Ocean acidification Overview of the international policy landscape and activities on ocean acidification

by Dorothée Herr1, Kirsten Isensee2 and Carol Turley3

1IUCN, Rue Mauverney 28 1196, Gland, Switzerland 2 IOC-UNESCO, 1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris cedex 15, France 3 Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth, PL1 3DH, UK Photo credits: Marcin Rybarczyk stock.xchng and Jérôme Herr

WHITE PAPER

June 2013

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Contents 1. Ocean acidification – a global threat with a global answer? .................................................................... 3

1.2 Introducing ocean acidification........................................................................................................... 3

2. Framework Conventions ........................................................................................................................... 8

2.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ............................................................ 8

2.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ............................................. 8

2.3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ........................................................................................... 9

3. Regional and Sectoral Agreements ......................................................................................................... 11

3.1 Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR) ................................................................................................ 11

3.2 Regional Fishery Agreements; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations .............. 12

3.3 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) ....................... 12

3.3 London Convention and Protocol ..................................................................................................... 13

3.4 Other sectoral agreements ............................................................................................................... 14

3.4.1 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) ........................ 14

3.4.2 Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) ........................................... 14

4. Policy processes ...................................................................................................................................... 15

4.1 United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) ....................................................................................... 15

4.2 From Rio to Rio +20 ........................................................................................................................... 16

5. Scientific processes ................................................................................................................................. 17

5.1 Science-policy interfaces ................................................................................................................... 17

5.1.1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ................................................................. 17

5.1.2 World Ocean Assessment .......................................................................................................... 17

5.1.3 Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) .......................... 17

5.2 Science Knowledge Generation ........................................................................................................ 18

5.2.1 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) .............................................................. 18

5.2.2 The Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC) ....................................... 19

6. Major Outcomes to Date and Steps Ahead ............................................................................................ 20

6.2 Achieving the Real Fix for Ocean Acidification – Global Policy Action ............................................. 22

6.3 Buying Time to Implement the Global Solution: Essential Regional and Local Actions.................... 22

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1. Ocean acidification – a global threat with a global answer? The ocean covers nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface, contains 96% of its living space, provides around half of the oxygen in the atmosphere and has been an increasingly important source of protein for a rapidly growing world population. But this unique environment, and the goods and services it provides, is under threat. Many human-induced stressors are well known: warming waters, pollution, overfishing or destructive coastal and marine developments. Only quite recently scientists have brought another threat to marine ecosystems to the world’s attention: ocean acidification, a process caused by the ocean’s uptake of the increasing concentration of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere. As ocean acidification has implications on CO2-emissions reduction strategies, biodiversity conservation and sustainable development it is relevant to a wide range of international and intergovernmental policy instruments. This paper describes the current policy landscape of the most relevant and important conventions, processes and bodies that could or should address this threat. This paper does not include the important efforts undertaken by several Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and other players, especially those efforts at the science-to-policy interface.

1.2 Introducing ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is the term used to refer to a suite of marine chemical reactions in the ocean, caused by increasing carbon dioxide

(CO2) levels in the atmosphere1; it is usually used in the context of CO2 emissions caused by human activities. The decreases in pH (i.e. increase in hydrogen ion (H+) concentration) and carbonate ion concentration are of particular significance, since many marine organisms expend energy regulating their pH and use carbonate ions in shell and skeleton formation. Ocean acidification may therefore affect such organism’s physiology, reducing their ability to produce calcium carbonate structures2’3

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There is high scientific confidence in the knowledge of the underlying chemical processes, the cause, speed and magnitude of change and its future progression (Figure 1)4. Ocean acidification is measurable and is happening now and at a rate and magnitude not seen on Earth for at least 55 million years5, 6. Ocean acidification is a concurrent problem with a common cause to climate change. Both are triggered by increased anthropogenic CO2 emissions into the atmosphere at a faster rate than natural removal processes (Figure 2). The magnitude of future ocean acidification at the global scale will closely depend on the scale of future CO2 emissions due to human activities (Figure 3); thus reducing CO2 emissions gives a double bonus of both reducing ocean acidification and climate change7

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Figure 1. Summary of confidence in statements on ocean acidification and its impacts by experts (n = 53); data from Gattuso et al with sequence re-arranged by Williamson et al in order of median confidence estimates. Colour coding relates to topic area; see key.

Sources: Gattuso, J.-P., Mach, K.J. & Morgan, G. (2012) Ocean acidification and its impacts: an expert survey. Climatic Change (online); doi: 10.1007/s10584-012-0591-5, Williamson, P., Turley, C., Brownlee, C., Findlay, H.S., Ridgwell, A., Schmidt, D.N., Blackford, J. & Tyrrell, T. (2013) Ocean Acidification. In Annual report Card 2013 of the Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership (in press).

The impacts of ocean acidification on marine biodiversity, food webs, biogeochemical processes and ecosystems is less clear though it is likely that some will be negatively impacted8,9. This creates a risk to human society through harm to goods and services the ocean provides10,11. The most obvious of these are food from fisheries and aquaculture 12 , storm protection from reefs and economic benefits from tourism. However, the ocean offers more, though less obvious benefits to include nutrient generation, carbon sequestration and oxygen production. Acidification is already affecting valuable shellfisheries on the west coast of North America 13 and natural wild populations of sea butterflies (called pteropods) in the Southern Ocean14

, the latter providing key links in the food web of cold waters. Increasing research in concerned countries worldwide aims to reduce the uncertainties related to the full range of potential impacts of ocean acidification.

The combination of warming and ocean acidification is likely to lead to the demise of most coral-based ecosystems 15 . Both warm-water coral reefs and cold-water corals, and ecosystems in the Polar Regions are especially vulnerable. Recent research indicates that the survival of many coral species

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Figure 2. Showing the direct cause of ocean acidification, the impacts on ocean chemistry, ecosystems and socio-economics and the interaction with climate change through ocean warming and oxygen loss. Note the decreasing certainty from chemistry, through life and social science. The policy options for mitigating ocean acidification are also shown. Adapted from Turley and Gattuso (2012)

Source: Turley C, and Gattuso J-P. (2012), Future biological and ecosystem impacts of ocean acidification and their socioeconomic-policy implications, Curr Opin Environ Sustain 4:1–9

could be at risk from global warming of ~1.5°C (i.e. less than the 2°C increase considered ‘dangerous’ in the context of climate change policy)16

. Loss of coral reef systems would have far-reaching consequences for the human societies that depend on them. Moreover, their depletion would also represent a major loss to Earth’s biological heritage.

In addition to the potential biological and ecological impacts of ocean acidification, there are also at least 12 biogeochemical and

chemical responses that may provide either positive or negative feedback to climate change 17 . The most important, and least uncertain, climatic feedback is considered to be the change in chemical buffering capacity, decreasing the rate of further CO2 uptake. This process is closely linked to temperature and mixing processes in the upper ocean; combined effects are estimated to decrease future CO2 uptake by ~30% by 2100 under business-as-usual emission scenarios18.

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Figure 3. Global mean values for atmospheric CO2 concentrations and surface ocean pH for the higher (RCP 8.5) and lower (RCP 2.6) pathways calculated by the Bern2.5CC model are shown from 1800 to 2300. Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are greenhouse gas concentration trajectories adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for its fifth Assessment Report (AR5).

Sources: Steinacher, M., Joos, F., and Stocker, T. F.: Allowable carbon emissions lowered by multiple climate targets, Nature (submitted), 2013.

Richard Moss, Mustafa Babiker, Sander Brinkman, Eduardo Calvo, Tim Carter, Jae Edmonds, Ismail Elgizouli, Seita Emori, Lin Erda, Kathy Hibbard, Roger Jones, Mikiko Kainuma, Jessica Kelleher, Jean Francois Lamarque, Martin Manning, Ben Matthews, Jerry Meehl, Leo Meyer, John Mitchell, Nebojsa Nakicenovic, Brian O’Neill, Ramon Pichs, Keywan Riahi, Steven Rose, Paul Runci, Ron Stouffer, Detlef van Vuuren, John Weyant, Tom Wilbanks, Jean Pascal van Ypersele, and Monika Zurek (2008). Towards New Scenarios for Analysis of Emissions, Climate Change, Impacts, and Response Strategies. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 132

Alongside ocean acidification and rising seawater temperatures, the marine environment – its physics, chemistry and biology – is also affected by ocean deoxygenation. Higher temperatures reduce oxygen solubility and create a more stratified ocean, decreasing the oxygen supply from the ocean surface to the deep ocean. A particularly severe consequence of ocean warming could be the expansion of ocean hypoxic (very low oxygen) zones, ultimately interfering with global ocean production and damaging marine ecosystems as many marine organisms depend on sufficient oxygen levels to function. Reductions in the oxygenation zones of the ocean are already being observed, and, in some ocean basins, these losses are reducing the habitat for tropical pelagic fishes, such as

tuna19

. Loss of oceanic food production could have very negative consequences for international food security as well as lead to substantial economic costs.

In some areas, all three stressors – ocean acidification, warming and deoxgenation – may act together as well as with the more ‘traditional’ causes for concern: overfishing, pollution from land and ocean -based sources and unsustainable coastal development. These three global-scale changes to the physics and chemistry of the Earth’s ocean are underway now, and likely to cause fundamental changes to the great wealth and diversity of life that the ocean supports20. The most obvious and effective measure to address ocean

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Figure 4. The maps show current distributions of warm-water coral reefs and estimated near surface aragonite saturation state (an indicator of ocean acidification) for CO2 stabilization levels of 380 ppm, 450 ppm, and 500 ppm, which correspond approximately to the years 2005, 2030, and 2050 under the IPCC A1B (business-as-usual) emissions scenario. Data were adapted from Cao, L. and K. Caldeira. 2008. ‘Atmospheric CO2 Stabilization and Ocean Acidification.’ Geophysical Research Letters 35: L19609 for use in the Reefs at Risk Revisited project

Source: http://www.wri.org/map/threat-coral-reefs-ocean-acidification-present-2030-and-2050

acidification is a rapid and substantial reduction of global CO2 emissions21, though there are adaptation measures have been identified that would improve resilience of ecosystems and species by reducing other stressors 22 , by creating marine protected areas 23 and, in certain circumstances, by reducing local sources of acidification24. Such actions may help to ‘buy time’ for CO2 reduction measures to be implemented. Climate geoengineering to

sequester atmospheric CO2 is under discussion though uncertainties about outcomes and regulation by international treaties are contraindicative of wide proliferation/ application25. Suggested measures are active removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and/or control of ocean chemistry by direct intervention26

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2. Framework Conventions

2.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982 and came into force in 1994. The Convention provides the overarching legal framework for a number of agreements on marine environmental protection and marine species conservation. Some of its provisions are of a general nature and are to be implemented through specific operative regulations in other international agreements. UNCLOS includes an obligation that Parties protect and preserve the marine environment27. States are required to take all measures ‘necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source’28

2.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

. This includes pollution from or through the atmosphere. Although this provision was not drafted with ocean acidification or climate change in mind, Parties to the Convention should be mindful of steps to develop and enforce rules to regulate CO2 as a pollutant to the marine environment and to control or reduce ocean acidification.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted in 1992, addresses the reduction of global CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases required for the ‘stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not

threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner’. The UNFCCC could therefore be interpreted to include an obligation to take into account the impacts of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels upon the ocean (i.e., ocean acidification), on the basis either that i) the ocean is an integral part of the global climate system, or ii) that ocean acidification has feedback effects on atmospheric components of climate, as discussed above (Section 1.1), and as a threat to food production and sustainable economic development. Mitigating CO2 is the main action required to reduce ocean acidification on a global scale. Ocean acidification is however not specifically mentioned as part of the UNFCCC Convention text as the implications of a higher CO2 ocean to marine ecosystems was not well understood two decades ago. Mention of ocean acidification as an issue within the UNFCCC context occurs in the Cancún Agreements, the outcome of UNFCCC COP 16 (2010), as part of a footnote in which it is listed as one of many ‘slow onset events’ caused by climate change29,30

. To date, there has not been any other reference to ocean acidification in any formal decision of the UNFCCC.

Ocean acidification has however been a reoccurring topic of the UNFCCC’s Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) research dialogue. Since 2005 SBSTA has regularly informed Parties about emerging scientific information and communicates the views of the Parties on research needs and priorities back to the scientific community via the research dialogue31. Through this dialogue, ocean acidification has been identified since 2010 as one of the most pressing emerging

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scientific issues and priority needs relevant to the UNFCCC32

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Since 2009 (UNFCCC COP 15, Copenhagen) marine scientific research organizations and NGO’s have been engaged in presenting the issue of ocean acidification to the climate community through side-events and by providing summaries for policy makers33. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) added their concern through a publication on ocean acidification and food security (UNFCC COP16, Cancún)34

and a side-event on ocean acidification by UN-Oceans in 2011 at (UNFCCC COP 17, Durban).

2.3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted in 1992, has three objectives ‘the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources’35. The CBD recognizes ocean acidification as a threat which may accelerate the loss of marine biodiversity and by association may threaten livelihoods and economies dependent on the sustainable use of marine resources and the commercial exploitation of marine genetic resources and has expressed its concern since 2008. Ocean acidification consequently impacts all three objectives on which the CBD is founded. In particular ocean acidification makes it more challenging to implement the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity programme, to comply with CBD’s recommendations for the mitigation of climate change and increases the challenges of complying, in the marine environment, with the Addis Ababa principles for sustainable use36

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In 2008 the CBD COP requested a report to be compiled and synthesize available scientific information on ocean acidification and its impacts on marine biodiversity and habitats37. The work was released as a report on the ‘Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity’ in the CBD Technical Series (2009)38

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In a decision at COP 10 in 2010 the Conference of the Parties to the CBD called on Parties to address ‘climate-change-related aspects of marine and coastal biodiversity, including the potential adverse impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity of ocean acidification as a direct consequence of the increased concentration of carbon dioxide’39

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By 2012 another ‘Joint Expert Review Meeting on the Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity’ (2012) was conducted40. In 2012 the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) of the CBD ‘takes note of […] the guidance for practical responses to the impacts of ocean acidification on marine and coastal biodiversity [developed by the expert review] 41 , and encourages Parties, other Governments and relevant organizations to make use of this guidance, as appropriate, to reduce various threats from ocean acidification to vulnerable ecosystems and to enhance the resilience of ecosystems through a range of area-based or other management measures, in addition to measures to reduce CO2 emissions’42

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In 2012 the Conference of the Parties adopted a Strategic Plan including Aichi Targets on Biodiversity Conservation. Aichi Target 10 states that ‘by 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable

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ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning’43

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The CBD COP 11 requested a systematic review document by 2014 on the impacts of ocean acidification on biodiversity and ecosystem functions, with the view to also transmitting the results to the UNFCCC44

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The COP has also taken a number of decisions with regard to ocean fertilization as a method to sequester CO2

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3. Regional and Sectoral Agreements This section briefly discusses a set of regional and sectoral agreements, such as OSPAR and regional fisheries agreements. Although having been identified as some of the most relevant regional and sectoral agreements, they are only a representative selection. This section does not intend to cover the suite of existing regional and sectoral agreements relevant for marine management. Management tools such as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) may play an important role in providing adaptation solutions, they are however not covered by this paper.

3.1 Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR)

The Convention for the Protection of the marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, also known as the OSPAR Convention is the mechanism by which fifteen Governments of the western coasts and catchments of Europe, together with the European Union, cooperate to protect the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. It began in 1972 with the Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cover land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris Convention of 1974. These two conventions were unified, up-dated and extended by the 1992 OSPAR Convention46

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Ocean acidification first appeared in the OSPAR context as a report distributed in 2006 as ‘Effects on the marine environment of ocean acidification resulting from elevated levels of CO2 in the atmosphere’ containing an overview of ecosystem sensitivity to CO2 exposure47

In 2007 OSPAR Parties formally expressed serious concern ‘by the implications for the marine environment of climate change and ocean acidification due to elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere’

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48. The storage of CO2 in the water column or on the seabed is prohibited under OSPAR’s legally binding decision 2007/1. Guidelines have been developed to manage the risks of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects and to prevent adverse consequences for the marine environment, human health and other uses of the sea of the commercial storage of CO2 in geological sub-seabed formations, and thus potential impacts on pH levels 49, 50

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2009 saw an elaborated report by OSPAR on the ‘Assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation’. Recommendations included the need to make additional efforts to enhance knowledge about the vulnerability of species, habitats and ecological processes and the interaction of these with pressures from human activities on the sea. The report further suggested that OSPAR would need to integrate climate change and ocean acidification issues into all its work areas and that it ‘should continue to work on marine spatial planning and integrated coastal zone management as integrative and adaptive tools for the management of human uses’51

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Specifically on ocean acidification the report stated that ‘OSPAR should promote that the potential impact of ocean acidification should be considered when developing mitigation strategies and setting international objectives to limit future atmospheric CO2 levels’ 52 . Furthermore, marine adaptation may to a large extent have to rely on the development of existing and new regulations on the

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management of human resources and maritime activities to increase resilience of the natural system. Developing and applying relevant methods for monitoring ocean acidification has been identified as a priority. A Joint OSPAR/ICES Ocean Acidification Study Group has been set up to further discuss this issue53

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Subsequently OSPAR has highlighted in several recommendations ocean acidification as a threat to the protection and restoration of specific species or ecosystems in the OSPAR Maritime Area 54 . The OSPAR Coordinated Environmental Monitoring Programme (CEMP), which aims to deliver comparable data from across the OSPAR maritime area, received an additional appendix on ocean acidification in 201255

3.2 Regional Fishery Agreements; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

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Achieving food security for all is at the heart of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, founded in 1943) efforts. The FAO aims to make sure people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives. The FAO’s Fisheries and Aquaculture Department’s focus is to strengthen global governance and the managerial and technical capacities of members a

and to lead consensus-building towards improved conservation and utilization of aquatic resources.

Within this scope Regional Fishery Bodies (RFBs) are a mechanism through which States or organizations that are parties to an international fishery agreement or arrangement

a Def. Member: This includes participating countries, associate members and member organizations.

work together towards the conservation, management and/or development of sustainable fisheries. The mandates of RFBs vary. Some RFBs have an advisory mandate, that is, to provide advice, decisions or coordinating mechanisms that are not binding on their members. Other RFBs have a management mandate – these are called Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) such as the South Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA) or Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO). They adopt fisheries conservation and management measures that are binding on their members. Although coastal and small island developing nations are particularly vulnerable to food security risks from ocean acidification (Fig.4) as well as warming and/or deoxygenation (or their combination), most RFBs fail to include ocean acidification in their scientific strategies. To date scientific working groups of the RFBs mostly focus on climate change as something affecting fisheries through the threat of temperature increase, though some recent activities include a recognition of the possible impact of ocean acidification to fisheries and mariculture56, 57

3.3 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)

. Currently some RFBs including, CCAMLR and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are engaged in ocean acidification science and policy activities.

The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was established by an international convention that entered into force in 1982 and has as its objective the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources, including rational use. This was

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in response to increasing commercial interest in Antarctic krill resources, a keystone component of the Antarctic ecosystem58

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In a resolution on climate change, CCAMLR expressed belief ‘that the Southern Ocean will experience increased acidification with possible impacts on its marine ecosystems’59. In research papers presented under the Working Group on Ecosystem Monitoring and Management there has been discussion of the impacts of ocean acidification on marine resources in the Southern Ocean, for example on krill 60;61

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Discussions are ongoing to identify measures that are able to account for climate change-induced ramifications on Antarctic krill and ecosystems and how the adaptive capacity of the fisheries management of CCAMLR can be enhanced. Recommendations to CCAMLR include that current precautionary management measures need to be maintained, until sufficient knowledge exists about the population levels of sustainability and that increased efficiency of CCAMLR Environmental Monitoring Programme is fundamental for a solid science-based management of the fishery.

3.3 London Convention and Protocol

The ‘Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972’, the ‘London Convention’ for short, is one of the first global conventions to protect the marine environment from human activities and has been in force since 197562

. Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.

The ‘London Protocol’ was adopted in 1996, to modernize the Convention and, eventually to replace it. It entered into force in 2006. Under the Protocol all dumping is prohibited, except for possibly acceptable wastes on the so-called ‘reverse list’, which includes CO2. The amendments regulate the sequestration of CO2 streams into sub-seabed geological formations from CO2-capture processes, for permanent isolation. This provides a basis in international environmental law to regulate this practice, including for possible application to the capture of CO2 emissions from large point-sources such as electrical generation plants that use fossil fuels, steel works and fuel processing plants. The London Protocol amendments cite this as an option in a portfolio of mitigation actions for stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations with the potential for significant benefits at the local, regional and global levels over both the short and long terms. Geological sequestration of CO2 streams would be one of a suite of measures to tackle the challenge of climate change and ocean acidification, including, first and foremost, the need to further develop and use low carbon forms of energy and conservation measures to reduce emissions63

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It is further stated that CO2 streams may only be considered for dumping if disposal is into a sub-seabed geological formations, disposal is overwhelmingly of CO2 (though may contain incidental associated substances derived from the source material and the capture and sequestration processes used), and no wastes or other matter are added for the purpose of disposing of them.

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The risks associated with CO2 sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations is CO2 leakage into the marine environment together with other substances in or mobilized by the CO2 stream. In general, there are different levels of concern regarding potential leakage that range from the local to the global over both the short- and long-terms64

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In 2008, ocean fertilization was recognized as issue of concern by the LC/LP, defining ocean fertilization as ‘any activity undertaken by humans with the principal intention of stimulating primary productivity in the oceans’, with its most likely large-scale purpose being to enhance CO2 uptake by the ocean to a climatically-significant degree. In 2010, Parties adopted the resolution LC-LP.2 (2010) on the ‘Assessment Framework for Scientific Research Involving Ocean Fertilization’ to guide Parties on the approval process for ocean fertilization research, as requested by the 2008 resolution (LC-LP.1), and provided detailed steps for completion of an environmental assessment, including risk management and monitoring.

3.4 Other sectoral agreements

Ocean acidification will also have an effect on the regulatory impacts and effectiveness of other sectoral agreements relevant to ocean management. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) and the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) are listed as examples below. The brief review has however shown that at least in those two conventions ocean acidification has played no or only a very minor role.

3.4.1 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or the Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range. The CMS has several resolutions on climate change, which include the call for adaptation measures to ensure the conservation of migrating animals 65

. They do not reference ocean acidification in particular.

However, in the last few years ocean acidification was discussed as part of several technical workshops and climate change vulnerability papers as potentially having wide ranging consequences for species, impacting on food webs, most prominently in Arctic Regions, as well as accelerating the loss of vital coral habitats66

3.4.2 Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

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Recent decisions on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora adopted in 197367 included potential opportunities for the further implementation of the CITES Strategic Vision 2008-201368. The Strategic Goal B aimed to reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use. Within this there was an aim to minimize the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification to maintain their integrity and functioning by 2015. Specific action referring to the CITES goals within the scope of ocean acidification are not reported to date.

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4. Policy processes

4.1 United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)

In 2006 the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) first expressed ‘its concern over the projected adverse effects of anthropogenic and natural climate change and ocean acidification on the marine environment and marine biodiversity’69

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In the following years (2007-2011) the General Assembly again expressed concern about ocean acidification in relation to coral reefs, as climate change would weaken them ‘to withstand ocean acidification, which could have serious and irreversible negative effects on marine organisms, particularly corals, as well as to withstand other pressures, including overfishing and pollution’70. It called further on appropriate management measures ‘for reefs to support their natural resilience and enhance their ability to withstand other pressures, including ocean acidification’71

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The General Assembly also took note of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report’s findings on the acidification of the ocean in 2007. The UNGA has repeatedly encouraged ‘States and competent international organizations and other relevant institutions, individually and in cooperation, to urgently pursue further research on ocean acidification, [… and] to increase national, regional and international efforts to address levels of ocean acidity and the negative impact of such acidity on vulnerable marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs’ (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011)72

. It also highlighted the particular work of the CBD since 2008.

In the last UNGA Resolution on the Oceans and the Law of the Sea (2012) the GA made several additional references to the Rio +20 outcome ‘The Future We Want’ (see also 4.2); in particular to the call to support initiatives that address ocean acidification and the impacts of climate change on marine and coastal ecosystems and resources. The UNGA reiterates the need for collaborative work to prevent further ocean acidification, and to enhance the resilience of marine ecosystems and dependent communities. The need for increased and collaborative marine scientific research, monitoring and observation of ocean acidification and particularly vulnerable ecosystems is further called for. In this regard the UNGA also welcomed the establishment of the Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre in Monaco (see 5.2.2) in 2012. It further encouraged States to develop ways and means of adaptation, while using the precautionary approach and ecosystem approaches73

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On mitigation, the UNGA thus highlighted the need ‘to increase national, regional and global efforts to address levels of ocean acidity and the negative impact of such acidity on vulnerable marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs’74 while there is a ‘need to work collectively to prevent further ocean acidification’75

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The UNGA Resolutions on sustainable fisheriesb

b including the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the UNCLOS relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and related instruments

do not have any specific references to ocean acidification.

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The United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea (UNICPOLOS) will focus its discussion in June 2013 on the ‘Impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment’76

4.2 From Rio to Rio +20

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Since 1992 the international community has been meeting every ten years to discuss the world’s most pressing environmental issues, starting with the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), in Rio de Janeiro, and with the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg. None of these two conferences had discussed ocean acidification. This changed at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), also called Rio+20, which took place again in Brazil in 2012. The outcome document of Rio+20 ‘The Future We Want’ stressed the critical role the ocean plays in all three pillars of sustainable development, and ‘commit[ed] to protect, and restore, the health, productivity and resilience of the ocean and marine ecosystems, and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations’77

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The Rio +20 outcome document ‘The Future We Want’ further reflects the international community’s call for support to initiatives that address ocean acidification:

‘We call for support to initiatives that address ocean acidification and the impacts of climate change on marine and coastal ecosystems and resources. In this regard, we reiterate the need to work collectively to prevent further ocean acidification, as well as enhance the

resilience of marine ecosystems and of the communities whose livelihoods depend on them, and to support marine scientific research, monitoring and observation of ocean acidification and particularly vulnerable ecosystems, including through enhanced international cooperation in this regard’78

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The world community also expressed ‘profound alarm that emissions of greenhouse gases continue to rise globally’ and reiterated that all countries, particularly developing countries, are vulnerable to its adverse impacts, including ocean acidification 79 . The significant vulnerability of coral reefs to impacts from ocean acidification was further highlighted80

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The Oceans Compact, launched during the Yeosu Expo 2012 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, an initiative to set out a strategic vision for the UN system to deliver on its ocean-related mandates, consistent with the Rio+20 outcome document ‘The Future We Want’ describes one of their objectives that ‘by 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are reduced so as to maintain their integrity and functioning’.

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5. Scientific processes

5.1 Science-policy interfaces

Science-policy interfaces, such as the IPCC, are the most critical vehicles to bring scientific knowledge to policy makers, especially since they undergo government endorsement. The scientific information contained in their assessments is more likely to be taken up by relevant policy discussions. The work of the IPCC or IPBES is thus very policy relevant, but not policy prescriptive81

5.1.1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

.

In 1988, IPCC was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), an action endorsed by the UN General Assembly (UNGA), to provide the world with a clear scientific review and assessment on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts. The IPCC inter alia provides scientific advice to the Parties to the UNFCCC.

In its 2007 Fourth Assessment Report, the IPCC recognized ocean acidification as a risk to ecosystems caused by increasing CO2 emissions for the first time82. It highlighted that ‘the main driver of these changes [lower oceanic pH and carbonate ion concentrations] is the direct geochemical effect due to the addition of anthropogenic CO2 to the surface ocean’83

.

In 2011 as proposed by the Government of Japan, and the co-chairs of the IPCC Working Groups I and II the IPCC held an expert workshop on the Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biology and Ecosystems, At the workshop (i) the changing chemistry of the

ocean, (ii) impacts of ocean acidification for individual organisms, and (iii) scaling up responses from individual organisms to ecosystems were discussed84

.

With the number of ocean acidification publications growing rapidly 85, a very much greater body of evidence has been available for inclusion in the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), in which there are focussed chapters on the ocean in Working Group I and II’s assessments86. The authors of these chapters have been given the remit to include ocean acidification as part of their assessment and will report in 2013 and 201487

5.1.2 World Ocean Assessment

. It is expected that additional scientific information on ocean acidification and its effects will be presented.

At the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002, World leaders agreed, in paragraph 36 (b) of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI), to ‘establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment, including socio-economic aspects, both current and foreseeable, building on existing regional assessments’. This decision was subsequently confirmed by the United Nations General Assembly 88 . The first integrated assessment is expected to be completed in 2014 89. It will contain several chapters discussing ocean acidification90

5.1.3 Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)

.

States have agreed to provide a mechanism for updating policymakers with key scientific and

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technical knowledge related to biodiversity and ecosystem services through the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) established by an intergovernmental meeting in 2012. IPBES will be an interface between the scientific community and policy makers in order to build capacity for and strengthen the use of science in policy making.

IPBES’s objective is the strengthening of the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human wellbeing and sustainable development. IPBES will respond to requests for scientific information related to biodiversity and ecosystem services from governments, relevant multilateral environmental agreements and UN bodies, as well as other relevant stakeholders.

With increasing concern of how ocean acidification may impact human society IPBES is expected to provide a further opportunity to address the potential future impact of ocean acidification and other ocean stressors on marine diversity and ecosystems and the products and services they provide human society.

5.2 Science Knowledge Generation

Ocean acidification has been part of several national and international research projects/programmes. Regional and global collaboration between scientists resulted in global projects like SOLAS, IMBER, EPOCA, leading to a fast growing scientific community, addressing the problem of ocean acidification. Single projects are compiled in regional programmes, like MedSeA, the Future Ocean, UK Ocean Acidification Research Programme,

and the NOAA Ocean Acidification Programme, in order to enhance the communication and to increase the benefit through intersectional collaboration. Within this landscape some guidance and coordination is provided by, for example, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO) and the Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC).

5.2.1 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)

UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) promotes international cooperation and coordinates programmes in marine research, services, observation systems, hazard mitigation, and capacity development in order to understand and effectively manage the resources of the ocean and coastal areas. Ocean acidification is part of the international agenda since 2004.

As early as 1979, the IOC-UNESCO and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) recognized the importance of the ocean’s role in global climate change and formed the first Committee on Climate Change and the Ocean (CCCO) which, in 1984, established a CO2 Advisory Panel91. Already at this time the panel called for a carbon observation program and sampling strategy that could determine the global oceanic CO2

inventory. In 2005, IOC and SCOR founded the International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP), replacing the CO2 Panel. The IOCCP promotes the development of a global network of ocean carbon observations through technical coordination and communication services, international agreements on standards and methods, and advocacy and links to the global observing systems. Therefore the IOCCP

19

is leading the release and development of a Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT)92

Another main activity of IOC-UNESCO with respect to ocean acidification is the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). Since 1993 it is co-sponsored by the IOC-UNESCO

, important to monitor the evolution of the carbon system, so also the acidity, of the ocean.

93. The main objectives, set for the WCRP at its inception and still valid, are to determine the predictability of climate and to determine the effect of human activities on climate, recently also stressing the impact of ocean acidification94

IOC-UNESCO is co-founder of the Ocean Acidification Network, meant to provide a central source of information for ocean scientists on research activities in this area, and co-hosts the main international symposium on this issue, ‘The Ocean in a high CO2 World’.

.

The IOC also coordinates ocean observation and monitoring through the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) which aims to develop a unified network providing information and data exchange on the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the ocean. GOOS and the Ocean Science Section (OSS) are supporting and participating in the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network.

5.2.2 The Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC)

The Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC) was launched in 2012 at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) 95

Its task is to coordinate key overarching activities that must be performed at the international level to make effective use of the science investment at national levels and to build capacity globally. These include the development of a global ocean acidification observation network, the sharing of joint platforms, facilities and experiments, the development of best practices, intercomparison exercises and data management, the facilitation of collaboration between life and social sciences, and capacity building through training workshops and exchange of early career scientists and the communication of the latest scientific findings to research-users, including policy makers.

. It became fully

operational in 2013 and is based at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Environment Laboratories in the Principality of Monaco. It is supported through direct and in-kind contributions from several IAEA Member States and research projects on ocean acidification through the IAEA Peaceful Uses Initiative (PUI).

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6. Major Outcomes to Date and Steps Ahead International marine conservation and other relevant environmental agreements address a variety of, often sectorally treated, marine issues. Ocean acidification, a relatively new environmental issue has not been explicitly part of any of the original mandates of those

agreements. However since the possible negative consequences of ocean acidification, and the urgency to act, become more apparent, many international agreements and related negotiation streams addressed ocean acidification.

Figure 5. Overview of international conventions and instruments described in this paper to protect the ocean with their relevant decisions, recommendations or other legally reflected actions (triangle) and issued reports (circles). The rectangles represent the date of adoption of the conventions/instruments. The colours differentiate the conventions/instruments and link them to their respective activities.

The UNGA first expressed concern over the projected adverse effects of ocean acidification on the marine environment and marine biodiversity in 2006. Other conventions and bodies such as OSPAR (2007), CCAMLR (2009), CBD (2010) and the Rio +20 Conference followed with including ocean acidification into their concerns and calls.

A most common response from many agreements and bodies was to request relevant scientific synthesis of or scientific dialogues about the impacts of ocean acidification:

- OSPAR 2006: Effects on the marine environment of ocean acidification resulting from elevated levels of CO2 in the atmosphere

- CBD 2008: Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity

21

- OSPAR 2009: Assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation

- UNFCCC SBSTA research dialogues 2010, 2011 and 2012

- IPCC expert workshop 2011: Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biology and Ecosystems

- CBD 2011: Joint Expert Review Meeting on the Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity

- UNICPLOS 2013 (to be conducted): Impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment

- CBD 2014 (to be conducted): Impacts of ocean acidification on biodiversity and ecosystem functions

- IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on Climate Change 2013 and 2014 (in prep.)

Relevant scientific reporting mechanisms such as the IPCC, the Regular Process or IPBES, have and will in their upcoming studies address ocean acidification.

Guidance for practical responses to the impacts of ocean acidification on marine and coastal biodiversity has been developed by the CBD. The London Protocol addresses the issue of marine mitigation of CO2 and the related technological innovations needed to proceed with CO2 sequestration, with respect to marine fertilization.

Other agreements, for example the CMS, CITES or fisheries bodies have made few or no direct references or developed measures to address ocean acidification. The UNFCCC has cultivated a suitable response to inform States on the scientific information around ocean acidification through its SBSTA research

dialogue, but has not yet developed appropriate mechanisms to ensure that ocean acidification is adequately included in its policy efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The establishment of the OA-ICC, and global initiatives such as The Oceans Compact and global concern expressed through the Rio +20 conference are a positive sign towards collective engagement to address ocean acidification. However additional efforts are needed by:

• increasing cooperation and information exchange between conventions and bodies

• avoiding duplicating closely-similar work (e.g. scientific synthesis reports)

• developing a structured and scientifically robust global observation system for ocean acidification and its potential ecosystem responses, to improve the evidence base for policy action

In June 2012 the foundation for a worldwide initiative to collect, collate and interpret information on ocean acidification and its effects, the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network, was established. While adaptation measures are and can be further launched through several relevant agreements, (including the CBD, fisheries and marine management bodies, CMS or CITES) urgent and substantive reductions in CO2 emissions are crucial, and the policy problems in achieving such mitigation measures still need to be resolved.

In summary, ocean acidification is a global issue, relevant to climate change, biodiversity, food security and sustainable development,

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requiring international, regional and local collaborative action to monitor, mitigate and adapt to the changes it is and will continue to trigger. Climate change mitigation strategies have been developed, however there is a need to revise, and possible strengthen policy measures and mechanisms to ensure ocean acidification will be mitigated alongside climate change. To manage risk from ocean acidification it is necessary to understand the severity of the issue in different regions, and with time, as well as the vulnerability and exposure of marine organisms, ecosystems and human society and their ability to adapt.

6.2 Achieving the Real Fix for Ocean Acidification – Global Policy Action

The list below highlights the most pressing actions that could be taken on the international level to address ocean acidification.

• Global agreement for rapid and substantial cuts of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.

• Review of existing international policies and mechanisms on their effectiveness to mitigate and adapt to ocean acidification.

• Sufficient international planning and financing for adaptation with increased capacity building in vulnerable countries to measure ocean acidification, its local impacts and explore ways for local means for adaptation.

• Increased coordination and (information) exchange between relevant international conventions to increase collaborative action and effectiveness on mitigation of and adaptation to ocean acidification.

• International coordination of studies of ocean stressors including the development and funding of a global ocean acidification monitoring and observation network as an early warning system, especially for vulnerable societies and developing countries.

• Enhanced outreach and education of policy-makers, vulnerable businesses (e.g. mariculture and tourist industries) and the general public on the impacts of ocean acidification.

6.3 Buying Time to Implement the Global Solution: Essential Regional and Local Actions

While international action to address ocean acidification is increasing, regional and local activities are needed to allow for rapid implementation and visible results on the ground.

• Determine biological and socio-economical vulnerabilities and means to reduce them.

• Reduce local sources of acidification, if present and feasible.

• Reduce other stressors to the marine environment to enhance overall ecosystem resilience.

• Protect natural carbon sinks such as seagrass beds and mangroves.

• Identify flexible and resistant species for sea food production.

• Explore other sea food production options. • Forster the implementation and

development of renewable energies and low carbon technology.

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Acknowledgements: CT acknowledges support from the UK Ocean Acidification research programme (UKOA), funded jointly by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (Defra) and the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) (grant number ME5201) and Mediterranean Sea Acidification in a Changing Climate (MedSeA), funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013, grant number 265103). The assistance of Dawn Ashby for figure preparation, other colleagues for their scientific input, and reviewers of this paper for their constructive criticisms is also gratefully acknowledged. KI acknowledges the support from the “Ocean Carbon Sources and Sinks project”, funded by the Korean Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), Republic of Korea. DH acknowledges the support from the IUCN Global Marine and Polar Programme. The authors would like to thank Raphaël Billé, Harlan Cohen, Luis Valdes, Phillip Williamson and Wendy Watson-Wright for their useful comments and review of this paper. 1 Raven, J., et al. (2005) Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The Royal Society Policy document

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