)V 'rising sea temperatures have been accompanied by a signicant global increase in the most destructivehurricanes)V 'B** scientists have concluded from direct temperature measurements that "##% was the hottest year on record, with $>>Q a closesecond)V '2arth(s warming climate is estimated to contribute to more than $%#,### deaths and % million illnesses each year) as disease spreadsV'widespread bleaching from Te-as to TrinidadKkil led broad swaths of corals) due to a "7degree rise in sea temperatures. 'The world is slowlydisintegrating,) concluded Inuit hunter Boah 8etuq, who lives F# miles from the *rctic 1ircle. 'They call it climate changeKbut we Hust call it breaking up.)+rom the founding of the rst cities some


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;NC 'mpact


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;NC 9urns "nergy

@ailure o, Spatial Mapping undermines e3ective energydevelopment writ-large- causes red tape and ad hoc drilling-

suo will solve their a3 ondare3 #11 ?oan 8. !ondare0, 8s. !ondare0 is of counsel in the ;ashington,C.1., o&ce of !lank 3ome, 55E. !efore Hoining !lank 3ome, 8s. !ondare0 was chiefcounsel and acting deputy administrator of the 8aritime *dministration, ..Cepartment of Transportation, 'The Impact of 1oastal and 8arine patial Elanningon Ceepwater Crilling), Eublished in Batural 3esources L 2nvironment Polume " at ==NQQ. In the nited tates, early references to acomprehensive oceans policy and the need to plan for current and new uses of the oceans appear in the reports of the two oceancommissions, the Eew Ocean 1ommission and the .. 1ommission on Ocean Eolicy. Their reports were issued in "##F and "##@,respectively. 1ongress held hearings on the two 1ommission reports but did not adopt many of their recommendations. The conceptof marine spatial planning in the 22W has never been codied in .. law. On ?une $", "##>, Eresident Obama established an


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interagency task force on ocean policy and directed the group to report back to him in one year on the state of the oceans in thenited tates. The Task +orce produced its nal report on ?uly $>, "#$#. ee The ;hite 4ouse 1ouncil on 2nvironmental Yuality,+inal 3ecommendation of the Interagency Ocean Eolicy Task +orce ?uly $>, "#$#, www.whitehouse.gov/les/documents/OET+J+inal3ecs.pdf. The report identied a new ocean policy for the nited tates and included as one of its principalrecommendations that the nited tates should develop 18Es to manage the resources of the 22W, O1, and territorial sea. The

Task +orce(s recommendations were also incorporated by reference in 2-ecutive Order $F%@=. In brief, the new ocean policy calls forprotecting, maintaining, and restoring the health and biological diversity of ocean, coastal, and reat 5akes ecosystems andresourcesV using the best available science to inform decisionsV supporting sustainable uses of the ocean, coasts, and reat 5akesVincreasing scientic understanding of these ecosystemsV and ensuring a comprehensive and collaborative framework for the

stewardship of these resources. Task +orce 3eport, supra, at $@N$%. The stakeholders, including federal, state, tribal and localauthorities, regional governing bodies, BOs, and the public and private sectors are tasked with producing 18Es. *s dened in2-ecutive Order $F%@=, the term 'coastal and marine spatial planning) means: a comprehensive, adaptive, integrated, ecosystem7based, and transparent spatial planning process, based on sound science, for analyzing current and anticipated uses of ocean,coastal, and reat 5akes areas. 1oastal and marine spatial planning identies areas most suitable for various types or classes ofactivities in order to reduce conDicts among uses, reduce environmental impacts, facilitate compatible uses, and preserve critical

ecosystem services to meet economic, environmental, security, and social obHectives. 'n practical terms) coastaland marine spatial planning provides a pu!lic policy process ,or society to!etter determine how the ocean) our coasts) and reat Eaes aresustaina!ly used and protectednow and ,or ,uture generations. 2-ec. Order Bo.$F%@=, =% +ed. 3eg. @F,#"F ?uly "", "#$# emphasis added. +hile the de0nition is certainly amouth,ul) the ultimate goal o, marine spatial planning is a transparentand Ge/i!le planning process to identi,y locations ,or o3shore uses and toanticipate and resolve conGicts among competing uses. The area to be covered by theplans includes the territorial sea of the nited tates, the "##7mile 22W, and the 1ontinental helf landward to the mean high7waterline. The plans also will include the waters of the reat 5akes from the ordinary high7water mark to the limit of the .. and 1anadamaritime boundary. The Task +orce 3eport e-plicitly states that privately owned lands are e-cluded from the planning areas.4owever, the waters may reach inland to cover bays and estuaries in coastal and reat 5akes settings, which could include theinternal waters of the 1hesapeake !ay and Euget ound. 8embership of each regional planning group includes representatives offederal, state, and tribal authorities pertaining to each region. tates are divided into nine regions for purposes of developing the18Es, as follows: $. *laska/*rctic 3egion: *laskaV ". 1aribbean 3egion: Euerto 3ico and .. Pirgin IslandsV F. reat 5akes 3egion:Illinois, Indiana, 8ichigan, 8innesota, Bew Gork, Ohio, Eennsylvania, and ;isconsinV @. ulf of 8e-ico 3egion: *labama, +lorida,5ouisiana, 8ississippi, and Te-asV %. 8id7*tlantic 3egion: Celaware, 8aryland, Bew ?ersey, Bew Gork, Eennsylvania, and PirginiaV . ;est 1oast 3egion: 1alifornia, Oregon, and ;ashington. SEennsylvania is included twicebecause it is both a coastal and reat 5akes state.U +or a better depiction of the regions a0ected, please view the BO** map of thenited tates divided into large marine ecosystems and the nine regional planning areas at 1ouncil on 2nvironmental Yuality, +inal3ecommendation of the Interagency Ocean Eolicy Task +orce, %" ?uly $>, "#$#,www.whitehouse.gov/les/documents/OET+J+inal3ecs.pdf. * number of states have initiated their own ocean planning processes thatmay well serve as models for the new plans. !ecause state Hurisdiction ends generally at the F7mile limit, working with federalagencies on 18Es will provide an opportunity for states to inDuence the outcome of the plans for the waters of the adHacent 22Wand reat 5akes. The following states have developed ocean management plans: 8assachusetts, 4awaii, 1alifornia, 3hode Island,

Oregon, and ;ashington tate. ome of the state plans have also proved useful in helping to resolve siting conDicts. +or e-ample,the 1ommonwealth of 8assachusetts was able to identify the location of an o0shore wind proHect by designating two areas foro0shore wind. ee Eeter !rennan, 8assachusetts Ocean Elan Celegates O0shore ;ind 3egulation, O0shore ;ind ;ire ?an. @, "#$#,www.o0shorewindwire. com/"#$#/#$/#@/ocean7plan7delegates7regulation. 1alifornia, on the other hand, adopted an ocean plan in"##% that continued to call for a ban on drilling on the O1 adHacent to 1alifornia. ee ;ater Yuality 1ontrol Elan, Ocean ;aters of1alifornia "##%, www.swrcb.ca.gov/waterJissues/programs/ ocean/docs/oplans/oceanplan"##%.pdf. The Task +orce 3eportestablished a ve7year schedule for bringing the nine 18Es into fruition. The 3eport anticipates that the rst year will be devotedto public and stakeholder outreachV organizing the respective federal agency representatives in each regionV developing a modelagreementV organizing and convening a national workshopV and development by the Bational Ocean 1ouncil BO1 of a nationalinformation management system. In his "#$" budget, Eresident Obama requested R


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process. *t some point in the future, however, it is possible that conDicts with underlying laws will arise and agencies andstakeholders may recommend changes to those laws to encompass new uses of the ocean and also to better resolve use conDicts.Impact of 1oastal and 8arine patial Elans on Ceepwater Crilling and Other 2nergy ses of the 22W On ?anuary $$, "#$$, the !E1ommission, co7chaired by former enator !ob raham C7+5 and former 2E* *dministrator ;illiam 3eilly, issued its +inal 3eport.;hile the principal purpose of the report was to identify the root causes of the !E spill, the !E 1ommission also adopted a series ofpolicy recommendations, including one that specically endorsed the use of marine spatial planning as a way to manage futureo0shore drilling. The 1ommission did not recommend that o0shore or deepwater drilling be banned, but, instead, stated that'drilling in deepwater does not have to be abandoned. It can be done safely. That is one of the central messages of this report.) !E1ommission 3eport, supra, at ">F. !E 1ommission 3ecommendation 2.= provides: The appropriate federal agencies, including 2E*,

Interior, and BO**, and the Trustees for Batural 3esources should better balance the myriad economic and environmental interestsconcentrated in the ulf region going forward. This would include improved monitoring and increased use of sophisticated tools likecoastal and marine spatial planning. 8any of these tools and capacities will also be important to manage areas of the O1 outsidethe ulf. !E 1ommission 3eport, supra, at "Q" emphasis added. 2 laborating on this recommendation, the !E 1ommissionencouraged 1ongress to fund grants for the development of regional planning bodies, at amounts requested by the president, andto site within the plans marine protected areas that can be used as 'mitigation banks) to help o0set any future harm to the marineenvironment and to help maintain robust sheries in the ulf. The co7chairs of the !E 1ommission have testied before 1ongress ontheir recommendations. ;hile some members of 1ongress, such as 1ongressman am +arr C71* support the use of marine spatialplanning, others such as the 1hairman of the 4ouse Batural 3esources 1ommittee, 1ongressman 'Coc) 4astings 37;*, havequestioned the utility of such plans and e-pressed concerns that 'SrUestrictive national standards, along with ocean zoning, couldplace huge portions of our oceans o07limit to communities who rely on our oceans for commerce and recreations.) 3ep. Coc4astings, 3egulations tiDe Crilling, Eush as Erices p at Eump, The 4ill +eb. $%, "#$$,http://naturalresources.house.gov/Bews/Cocumentingle. asp-MCocumentIC[""%$F#. nless 1ongress provides the necessary seedfunding for the development of 18Es, we will not be able to determine how e0ective the plans can be to meet the e-pectations ofthe Task +orce and the !E 1ommission. 4owever, if states and federal agencies can begin to meet and discuss how to approachmarine spatial planning and how to identify which uses should be located where, the process may yet prove to be fruitful. There aree-isting e-amples of federal7state discussions on uses of the ocean that may be the seeds of this discussion. In the ulf of 8e-ico,for e-ample, interested stakeholders can help identify areas for deepwater drilling that will not impact sheries, shipping lanes, andmarine protected areas. This may help accelerate the permitting process for o0shore drilling while allaying the fears of shermen at

the same time. 1ombining o0shore drilling with a marine protected area and a scheme for sharing revenue could e-pedite thepermitting process. *long the *tlantic 1oast, where o0shore wind may soon become a reality, the Cepartments of the Interior and2nergy have already established task forces with state representatives to identify areas for o0shore wind. These discussions haveled to a number of 3equests for Information 3+Is and 1alls for Bominations o0 8assachusetts, 3hode Island, and Borth 1arolina,and one is about to be issued for the 1ommonwealth of Pirginia. 2ight companies have already responded to the 8aryland 3+I.

These task force discussions can become the basis for future marine spatial planning to include other o0shore uses besidesrenewable energy. *long the ;est 1oast, where states have not wanted o0shore drilling since the famed $> anta !arbarablowout, there may be a stronger interest in new forms of renewable energy, such as energy from wind, tides, and waves. It wouldbe overly optimistic to gainsay that investing in the development of a 18E will facilitate new o0shore drilling adHacent to the1alifornia coast\but who knowsM The Eacic 1oast of the nited tates also could be a target for o0shore wind. Ceveloping amarine spatial plan for renewable energy combined with protections of marine resources may e-pedite the development of thoseresources. In the !ering ea, with the warming of the *rctic, Bative *laskans and other stakeholders will be able to focus on thecritical issues of o0shore drill ing, marine mammal protection, and sheries protections if they meet to develop a 18E. *long theulf of *laska, there are increasing opportunities for geothermal resource development. etting interested federal, state, and localagencies to the table to discuss how best to bring these resources online while continuing to protect the marine mammal andsheries resources of the adHacent seas will lead to a transparent plan that can be updated as new resources are identied and newpriorities come forward. 2ventually this kind of planning process will have to be brought to the *rctic and its increasingly openwaters, but in that case, the nited tates will not be the only nation at the table. There are already numerous competing uses ofthe waters between and among the 4awaiian Islands that are part of the Eacic 3egion. To date, o0shore wind proposals have been

met with local opposition. 2ach use, whether o0shore wind, transportation, sheries, or whales, has its own place in the peckingorder and own statutory authority and agencies. !ut, there is no single group that can look at the ocean and its resources as a

whole. Developing a CMS7 can achieve what no individual statute ) agency) orindustry group can accomplish on its owna roadmap to ,uture siting and

,uture permits* 1onclusions 9he development o, CMS7s may have a positive

impact !oth on deepwater drilling ,or oil and gas as well as ,or the

development o, renewa!le resources* 2ven if the 18Es are not strictly enforceable, they will

provide an e/cellent opportunity ,or interested staeholders) at the,ederal) state) and local government levels) as well as industry and N:s)to meet and discuss how the waters o, the "" and reat Eaes should !emanaged* It was Eresident 3eagan who declared that the nited tates has e-clusive rights to the resources of the 22W.

Inless the I nited States develops comprehensive marine spatial plans,we will !e una!le to tae ,ull advantage o, his proclamation and vision !ut

will continue to !attle each permit and each new use o, the ocean on a

case-!y-case !asis*


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;NC 9urns Military enewa!les Solve Military

reen military is ey to hegemony and would 2umpstarteconomic growth- dependency on ,ossil ,uels ris military

Gare-ups and hampering ,oreign policy o!2ectives- trades o3with moderni4ation and prevents !udget cuts- the military iseyNeader and old,ar! #1; 3eese Beader, Bational Eolicy Cirector, 3ooseveltInstitute 1ampus Betwork, and Caniel oldfarb, Eartner, reenstart, '!ig Idea: *reen 2nergy O0ensive +rom the Cepartment of Cefense),http://www.good.is/post/big7idea7a7green7energy7o0ensive7from7the7department7of7defense/http://www.planetizen.com/node/%


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natural alignment o, national security and economic interests is helpingdrive commercial innovation with the potential to spur the creation o,American 2o!s and reduce the ,ederal de0cit through a variety of avenues that should bewidened as the CoC doubles down on green energy. Cistributed power is about increasing prosperity at home and

keeping our soldiers safe abroad. As military innovation continues to drive I*S*renewa!le ,uels technology ) the nation will !ecome increasingly energy

sel,-sufcient) sta!ili4ing and then decreasing the cost o, energy ,or theAmerican consumer* :ne o, the core values o, new energy technologies tothe military is that they ,ree our soldiers ,rom ,uel resupply lines) allowing,or increased mo!ility and range while decreasing com!at riss * !etween "##Fand "##= in Iraq, the *rmy reports that one out of eight casualties were a result of protecting fuel convoys. *thome, the *rmy is trying to get bases in Te-as and 1olorado to Bet Wero status, only using as much energy as theyproduce. *s these types of technologies are commercialized, home owners, farmers, and businesses will be able to

produce their own energy and sell their surplus back to 'the grid.) 9his approach can providedomestic economic security !y hedging against price shocs in energymarets* Changing where our energy comes ,rom\from international to local sources\and how it is delivered provides insurance against increasingly violentnatural disasters* 5ocal solutions also keep money circulating in communities rather than sending ourdollars abroad to autocratic regimes and failed states. enewa!le energy maes long-term

0scal sense. The Cepartment of Cefense is the single largest consumer of liquid fuels in the world, but since"##$ the military has realized the potential cost savings of e&ciency and renewable energy. !etween "##= and late"##Q the price of crude oil increased from appro-imately R.= bil lion for that scal year. Spies in ,uel prices such asthis strain our military#s in,rastructure ) ,orcing the early retirement o,planes and warships) shutting down the development o, new weaponssystems) or eating into investments in personnel training * "nsuring thatthe military can acuire ,uel sources at sta!le ) controlla!le prices willensure that investments in machines and manpower will not ,aceune/pected !udget cuts in the ,uture. The same principle applies to .. consumers. If you(re ahome owner, a business owner, or a farmer, access to cost7competitive renewable energy means you won(t have to

worry about making economic sacrices to rising fuel costs. 'nvestments in renewa!letechnologies will ,ree the I*S* military) and the citi4ens it de,ends) ,rom avolatile glo!al oil maret* The ]made in *merica( clause in the "#$$(s Cepartment of Cefense*uthorization *ct will ensure that the return on investments in clean energy 3LC are realized in the form of

manufacturing Hobs. 9he military#s understanding that we cannot shi,t ,romimported oil to imported solar cells will create a crucial maret ,or still,ragile clean energy technologies. upporting these technologies and growing domestic marketswill eventually help us close our national trade imbalance. The military alone cannot generatethe energy innovation that our country needs* *lthough the Cepartment of Cefense is theworld(s single largest fuel buyer, it accounts for less than " percent of total energy consumption. !ecause of the

ubiquity of energy consumption, the department will never !uy enough energytechnologies ,rom I*S* !usinesses to single-handedly drive the maret*3ather, it is the military#s !ottom-up) community-,ocused approach to energyinnovation that is important& Distri!uted power produced !y renewa!le

energy technology made in the Inited States can eep our military sa,e)create 2o!s) and reduce the IS de0cit* ;ithout ring a shot, the military can lead us to victory.


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Creating success,ul energy policies are ey to IS internationalcredi!ility and hegemony a!road- strengthen our ,oreignpolicy agenda- ,ailure ris collapse o, allies and the rise o,competitorsEight et* al #11 *ndrew 5ight, 3ebecca 5efton, *dam ?ames, *ndrew 5ight is a

enior +ellow, 3ebecca 5efton is a Eolicy *nalyst, and *dam ?ames is a pecial*ssistant, all specializing in international climate policy on the 2nergy team at the1enter for *merican Erogress, '1limate +inance Is 6ey to .. 1limate 1redibility),http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/"#$$/$"/climateJnance.html , Cecember .B. climate summit in1openhagen. The impetus for this commitment was a promise the !ush administration made in "##=, when theB+111 met in !ali, Indonesia, that developed countries would provide 'enhanced action on the provision ofnancial resources and investment to support action on mitigation and adaptation and technology cooperation) todeveloping countries in the face of the threat of climate change) !ali *ction Elan, section $e. ;hile the nitedtates did not commit to a specic dollar gure as part of the fast7start pledge, .. negotiators in Curban aredefending their contribution so far to this initial fund as R%.$ billion in both development nance and funding from

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our e-port credit agencies. :ur investments so ,ar are commenda!le* 9hey need to!e continued) though, not only for the benets they bring abroad but also !ecause they help

to promote our national security) create 2o!s) and secure American

leadership a!road * 'nvestments in climate aid are cost e3ective and

promote national security 'nvestments in adaptation and mitigation help

save money !y reducing the overall impacts o, climate change * It is wellunderstood that the physical and economic toll of climate7change7related disasters is nothing short of devastating.*s the nited 6ingdom(s tern 3eview argued, the economic impact of climate change is equivalent to losing %

percent of CE per year, every year. 't is also a high priority to decrease the ris o,climate-related national security threats such as preventing the severeGoods or droughts in 7aistan and the Middle "ast that could radicallydesta!ili4e the region * In turn, climate nance is also a high7impact investment. The ;orld !ank and.. eological urvey estimate that investing R$ in disaster risk reduction saves R=. !ut what makes theseinvestments even more cost e0ective is that emission reductions are cheaper in developing countries than they arein developed economies, and they will yield signicant co7benets including decreasing premature morbidity andmortality by decreasing co7pollutants that are emitted as a byproduct of burning fossil fuels for energy. +inally,

these investments have a power,ul a!ility to leverage private capital i,structured properly. *s the .. enate prepares to take up the +oreign Operations *ppropriations !illfrom the 4ouse of 3epresentatives it must decide on the 4ouse(s proposed cuts of such programs as the Tropical

+orest 1onservation *ct, which nances 'debt7for7nature) swaps that allow developing countries to relieve debtowed to the nited tates by conserving and protecting forests. This program is proHected to generate R"


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security) aid) or our own economy . 8aintaining funding through e-isting channels andcontinuing to e-plore new options will prove indispensable in the years ahead. The need for us to continue and buildon these commitments each year will only continue. *t the .B. climate summit in 1ancun, 8e-ico last Cecemberall parties nally approved the creation of a reen 1limate +und capable of mobilizing R$## billion in public andprivate climate nance annually by "#"#. This fund assures a continuing transition to the emission reductions weneed in developing countries to have a chance at achieving climate safety. uch a continuing revolving source ofcredit and nance is also the only way to provide a stable platform that will scale up the ability of private nance to

eventually provide the bulk of the support for these investments. If the commitment to funding were spotty andunreliable from year to year then private nancial institutions would not have the condence to invest in cleanenergy, e&ciency, and land7use7based proHects into the future. The administration cannot of course go it alone onguaranteeing this source of global assistance. 1ongress must also protect climate investments each year. ;ithout itwe will destroy our ability to share these commitments with other parties who would not be able to predict howmuch we could contribute to these e0orts from one year to another. It would also destroy condence in privateinvestors who would need some support for investments in weaker nancial markets. *s we argued in ourpreviously mentioned report with the *lliance for 1limate Erotection, we must minimally aim to match ourinvestments over the last three years out to "#$%, and with cooperation from other donor countries, aim to increaseour global goal to R


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;NC enewa!le R Nuclear

Nuclear is useless to solve warming and alternative energy eyOertsgaard >= Buclear energy can9t solve global warming 8ark 4ertsgaard

unday, *ugust =, "##% 8ark 4ertsgaard9s books include ABuclear Inc.A and A2arthOdyssey.A

!ut the truth is that nuclear power is a weakling in combatting global warming.Investing in a nuclear revival would mae our glo!al warming predicamentworse ) not !etter * 9he reasons have little to do with nuclear sa,ety ) whichmay be why environmentalists tend to overlook them. 2nvironmentalists centertheir critique on safety concerns: Buclear reactors can su0er meltdowns frommalfunctions or terrorist attacksV radioactivity is released in all phases of thenuclear production cycle from uranium mining through ssionV the problem of wastedisposal still hasn9t been solvedV civilian nuclear programs can spur weaponsproliferation. !ut absent a 1hernobyl7scale disaster, such arguments may not prove

to be decisive. In an atmosphere of desperation over how to keep our TPs,computers and refrigerators humming in a globally warmed world, economicconsiderations will dominate. This is especially so when dissident greens likeCiamond and !rand say nuclear safety is a solvable problem. Ciamond is correctthat +rance has generated most of its electricity from nuclear power for decadeswithout a maHor mishap. Cissident greens concede there are risks to nuclear power.!ut those risks, they say, are less than the alternatives. 1oal, the world9s maHorelectricity source, kills thousands of people a year right now through air pollutionand mining accidents. 1oal is also the main driver of climate change, which is ontrack to kill millions of people in the "$st century 77 not in the sudden bang ofradioactive e-plosions but the gradual whimper of environmental collapse assoaring temperatures and rising seas submerge cities, parch farmlands, crash

ecosystems and spread disease and chaos worldwide. +ear of such an apocalypseled the !ritish scientist ?ames 5ovelock to become the rst prominentenvironmentalist to endorse nuclear power as a global warming remedy, in "##F.Eatrick 8oore, a co7founder of reenpeace who left the group a decade ago, soonechoed 5ovelock9s apostasy, as did 4ugh 8onteore, a board member of +riends ofthe 2arth, 6. *ll three were criticized by fellow greens. 5ikewise in the nitedtates, the movement9s maHor organizations remain adamantly anti7nuclear. !utenvironmentalists on !oth sides o, this argument are overlooing thestrongest o!2ection to nuclear power) even as the nuclear industry hopesno one notices it* 9he o!2ection is rooted in energy economics ) hence theoversight* As energy economist oseph omm argued in a !log e/changewith rand) ('t is too o,ten the case that e/perts on the environment thin

they now a lot a!out energy) !ut they don5t*( 9he case against nuclearpower as a glo!al warming remedy !egins with the ,act that nuclear-generated electricity is very e/pensive * Despite more than Q1=< !illion in,ederal su!sides over the past P< years 6roughly K< times more than solar)wind and other renewa!le energy sources have received8) nuclear powercosts su!stantially more than electricity made ,rom wind ) coal) oil ornatural gas* 9his is mainly due to the cost o, !orrowing money ,or thedecade or more it usually taes to get a nuclear plant up and running * 3emarkably, this inconvenient fact does not deter industry o&cials from boasting


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that nuclear is the cheapest power available. Their trick is to count only the cost ofoperating the plants, not of constructing them. !y that logic, a 3olls73oyce is cheapto drive because the gasoline but not the sticker price matters. The marketplace,however, sees through such blarney. *s *mory 5ovins, the soft energy guru whodirects the 3ocky 8ountain Institute, a 1olorado think tank that advises corporationsand governments on energy use, points out, ANowhere 6in the world8 do

maret-driven utilities !uy) or private investors 0nance) new nuclearplants*( :nly large government intervention eeps the nuclear optionalive * A second strie against nuclear is that it produces only electricity)!ut electricity amounts to only one third o, America5s total energy use6and less o, the world5s 8* Nuclear power thus addresses only a small,raction o, the glo!al warming pro!lem) and has no e3ect whatsoever ontwo o, the largest sources o, car!on emissions& driving vehicles andheating !uildings * 9he upshot is that nuclear power is seven times lesscost-e3ective at displacing car!on than the cheapest) ,astest alternative --energy efciency ) according to studies !y the ocy Mountain 'nstitute*@or e/ample) a nuclear power plant typically costs at least Q; !illion* ',that Q; !illion were instead spent to insulate dra,ty !uildings) purchase

hy!rid cars or install super-efcient light!ul!s and clothes dryers) it wouldmae unnecessary seven times more car!on consumption than the nuclearpower plant would * 'n short) energy efciency o3ers a much !igger !ang,or the !uc* 'n a world o, limited capital) investing in nuclear powerwould divert money away ,rom !etter responses to glo!al warming) thusslowing the world5s withdrawal ,rom car!on ,uels at a time when speed isessential*


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:cean Solves +arming

Development o, ocean renewa!le energy sufcient to solvewarming- economical and ,easi!le

7elc and @u2ita >; 3obin Eelc, 3od 8. +uHita, 2nvironmental 5awyers, 8arineEolicy, Polume "Q#s, much too high to beeconomically feasibleV by $>>> that cost had dropped to % cents/k; h, making wind power cost competitive withfossil fuels S@U, even without accounting for the costs of pollution and other adverse impacts associated with fossilfuels. 3enewable energy research has mostly focused on the development of solar, wind, biomass and geothermalsources. ;hile these sources are all very promising, the best and most robust energy policy will take advantage of a

full suite of renewable energy sources. +ith this in mind) we anticipate that

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governments) corporations) engineers) and scientists will increasingly loo to the massive amounts o, energy stored in the ocean* ;hile ocean energydevelopment necessarily presents some challenges, much o, the in,rastructure andnowledge necessary to generate energy ,rom the ocean already e/ists)due in part to the o3shore oil industry. 3esearch suggests that overcomingtechnological challenges o, ocean energy should not !e prohi!itive S%U. omeapplications of wave, o0shore wind, and possibly tidal energy may already be economically feasible for limitedsites, and as research continues, costs of ocean energy are likely to drop to competitive levels. K* enewa!leenergy resources ,rom the ocean K*1* :cean thermal energy conversion6:9"C 8 F.$.$. !ackground :9"C produces electricity ,rom the natural thermalgradient o, the ocean) using the heat stored in warm sur,ace water tocreate steam to drive a tur!ine) while pumping cold) deep water to thesur,ace to recondense the steam. In closed7cycle OT21 +ig. $a, warm seawater heats a workingDuid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia, and the ammonia vapor turns a turbine, which drives a generator.

The vapor is then condensed by the cold water and cycled back through the system. In an open7cycle plant +ig.$b, warm seawater from the surface is pumped into a vacuum chamber where it is Dash evaporated, and theresulting steam drives the turbine. 1old seawater is then brought to the surface and used to condense the steaminto water, which is returned to the environment. 4ybrid plants +ig. $c, combining benets of the two systems,would use closed7cycle generation combined with a second7stage Dash evaporator to desalinate water S$U. OT21plants can either be built onshore or on o0shore Doating platforms. +loating platforms could be larger and do not

require the use of valuable coastal land, but incur the added e-pense and impact of transporting energy to theshore. 2nergy can be transported via seaDoor cable, a well7developed but costly technology that impacts theenvironment by disrupting seaDoor communities, or stored in the form of chemical energy as hydrogen, ammonia ormethanol. Elantships used to produce hydrogen, ammonia or methanol would 'graze) the ocean slowly, storeproducts for about a month, then transfer products to a tanker that would take the products to shore S


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the thermal gradient between the surface and a depth of $### m is at least ""_1. 3egions of the open ocean withthis temperature di0erence, suitable for Doating OT21 plants, total about # percent of the time, while solar and wind availability tend to be available Hust "#NF# percent ofthe time S$=#s,interest waned. !ut interest has increased in wave energy with the introduction of several new technologies thatdramatically increase the e&ciency and feasibility of wave power, and a shift in focus toward smaller plants, makingthe initial capital costs less prohibitive. nlike OT21, wave power is already commercial, with recent advancescontinually coming from companies investing in wave energy devices around the world. The rst commercial waveplant in the world, 5impet %##, was installed on the island of Islay, cotland, in "###, and has been providing powerto the grid for the 6 since late Bovember "### S$>U. The 5impet %## is a #.% 8; capacity plant designed by;avegen for siting on e-posed shores, utilizing an oscillating water column design. ;avegen has also created anear7shore device, OE32G "### Ocean well Eowered 3enewable 2nergG, a " 8; station designed for $% m deepwater up to $ km from shore, and the ;OE F%##, a combined OE32G and o0shore windmill unit, rated at a totalof F.% 8; " 8; OE32G plus $.% 8; wind S"#U. *lso on the island of Islay, Ocean Eower Celivery 5td. of


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2dinburgh, cotland is installing a small o0shore wave power device, which will power up to "## homes. Installationshould be nished in "##". The plant will produce ".% million k; h electricity/yr. ;ith support from the cottish3enewable Obligation of $>>>, OEC5 eventually plans to install up to >## devices, with a total capacity of =## 8;,producing more than ".% billion k; h/yr S"$U. In the nited tates, the 8onitor, a hybrid system designed by Cemi7

Tek that combines tide, wave and wind power, has been working Hust o0 *sbury Eark, Bew ?ersey since *ugust$>>#. The 8onitor produces enough electricity to light the city9s boardwalk and convention hall. In addition, the8onitor was deployed to help reduce wave action and protect beaches from erosion. It is anchored to the oceanDoor by cables similar to those used for o0shore oil drilling, and electricity is brought to shore by an undersea cable

S""U. F.".F. Eotential The greatest potential for wave energy e-ists where the strongest winds are found\at thetemperate latitudes between @#_ and


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help the Ehilippines e-ceed its power needs and e-port electricity S">U. Tidal fence proHects have also beenproposed for sites beneath the Tacoma Barrows bridge in ;ashington and between Eoint an Eablo and 2ast!rothers Island in an +rancisco !ay SF$U and SF"U. Tidal turbines are not yet at the commercial development stage.

The industry leader in tidal turbine research, 8arine 1urrent Turbines 5td., plans to begin commercial developmentin "##@ after concluding a maHor research and development e0ort SFFU. !y "#$#, the company states, F## 8; ofpower could be provided by underwater tidal turbines. F.F.F. Eotential It is estimated that the nited 6ingdom couldgenerate up to %#." T; h/yr with tidal power plants, while western 2urope as a whole could generate up to $#%.@

T; h/yr. Total worldwide potential is estimated to be about %##N$### T; h/yr, though only a fraction of this energy

is likely to be e-ploited due to economic constraints SF#U. The availability of tidal energy is very site specic, wheretidal range is amplied by factors such as shelving of the sea bottom and funneling in estuaries, reDections by largepeninsulas, and resonance e0ects when tidal wave length is about @ times the estuary length, as in the bay of+undy SF@U. 8aHor potential sites for barrages include the !ay of +undy in 1anada, which with a mean tidal range of$$ m has the highest tides in the world, and the evern 2stuary o0 !ritain SF#U. Tidal fences and turbines could beinstalled anywhere tidal Dows and the constraints of topography create predictable currents of " m/s or greater.F.F.@. 2nvironmental impacts Tidal plants sited at the mouths of estuaries pose many of the same environmentalthreats as large dams. !y altering the Dow of saltwater into and out of estuaries, tidal plants could impact thehydrology and salinity of these sensitive environments. 2stuaries serve as a nursery for many marine organisms aswell as a unique and irreplaceable habitat for estuarine organisms, and alteration of this habitat by the constructionof large tidal plants should be avoided. Curing the construction phase for the tidal plant at 5a 3ance, the estuarywas entirely closed o0 from the ocean for "NF yr, and there was a long period before the estuary reached a newecological equilibrium. 1hanges caused by the barrage include a reduction in intertidal area, slower currents,reduced range of salinities, and changed bottom water characteristics, all of which led to changes in the marinecommunity there SF@U. In the future, any new tidal barrages should be constructed taking care not to close o0 theestuary from the ocean during construction, and these plants should not be built until detailed environmental

assessments demonstrate a minimal impact on the marine ecosystem. Tidal fences and tidal turbines are likely tobe more environmentally benign S">U. Tidal fences may have some negative environmental impacts, as they blocko0 channels making it di&cult for sh and wildlife to migrate through those channels. 4owever, !lue 2nergy claimsthat the slow7moving turbines allow both sh and water to Dow right through the structures, and have no e0ect onsilt transport. * "# k; prototype built in $>QF by Bova 2nergy, !lue 2nergy9s predecessor, in the t. 5awrenceeaway found zero recorded sh kill SF$U. In longer7term situations, some sh kill would be inevitable, but fencescould be engineered so that the spaces between the caisson wall and the rotor foil were large enough for sh topass through, and the turbines could be geared down to low velocities "%N%# rpm, keeping sh kill to a minimumSF"U. 8arine mammals would be protected by a fence that would keep larger animals away from the structure and asonar sensor auto7breaking system that shuts the system down when marine mammals are detected SF$U. The tidalfences would not alter the timing or amplitude of the tides. Tidal turbines could be the most environmentallyfriendly tidal power option. They do not block channels or estuarine mouths, interrupt sh migration or alterhydrology S">U. Tidal turbines and tidal fences both may o0er considerable generating capacity without a maHorimpact on the ocean, while tidal barrages are probably too damaging to the marine ecosystem. 3esearch in tidalenergy should focus on turbines, fences and similar technologies. These proHects should be sited and built so thatmaHor migration channels are left open. Turbines should turn slowly enough that sh mortality is minimized andnutrient and sediment transport is largely una0ected. Tidal fences should be built across narrow channels, but not

blocking an entire bay or corridor. K*$* :3shore wind F.@.$. !ackground +ind energy hasreceived a lot o, attention lately as one o, the most promising andeconomically ,easi!le technologies ,or clean power generation* ;ind power isone of the cleanest types of power available, and can be currently cost competitive with fossil fuels, depending onsiting. ;hile most research and promotion of wind energy is focused on land7based sites, interest in o0shore windenergy is growing. Pery strong winds regularly blow over the oceans, winds over the ocean attain higher speeds andare less turbulent than winds over land, and no landforms block accessibility of the wind over the ocean. O0shorewind power design is very similar to onshore windmillsV thus much of the technology is currently well developed.nlike land7based wind farms, o0shore wind farms require high7voltage cable laid from windmills to shore totransport the electricity. In addition to transporting energy to shore, the main technological challenge involved indeveloping o0shore wind sources is creating foundations stable enough to last in the harsh ocean environment andwithstand storms, and to economically transport these foundations and anchor them o0shore. F.@.". 1urrent status

The maHority of o0shore wind power development is taking place in Cenmark, which is currently planning togenerate @# percent of its power from wind plants by "#F#, mostly from o0shore wind farms. Cenmark has alreadybuilt two successful % 8; pilot wind farms, at Tuno 6nob and Pindeby SF%U. everal other northern 2uropean

nations are also considering investing in large o0shore wind parks. The Betherlands has built two wind farms andplans to build a third park of $## turbines, making enough electricity for $##,### households. weden recently builta wind park of %%## k; turbines, and wedish companies are planning a @Q 8; wind farm and possibly a parkproducing as much as =%# 8;. The nited 6ingdom also plans to make use of its great o0shore wind energypotential in the near future SF


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the most di&cult and e-pensive aspects of o0shore wind development. 3ecently, the Canish 2nergy *gencydiscovered that by using steel, which is lighter and easier to transport than the concrete currently used, foundationcosts could be cut by one7third. This would signicantly impact the overall cost of the turbines, since foundationcosts may account for "FNF# percent of the total cost SF%U. 3ecent engineering studies show that turbines may beeconomically built in water up to $% m deep, allowing a much greater area of the ocean to be utilized SF


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Despite Eresident !arack :!ama#s vow, in his rst post7reelection press conference, to tae decisiveaction on climate change, the global climate talks in Doha dragged to a close with the , asusual, a target of activists( wrath. The Obama administration has shown no interest in submitting to a binding treatyon carbon emissions and refuses to increase funding to help developing countries reduce their own emissions, even

as the IS continues to !ehave as a glo!al scoTaw on climate change. *ctually, that isnot true \ the last part, anyway. *ccording to the International 2nergy *gency, emissions have dropped =.= percent since "##< \ 'the largest reduction of all countries or regions). Ges, you read that correctly. The , which hasrefused to sign the 6yoto *ccords establishing binding targets for emissions, has reduced its carbon footprint fasterthan the greener7than7thou 2uropean countries. The reasons for this have something to do with climate changeitself warm winters mean less heating oil \ something to do with market forces \ the shift from coal to natural gasin power plants and something to do with policy at the state and regional levels. *nd in the coming years, as bothnew gas7mileage standards and new power7plant regulations, championed by the Obama administration kick in,policy will drive the numbers further downwards. emissions are e-pected to fall "F per cent between "##" and"#"#. *pparently, Obama(s record on climate change is not quite as calamitous as reputation would have it. The;est has largely succeeded in bending downwards the curve of carbon emissions. 4owever, the developing worldhas not. 5ast year, 1hina(s emissions rose >.F per centV India(s, Q.= per cent. 1hina is now the world(s Bo $ sourceof carbon emissions, followed by the , the 2uropean nion 2 and India. The emerging powers have everyreason to want to emulate the energy7intensive economic success of the ;est \ even those, like 1hina, who havetaken steps to increase energy e&ciency, are not prepared to do anything to harm economic growth. The real

failure of IS policy has been, rst, that it is still much too timidV and second, that it has notacted in such a way as to persuade developing nations to tae the truly di&cult decisions

which would put the world on a sustaina!le path. There is a useful analogy with the nuclearnonproliferation regime. In an earlier generation, the nuclear stockpiles of the and the oviet nion posed thegreatest threat to global security. Bow, the threat comes from the proliferation of weapons to weak or rogue statesor to non7state actors. 4owever, the only way that ;ashington can persuade other governments to Hoin in a toughnonproliferation regime is by taking the lead in reducing its own nuclear stockpile \ which the Obamaadministration has sought to do, albeit with very imperfect success. In other words, where power is more widely

distributed, IS action matters less in itself, but carries great weight as a demonstration

model \ or anti7demonstration model. 5ogic would thus dictate that the bind itself in a global compact toreduce emissions, as through the Buclear Bonproliferation Treaty BET it has bound itself to reduce nuclearweapons. 4owever, the enate would never ratify such a treaty. *nd even if it did, would 1hina and India similarlybind themselvesM 4ere the nuclear analogy begins to break down because the BET mostly requires that statessubmit to inspections of their nuclear facilities, while a climate change treaty poses what looks very much like athreat to states( economic growth. +ossil fuels are even closer to home than nukes. Is it any wonder that only 2countries and a few others have signed the 6yoto *ccordsM * global version of 6yoto is supposed to be readied by"#$%, but a growing number of climate change activists \ still very much a minority \ accept that this may not

happen and need not happen. o what can Obama doM It is possible that much tougher action onemissions will help persuade China) 'ndia and others that energy efciencyneed not hinder economic growth. *s 8ichael 5evi, a climate e-pert at the 1ouncil on +oreign3elations points out, the gets little credit abroad for reducing emissions largely \ thanks to 'serendipitous)events. 5evi argues, as do virtually all policy thinkers and advocates, that the must increase the cost of fossilfuels, whether through a 'carbon ta-) or cap7and7trade system, so that both energy e&ciency and alternative fuelsbecome more attractive and also to free7up money to be invested in new technologies. This is what Obama(sdisappointed supporters thought he would do in the rst term and urge him to do now. Obama is probably not goingto do that. In his post7election news conference, he insisted that he would nd 'bipartisan) solutions to climatechange and congressional 3epublicans are only slightly more likely to accept a sweeping change in carbon pricingthan they are to ratify a climate7change treaty. The president also said that any reform would have to create Hobsand growth, which sounds very much like a signal that he will avoid new ta-es or penalties even though advocatesof such plans insist that they would spur economic growth. *ll these prudent political calculations are ne when

you can a0ord to fail. !ut we cannot a0ord to fail. lo!al temperatures have already increased


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li,etime opportunity to trans,orm the ,uture \ for themselves and for people everywhere.4e can propose \ as he hoped to do as part of the stimulus package of "##> \ that the build a 'smart grid) toradically improve the e&ciency of electricity distribution. 4e can argue for large7scale investments in research anddevelopment of new sources of energy and energy7e&cient construction technologies and lots of other whiz7bangthings. This, too, was part of the stimulus spendingV it must become bigger and permanent. The reason Obamashould do this is, rst, because the *merican people will or could rally behind a visionary programme in a way thatthey never will get behind the dour mechanics of carbon pricing. econd, because the way to get to a carbon ta- is

to use it as a nancing mechanism for such a plan. Third, because oil and gas are in *merica(s bloodstreamV asteven 1ohen, e-ecutive director of the 2arth Institute, puts it: ' 9he only thing that#s going to

drive ,ossil ,uels o3 the maret is cheaper renewa!le energy .) +ourth, the

cannot a0ord to miss out on the gigantic market for green technology. +inally, there(s leverage. China and'ndia may not do something sensible but painful, like adopting carbon pricing, because the does so, but they

will adopt new tech nologies i, the IS can prove that they wor without harming

economic growth. Developing countries have already made maHor investments inreducing air pollution, halting deforestation and practising sustainable agriculture. 9hey are 2ust too

modest. It is here, above all, that the IS can serve as a demonstration model \ theworld(s most egregious carbon consumer showing the way to a low7carbon future. lobal warming7denial is nallyon the way out. Three7quarters of *mericans now say they believe in global warming and more than half believethat humans are causing it and want to see a president take action. Eresident Obama does not have to do the

impossible. 4e must, however, do the possible.


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+arming is Anthro

'ts anthro7owell ;;= science author. 4e has been a college and museum president and

was a member of the Bational cience !oard for $" years, appointed rst byEresident 3eagan and then by Eresident eorge 4. ;. !ush ?im, '1onsensus:>>.Q@ of Eeer73eviewed *rticles upport the Idea of lobal ;arming,)http://thecontributor.com/why7climate7deniers7have7no7scientic7credibility7one7pie7chart

Eolls show that many members of the public believe scientists substantially disagree about human7caused global

warming. 9he gold standard o, science is the peer-reviewed literature. If there isdisagreement among scientists, based not on opinion but on hard evidence, it will be found in the peer7reviewedliterature. I searched the ;eb of cience for peer7reviewed scientic articles published between ?anuary $, $>>$and Bovember >, "#$" that have the keyword phrases Aglobal warmingA or Aglobal climate change.A The searchproduced $F,>%# articles. ee my methodology. I read whatever combination of titles, abstracts, and entire articlesnecessary to identify articles that AreHectA human7caused global warming. To be classied as reHecting, an articlehad to clearly and e-plicitly state that the theory of global warming is false or, as happened in a few cases, thatsome other process better e-plains the observed warming. *rticles that merely claimed to have found somediscrepancy, some minor Daw, some reason for doubt, I did not classify as reHecting global warming. *rticles aboutmethods, paleoclimatology, mitigation, adaptation, and e0ects at least implicitly accept human7caused globalwarming and were usually obvious from the title alone. ?ohn 1ook and Cana Buccitelli also reviewed and assignedsome of these articlesV 1ook provided invaluable technical e-pertise. This work follows that of Oreskes cience,"##% who searched for articles published between $>>F and "##F with the keyword phrase 'global climatechange.) he found >"Q, read the abstracts of each and classied them. Bone reHected human7caused globalwarming. sing her criteria and time7span, I get the same result. Ceniers attacked Oreskes and her ndings, butthey have held up. ome articles on global warming may use other keywords, for e-ample, 'climate change)without the AglobalA pre-. !ut there is no reason to think that the proportion reHecting global warming would be

any higher. !y my denition, out o, $F,>%# peer-reviewed articles published on global warming

since $>>$, only "F, or citations for articlesanswering to Aglobal warming,A for e-ample. +our of the reHecting articles have never been citedV four have citationsin the double7digits. The most7cited has $=. Of one thing we can be certain: had any o, these articlespresented the magic !ullet that ,alsi0es human-caused global warming) thatarticle would !e on its way to !ecoming one o, the most-cited in the historyo, science* The articles have a total of FF,# individual authors. The top $# countries represented, in order,are *, 2ngland, 1hina, ermany, ?apan, 1anada, *ustralia, +rance, pain, and Betherlands. The chart shows

results through Bovember >, "#$". lobal warming deniers often claim that !ias preventsthem ,rom pu!lishing in peer-reviewed 2ournals* ut ;K articles in 1J di0erent

2ournals, collectively making several di0erent arguments against global warming, e/pose that claim

as ,alse * *rticles reHecting global warming can be published, but those that have been have earned littlesupport or notice, even from other deniers. * few deniers have become well known from newspaper interviews,1ongressional hearings, conferences of climate change critics, books, lectures, websites and the like. Their names

are conspicuously rare among the authors of the reHecting articles. 5ike those authors, the prominent deniers

must have no evidence that ,alsi0es global warming* *nyone can repeat this search and posttheir ndings. *nother reviewer would likely have slightly di0erent standards than mine and get a di0erent numberof reHecting articles. !ut no one will be able to reach a di0erent conclusion, for only one conclusion is possible:

+ithin science, global warming denial has virtually no inGuence * 'ts inGuence is

instead on a misguided media , politicians all7too7willing to deny science for their own gain, and a

gullible public. cientists do not disagree about human-caused global warming. It is the ruling

http://thecontributor.com/why-climate-deniers-have-no-scientific-credibility-one-pie-charthttp://thecontributor.com/why-climate-deniers-have-no-scientific-credibility-one-pie-charthttp://thecontributor.com/why-climate-deniers-have-no-scientific-credibility-one-pie-charthttp://thecontributor.com/why-climate-deniers-have-no-scientific-credibility-one-pie-chart


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paradigm o, climate science ) in the same way that plate tectonics is the

ruling paradigm o, geology* ;e know that continents move. ;e know that the earth is warming and

that human emissions of greenhouse gases are the primary cause. 9hese are nown ,acts a!out

which virtually all pu!lishing scientists agree*


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'mpact U9

+arming causes e/tinction- tipping pointDyer >1; 5ondon7based independent Hournalist, EhC from 6ing9s 1ollege 5ondon,

citing 1 !erkeley scientists wynne, ATick, tock to mass e-tinction date,A TheEress, 7$", l/n, accessed Q7$%7$"

8eanwhile, a team of respected scientists warn that life on "arth may !e on the way

to an irreversi!le ( tipping point(* ure. 4eard that one before, too. 5ast month one of theworld9s two leading scientic Hournals, Bature, published a paper, A*pproaching a state shift in 2arth9s biosphere,Apointing out that more than @# per cent of the 2arth9s land is already used for human needs. ;ith the humanpopulation set to grow by a further two billion by "#%#, that gure could soon e-ceed %# per cent. AIt really will be anew world, biologically, at that point,A said the paper9s lead author, Erofessor *nthony !arnofsky of the niversity of 1alifornia, !erkeley. !ut !arnofsky doesn9t go into the details of what kind of new world it might be. cientistshardly ever do in public, for fear of being seen as panic7mongers. !esides, it9s a relatively new hypothesis, but it9s apretty convincing one, and it should be more widely understood. 4ere9s how bad it could get. The scienticconsensus is that we are still on track for F degrees 1 of warming by "$##, but that9s Hust warming caused byhuman greenhouse7 gas emissions. The problem is that F degrees is well past the point where the maHor

feedbacks kick in: natural phenomena triggered by our warming, like melting permafrost and the loss of *rctic sea7ice cover, that will add to the heating and that we cannot turn o0. The trigger is actually around "1 F.% degrees +

higher average global temperature. A,ter that we lose control of the process: ending our own

carbon7 dio-ide emissions would no longer be enough to stop the warming. +e may end up trapped onan escalator heading up to


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testing and development of the 2+ International ;aters 5earning 2-change and3esource Betwork, or 2+7I;:52*3B. Ove 4oegh7uldberg born "< eptember$>%>, in ydney, *ustralia, is the inaugural Cirector of the lobal 1hange Instituteat the niversity of Yueensland, and the holder of a Yueensland mart tateEremier fellowship "##QN"#$F. 4e is best known for his work on climate changeand coral reefs. 4is EhC topic focused upon the physiology of corals and their

zoo-anthellae under thermal stress. 4oegh7uldberg is a professor S@U at theniversity of Yueensland. 4e is a leading coral biologist whose study focuses on theimpact of global warming and climate change on coral reefs e.g. coral bleaching.S%U*s of % October "##>, he had published "F< Hournal articles, $Q book chapters andbeen cited F,F=F times.S report produced by three nited Bations agencies, leading scientists found that carbon emissionsequal to half the annual emissions of the global transport sector are being captured and stored by marine ecosystems such asmangroves, salt marshes and seagrass meadows. * combination of reducing deforestation on land, allied to restoring the coverageand health of these coastal ecosystems could deliver up to "% percent of the emissions reductions needed to avoid ]dangerous(climate change. !ut the report warns that instead of maintaining and enhancing these natural carbon sinks, humanity is damagingand degrading them at an accelerating rate. It estimates that up to seven percent of these ]blue carbon sinks( are being lostannually or seven times the rate of loss of %# years ago B2E "##>. 'Oceans) and 'coasts) must be integrated into the B+111negotiating te-t in order to appropriately address both the critical role of oceans in the global climate system, and the potential foradaptive management of coastal and marine ecosystems to make signicant contributions to both mitigation and adaptation.2cosystem7based approaches generate multiple co7benets, from absorbing greenhouse gas emissions to building resilience to thesignicant and di0erential impacts that coastal and island communities are facing due to global climate change. ;hile theinternational community must redouble its e0orts to adopt maHor emissions reduction commitments, at the same time, there is aneed to focus on the scientically supported facts about natural solutions through ecosystem7based approaches that contribute to


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climate adaptation and mitigation, to human health and well7being, and to food security. This policy brief provides an overview ofthe latest facts and concerns on the synergy between oceans and climate, highlights climate change impacts on ocean ecosystemsand coastal and island communities, and presents key recommendations for a comprehensive framework to better integrate vitalocean and coastal concerns and contributions into climate change policy and action. $. The Oceans 4ave a Pital 3ole in 1ombating1limate 1hange The oceans are the blue lungs of the planet N breathing in 1O" and e-haling o-ygen. The oceans have alsoabsorbed over Q# percent of the heat added to the climate system IE11 "##=, and act as the largest active carbon sink on earth.Ocean absorption of 1O" reduces the rate at which it accumulates in the atmosphere, and thus slows the rate of global warmingCenman "##=. Over the last "%# years, oceans have been responsible for absorbing nearly half of the increased 1O" emissionsproduced by burning fossil fuels 5a0oley "#$# as well as a signicant portion of increased greenhouse gas emissions due to

landuse change abine et al. "##@. * combination of cyclical processes enables the ocean to absorb more carbon than it emits. Three of the ocean(s key functions drive this absorption: rst is the 'solubility pump,) whereby 1O" dissolves in sea water in directproportion to its concentration in the atmosphere N the more 1O" in the atmosphere, the more will dissolve in the oceanV second iswater temperature N 1O" dissolves more easily in colder water so greater absorption occurs in polar regionsV third is mi-ing of 1O"to deeper levels by ocean currents. 1onvergence of carbon7enriched currents at the poles feed into the so called ocean ]conveyorbelt,( a global current which cycles carbon into ocean depths with a very slow about $%## years turnover back to the surface. The]biological pump( begins with carbon captured through photosynthesis in surface water micro7organisms, which make up Q#7>#percent of the biomass in the ocean. These tiny plants and animals feed carbon into the food chain, where it is passed along tolarger invertebrates, sh, and mammals. ;hen sea plants and animals die and part of their organic matter sinks to the ocean Door,it is transformed into dissolved forms of carbon. The seabed is the largest reservoir of sequestered carbon on the planet. 4oweverthe e&ciency of the ocean(s ability to capture carbon relies on the structure and ]health( of the upper layer marine ecosystem

;illiams "##>. 'ncreasing oceanic concentrations o, C:; inGuence the physiology,development and survival of marine organisms, and the !asic ,unctioning and critical li,e supportservices that ocean ecosystems provide will be di0erent under future acidied ocean conditions B2E "#$#. Increasedatmospheric 1O" has already increased the acidity of the ocean by F# percent, making the ocean more acidic than it has been in

the last


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Shipping 'ndustry Addon

MS7 6marine spatial planning8 ey to shipping industrysustaina!ility

Nautical 'nstitute #1K Bautical Institute, Ocean Think Tank, '8arine patialElanning 8E T42 4IEEIB IBCT3G *BC 8*3IB2 E*TI*5 E5*BBIB 7 *professional approach 7 Bovember "#$F), http://www.nautinst.org/en/forums/msp/,Bovember "#$F

Marine Spatial 7lanning 6MS78 will !ecome an increasingly important

issue ,or the shipping sector over the ne/t ,ew years* 8aritime professionals need toengage with other users of ocean space from both a sea and shore perspective, and to take part in international,regional and local 8E debate, to ensure that the needs of the sector are taken into full consideration. 8E

discussions are taking place at strategic levels on an international, regional and national basis. Oowever the0ner details o, where to place a 0sh ,arm) o3 shore wind generation 0eld)environmentally protected 4one or shipping lane will ultimately depend on

local de!ate* 9his de!ate is liely to !e !oth heated and controversial* 9heoceans are a resource that society has learned to depend upon and is

increasingly e/ploiting* 't is essential however) ,or the sae o, the planet

and the human race that ocean e/ploitation !e sustaina!le . MS7 is a tool

that !rings together multiple users o, the ocean B including shipping)

energy) industry) government) conservation and recreation B to mae

in,ormed and coordinated decisions a!out how to use marine areas and

resources sustaina!ly* alancing multiple o!2ectives ,or the ocean

reuires accounting ,or the cumulative impacts o, a diverse range o,activities* 9he marine environment provides some !ene0ts to speci0c

sectors that can !e easily valued e.g., shipping) oil and gas) 0sheries)recreation) etc.. In contrast, other benets from oceans reach a broader group of people, often throughindirect pathways not as easily valued e.g., provision o, li,e support systems) climateregulation) protection o, coastal communities ,rom storms and sea levelrise) !iodiversity) and cultural and aesthetic values. Inderstanding thecumulative pressures resulting ,rom the various uses and how these willevolve in the ,uture is critical) as these pressures will have speci0c spatialdemands) create conGicts among users) and a3ect the suite o, !ene0tshumans can e/pect ,rom the ocean*

9he industry is ey to naval power B commercial shipyards areey

NEIS >1; Bavy 5eague of the nited tates, '*merica(s 8aritime Industry Thefoundation of *merican seapower), "#$",http://www.navyleague.org/les/americas7maritime7industry.pdf , Cate Perication Nhttp://gsship.org/industry7links/

De,ense 'ndustrial ase& Ship!uilding 9he American Maritime 'ndustry

also contri!utes to our national de,ense !y sustaining the ship!uildingand repair sector o, our national de,ense industrial !ase upon which our

http://www.nautinst.org/en/forums/msp/http://www.navyleague.org/files/americas-maritime-industry.pdfhttp://gsship.org/industry-links/http://www.nautinst.org/en/forums/msp/http://www.navyleague.org/files/americas-maritime-industry.pdfhttp://gsship.org/industry-links/


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standing as a seapower is !ased * Oistory has proven that without a

strong maritime in,rastructure shipyards) suppliers) and sea,arers no

country can hope to !uild and support a Navy o, sufcient si4e andcapa!ility to protect its interests on a glo!al !asis* oth our commercial

and naval Geets rely on I*S* shipyards and their numerous industrial

vendors ,or !uilding and repairs. The .. commercial shipbuilding and repair industry alsoimpacts our national economy by adding billions of dollars to .. economic output annually. In "##@, there were Q>shipyards in the maHor shipbuilding and repair base of the nited tates, dened by the 8aritime *dministration asincluding those shipyards capable of building, repairing, or providing topside repairs for ships $"" meters @## feetin length and over. This includes si- large shipyards that build large ships for the .. Bavy. !ased on .. 1oastuard vessel registration data for "##Q, in that year .. shipyards delivered $F large deep7draft vessels includingnaval ships, merchant ships, and drilling rigsV %Q o0shore service vesselsV $@" tugs and towboats, %$ passengervessels greater than %# feet in lengthV > commercial shing vesselsV "@# other self7 propelled vesselsV "F mega7yachtsV $# oceangoing bargesV and ""@ tank barges under %,### T. $$ ince the mid $>>#(s, the industry has beene-periencing a period of modernization and renewal that is largely market7driven, backed by long7term customercommitments. Over the si-7year period from "###7#%, a total of R".FF< billion was invested in the industry, while in

"##


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e-tremism, ethnic nationalism, and changing demographics\often spurred on by the unevenand sometimes unwelcome advances of globalization\e/acer!ate tensions and arecontri!utors to conGict. 1oncurrently, a rising number of transnational actors and rogue states,emboldened and enabled with unprecedented access to the global stage, can cause systemic disruptions in ane0ort to increase their power and inDuence. Their actions, often designed to purposely incite conDict between other

parties, will complicate attempts to defuse and allay regional conDict. Eroliferation of weapons

technology and information has increased the capacity of nation7states and transnational actorsto challenge maritime access, evade accountability for attacks, and manipulate public perception.*symmetric use of technology will pose a range of threats to the nited tates and its partners. 2ven more

worrisome, the appetite for nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction is growing

among nations and non7state antagonists. *t the same time, attacks on legal, nancial, and cyber systemscan be equally, if not more, disruptive than kinetic weapons. The vast maHority of the world(spopulation lives within a few hundred miles of the oceans. ocial instability in increasinglycrowded cities, many of which e-ist in already unstable parts of the world, has the potential to create signicantdisruptions. The e0ects of climate change may also amplify human su0ering through catastrophic storms, loss ofarable lands, and coastal Dooding, could lead to loss of life, involuntary migration, social instability, and regionalcrises. 8ass communications will highlight the drama of human su0ering, and disadvantaged populations will beever more painfully aware and less tolerant of their conditions. 2-tremist ideologies will become increasingly

attractive to those in despair and bereft of opportunity. 1riminal elements will also e-ploit this socialinstability. These conditions combine to create an uncertain future and cause us to think anew

about how we view seapower . Bo one nation has the resources required to provide safety and securitythroughout the entire maritime domain. Increasingly, governments, non7governmental organizations, internationalorganizations, and the private sector will form partnerships of common interest to counter these emerging threats.8aritime trategic 1oncept This strategy rea&rms the use of seapower to inDuence actions and activities at seaand ashore. The e-peditionary character and versatility of maritime forces provide the .. the asymmetricadvantage of enlarging or contracting its military footprint in areas where access is denied or limited. Eermanent orprolonged basing of our military forces overseas often has unintended economic, social or political repercussions.

The sea is a vast maneuver space, where the presence of maritime forces can be

adHusted as conditions dictate to enable De-ible approaches to escalation, de-escalation and

deterrence o, conGicts . The speed, De-ibility, agility and scalability of maritime forces provide Hoint or

combined force commanders a range of options for responding to crises. *dditionally, integrated maritimeoperations, either within formal alliance structures such as the Borth *tlantic Treaty Organization or more

informal arrangements such as the lobal 8aritime Eartnership initiative, send power,ul messagesto would-!e aggressors that we will act with others to ensure collective security and prosperity.

I nited S tates seapower will be globally postured to secure our homeland and citizens from direct attack andto advance our interests around the world. *s our security and prosperity are ine-tricably linked with those of

others, .. maritime forces will be deployed to protect and sustain the peace,ul glo!al

system comprised of interdependent networks of trade, nance, information, law,

people and governance. ;e will employ the global reach, persistent presence, and operational De-ibilityinherent in .. seapower to accomplish si- key tasks, or strategic imperatives. ;here tensions are high or where

we wish to demonstrate to our friends and allies our commitment to security and stability, .. maritimeforces will be characterized by regionally concentrated, forward7deployed task forces with the combat power to

limit regional conGict , deter ma2or power war , and should deterrence fail, win our

Bation(s wars as part of a Hoint or combined campaign. In addition, persistent, mission7tailored maritime forces willbe globally distributed in order to contribute to homeland defense7in7depth, foster and sustain cooperativerelationships with an e-panding set of international partners, and prevent or mitigate disruptions and crises.3egionally 1oncentrated, 1redible 1ombat Eower 1redible combat power will be continuously postured in the;estern Eacic and the *rabian ulf/Indian Ocean to protect our vital interests, assure our friends and allies of ourcontinuing commitment to regional security, and deter and dissuade potential adversaries and peer competitors.

This combat power can be selectively and rapidly repositioned to meet contingencies that may arise elsewhere. These forces will be sized and postured to fulll the following strategic imperatives: 5imit regional conDict withforward deployed, decisive maritime power. Today regional conDict has ramications far beyond the area of conDict.

4umanitarian crises, violence spreading across borders, pandemics, and theinterruption of vital resources are all possible when regional crises erupt . ;hile this


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strategy advocates a wide dispersal of networked maritime forces, we cannot be everywhere, and we cannot act to

mitigate all regional conDict. ;here conDict threatens the global system and our national interests, maritimeforces will be ready to respond alongside other elements of national and multi7national power, to givepolitical leaders a range of options for deterrence, escalation and de7escalation.8aritime forces that are persistently present and combat7ready provide the Bation(s primary forcible entry option inan era of declining access, even as they provide the means for this Bation to respond quickly to other crises.;hether over the horizon or powerfully arrayed in plain sight, maritime forces can deter the ambitions of regional

aggressors, assure friends and allies, gain and maintain access, and protect our citizens while working to sustainthe global order. 1ritical to this notion is the maintenance of a powerful Deet\ships, aircraft, 8arine forces, andshore7based Deet activities\capable of selectively controlling the seas, proHecting power ashore, and protecting

friendly forces and civilian populations from attack. Ceter maHor power war. Bo other disruption is aspotentially disastrous to glo!al sta!ility as war among ma2or powers.

8aintenance and e-tension of this Bation(s comparative seapower advantage is a ey

component of deterring ma2or power war . ;hile war with another great power strikes many

as improbable, the near7certainty of its ruinous e0ects demands that it be activelydeterred using all elements of national power. The e-peditionary character of maritime forces\ourlethality, global reach, speed, endurance, ability to overcome barriers to access, and operational agility\provide the Hoint commander with a range of deterrent options. ;e will pursue an approach to deterrence thatincludes a credible and scalable ability to retaliate against aggressors conventionally, unconventionally, and with

nuclear forces. ;in our Bation(s wars. In times of war, our ability to impose local sea control ,overcome challenges to access, force entry, and proHect and sustain power ashore, makes

our maritime forces an indispensa!le element of the Hoint or combined force. Thise-peditionary advantage must be maintained because it provides Hoint and combined force commanders withfreedom of maneuver. 3einforced by a robust sealift capability that can concentrate and sustain forces, sea controland power proHection enable e-tended campaigns ashore.


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;NC I%


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MS7 Now

:!ama#s current mapping pro2ect solving now- priority onrenewa!les

+inter #1; *llison ;inter, 2L2 reporter, *lison ;inter is professor of history atthe niversity of 1hicago. he is a member of the 1ommittee on 1onceptual and4istorical tudies of cience and of the 1ommittee on the 4istory of 1ulture. 4erinterests include the history of sciences of mind and more broadly the humansciences since the eighteenth century, the history of modern medicine, thehistorical construction of orthodo-y and heterodo-y in the sciences and medicine,modern !ritish history especially Pictorian studies and historical issues of gender.4er rst book developed a social and cultural history of mesmerism in Pictorian!rit

ocean sprawl da

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