OBEDIENCE---or----

CHOICEThe Major Issues of the Modern World

In the modern world there is still only a relatively small numberof working multi-party democracies, in which the will of thepeople might be said to prevail. They inhabit one end of a con-tinuum. At the other end are numerous totalitarian societies inwhich the people seem to have accepted the security of obediencein order to avoid the anxiety of choice. In exercising the rightsof choice, a society must necessarily risk experimentation, uncer-tainty and change. If the people opt for obedience, or have asystem of compliance imposed upon them, they will eventuallyrecognise that liberties, once lost, are difficult to regain. The inex-haustible human impulse to reach for freedom and choice,however, remains in alt societies, forcing a realisation that changemust be accommodated rather than avoided.

* * *Most of the critical decisions and events of the modern worldcan be seen as outgrowths of the issue of obedience or choice.

H. R. COWIE, M.A., B.Ed., Ph.D.

THE JACARANDA PRESS

CONTENTS

List of illustrations VIIIA message to students xAcknowledgments xii

PART A CASE STUDIES 1Chapter 1 What is modern about the modern world? 3

I The feudal system in Europe: obedience to the Church 4II The Renaissance and Reformation 6

III The character of modern society: choice and obedience 9

Chapter 2 The practice of History: methodology andhistorical terms 13

I The discipline of History 13II The benefits of studying History 14

III The pathway to historical knowledge 16IV Concepts and terms 17V Glossary of remis 18

Chapter 3. Case study: a problematieal issue Why didthe British settle in Australia? 23

I The first voyage 23"II Reason for settlement 25

III Other possible reasons 26

Chapter 4 Case study: a eomplex event and a study ineausation The Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions 32

lOrigins of the Economic Revolution 33II The Agrarian Revolution 33

III The revolution in industry 37IV Repercussions of the Economic Revolution 40

Chapter 5 Case study: a significant issue and theinterpretation 0/ primary-souree evidenee What were themotives behind the American and French Revolutions? 43

iv CONTENTS ,

I The expectation of obedience: absolute monarchy 43II A formula for liberty: the American Revolution 44

III "Liberty, equality and fraternity" in France 46IV The gradual return to autocracy 54V The revolution and nationalism 57

PART B A NINETEENTH-CENTURY STUDY:EUROPE 63Chapter 6 Forces of change in nineteenth-century Europe:nationalism, socialism and other ideologies affecting thenational character of Germany, Britain and Russia 65

I The "Concert of Europe", 1815-1848: applied conservatism 66II Resurgent nationalism in Europe 70

III The revolutions of 1830 and 1848 and their influence on formsof nationalism 72

IV Italian nationalism and its effects 75V Liberalism and democracy 79

VI Socialism - liberty from poverty? 81

Chapter 7 Germany: economic, political and socialdevelopment in the nineteenth century 89

I German economic growth and nationalism 8911 Bismarck and the unification of Germany 91

111 Sodal problems in Bismarck's Germany 99

Chapter 8 Great Britain: a capitalist-democraticexperiment? 105

I Further economic growth: "the workshop of the world" 105II Social change and reforms 109

III Political reforms: the gradual attainment of choice 118

Chapter 9 Tsarist Russia: social and political conditionsunder authoritarian rule 129

I The politics of repression 129II The structure of society and forces for change 131

111 The· emancipation of the serfs and economic growth 133IV Towards a reformed society 136V The 1904-5 Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 revolution 139

PART C THE GREAT WAR AND ITS EFFECTS ONAUSTRALlA, GERMANY AND BRITAIN 145Chapter 10 National and imperial rivalries 1871-1900

I Rivalries between nations in trade and empire 14711 The "new imperialism" as an extension of nationalism 148

III German and Italian imperial activities 151IV International tensions arising from imperial rivalries 154

Chapter 11 The countdown to war: 1900-1914 157I Greeting the outbreak 157

11 The growth of international tensions 1900-1914 159III Flashpoint in the Balkans 164IV Foreign po licies and alliances 166V The smouldering fuse, 1871-1914 175

CONTENTS v

Chapter 12 "Australia will be there": the entry of theBritish Empire into the Great War 186

I The British heritage 186II Responding to "the news", August 1914 189

III Recruiting for the Australian Imperial Force 191IV The effects of early engagements: the Gallipoli factor 195V Britain and the Empire at war 198

Chapter 13 The first three years of the Great War:1914-1917 202

1Stalemate, 1914-15 202II 1916: Verdun, the Somme, and Jutland 204

III 1917: the year the war changed character 208

Chapter 14 1918 and the armistice 211I Blockade and its effects 211

II The "crusaders" from the USA 212III Decision through slaughter 213IV Proposals , negotiations and the armistice 217

Chapter 15 Effects of the First World War on Britain,the Central Powers and Australia 221

I Britain at war 222II Effects of the war on France and the Central Powers 227

III Effects of the war on the Australian people 229IV Results of the Great War 242

Chapter 16 The war-guilt debate and the peacesettlements 246

I The war-guilt clause and later interpretations 246II The peace settlements and the League of Nations 255

III Self-determination and the settlements 260

PART D NATIONAL STUDIES: POWER, WAR, ANDSUPERPOWERS IN THE TWENTIETHCENTURY 263Chapter 17 The overthrow of the tsarist regime in Russiaand the establishment of the USSR 265

I The 1905 revolution and the Duma experiment 265II World War land the collapse of the tsarist regime 269

III Lenin and the second revolution of 1917 271IV Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin 277V The Great Patriotic War, 1941-45 285

Chapter 18 The USA 1900-1945: free enterprise andgreat-power status 292

I The national character 292II The 1920s: isolationism, "normalcy" and prosperity 298

III "The great crash" and the Depression in the USA 301IV FrankIin D. Roosevelt and the "New Deal" 303V Race relations 1865-1945 310

VI The USA and World War II 311

Chapter 19 Germany 1918-1945: democracy under at~ackand the Nazi Party in power 316

vi CONTENTS

I Fascist Italy - the prototype for nazism is Germany 3 I611 The collapse of the Weimar Republic in Germany 321

BI The nazi regime in Germany 327IV Key features of the fascist and nazi states 332

Chapter 20 The influence of nazism on internationalrelations 1919-39 343

I Fascist/nazi expansionism 34311 The League of Nations and hopes for collective

security 344III The fears and foreign policy of France 346IV The foreign policy of the USSR (Soviet Russia) 346V The Japanese challenge and the American response 348

VI The Great Depression, 1929-39 352VII Italian expansion and the Rome-Berlin axis 357

VIII Blitzkrieg: nazi foreign po1icy 1933-39 362IX British foreign policy 1920-39: the choice of

appeasement 366X The rehearsal - the Spanish Civil War 370

XI The major events affecting international relations1919-39 373

Chapter 21 The great powers at war 1939-1945 378I The outbreak 01' war 378

11 The course of the war 381III Causes of and responsibilities for the war 388IV The significance of policy decisions during the war 390V Results of the war 393

Chapter 22 China: tradition and revolution 1900-1966 395

I Traditiona1 China 39511 The impact of European imperialism on China and

Japan 398III The decline and overthrow of the Qing Dynasty 401IV The Republic of China and the Guomindang 403V Nationalists versus communists 406

VI Obedience to a new order: the People's Republic 41 I

PART E MODERN WORLD STUDIES 421Chapter 23 US-Soviet relations in the nuclear age 423

I American-Russian rivalries 42411 Origins of the "Cold War" 426

III US foreign policy 1945-49 43 IIV Theatres of great-power rivalries 1945-62 437V Soviet foreign policy 1945-70 444

VI US foreign policy 1950-73: from containment todetente 448

VII Soviet foreign relations in the per iod of detenle,1970-75 453

VIII "Multi-polarity" in world affairs 455IX Renewed tensions between the great powers, 1957-86 457X The arms race and arms-contro1 diplomacy 462

XI Major events influencing international relations in thepostwar world 468

,

CONTENTS vii

Chapter 24 Conflict in Indochina and Australianinvolvement 474

I Recent relations with Indochina 47511 Traditional culture in Indochina 476

III French colonial control 477IV The rise of nationalist sentiment 478V Reaching for independence 480

VI American and Australian involvement 485VII The decision to withdraw 496

VIII The fall of the domino: Indochina since 1975 498IX The consequences of the conflict in Indochina 501X Major events in the wars in Indochina 1949-80 503

PART F OBEDIENCE OR CHOICE IN THECONTEMPORARY WORLD 509Chapter 25 Continuing struggle for human rights 510

I Concessions within the communist world 510II The revolution in Cuba 512

III The reappearance of incentives in communist societies 513IV India: an example of political choice? 514V Erosions of totalitarianism? 516

VI Conclusion 516

REFERENCES 517

INDEX 525

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ILLUSTRATIONS

MAPS3.1 Sailing routes to the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, circa

1800 295.1 The British colonies in North America at the time of the War

of Independence 475.2 Europe in 1789 495.3 Europe under Napoleon, 1812 596.1 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 696.2 The unification of Italy 777.1 The unification of Germany, 1815-71 96

10.1 German colonial pos sessions in Africa and the Pacific in1914 152

10.2 Italian colonial possessions in 1914 15311.1 Europe in 1910 16111.2 The Balkan Wars, 1912-13 16511.3 Points of tension in Europe in 1914 17911.4 German advances into Belgium and France, 1914 18211.5 Europe in World War I 18312.1 Division of the Western Pacific Ocean 19312.2 Landing place of the ANZACs 25 April 1915: the Gallipoli

Peninsula 19713.1 Major battlefields other than the Western Front 20313.2 The Battle of Jutland, 1916 20713.3 Russian losses by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 20916.1 League of Nations mandates 25716.2 Europe after the peace treaties (1923) 25918.1 The territorial growth of the USA 29520.1 The Japanese invasion of China 35120.2 The Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), 1935 35820.3 German territorial claims 36320.4 German expansion 1938-39 36520.5 The Spanish Civil War 37121.1 Po land 1919-39 37921.2 Hitler's Europe 383

VIII

ILLUSTRATIONS ix

21.3 Japanese expansion 38622.1 Western spheres of influence in China 39922.2 The Long March 40923.1 Subdivisions of Germany after World War II 42923.2 Europe in 1960 43623.3 The Korean War 43924.1 Western nations' possessions in South-east Asia before

decolonisation 47924.2 Indochina 1945-75 48424.3 The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation 492

DIAGRAMS1.1 The feudal system in medieval Europe 54.1 The Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions 415.1 Phases of power-concentration during the French

Revolution 566.1 The quest for liberty 806.2 The theory of dialectical materialism 847.1 Bismarck's major problems in creating a uni ted

Germany 1008.1 Percentage of the total population able to vote in British

parliamentary elections 12210.1 The export of European capital 15011.1 Rival alliance groupings and Entente connections

1879-1912 17411.2 Defence spending of the great powers 1870-1914 17519.1 Symbols of fascist totalitarianism 31819.2 Types of governments 33020.1 The American and World Depressions 35620.2 Possible and formalised alliances 1922-45 37223.1 Power blocs and rivalries 1945-1985 430