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Motivation Concepts

Chapter SIX


What Is Motivation?

Direction

PersistenceIntensity


Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

What is Motivation? What is Motivation?


Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

E X H I BI T 6–1E X H I BI T 6–1

Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization

needs.


Assumptions of Maslow’s HierarchyAssumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy

Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

•Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order


Theory XManagers See Workers As…

Disliking Work

Avoiding Responsibility

Having Little Ambition

Theory Y Managers See Workers As…

Enjoying Work

Accepting Responsibility

Self-Directed


Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!

Separate constructs– Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic

& Related to Dissatisfaction

– Motivation Factors---Intrinsic and Related to

Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors:

•Salary

•Work Conditions

•Company Policies

Motivators:

•Achievement

•Responsibility

•Growth


Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that

led to extreme job satisfaction

E X H I B I T 6–2E X H I B I T 6–2

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.


Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and DissatisfactionContrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction



David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

Bottom Line: Individuals have different levels of

needs in each of these areas, and those

levels will drive their behavior


Matching High Achievers and JobsMatching High Achievers and Jobs



Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.

The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.

Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!



What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say? What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say?


Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback,

lead to higher performance.

But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on

•goal commitment

–“I want to do it & I can do it”

•task characteristics (simple, well-learned)

•national culture


Goal Setting in Action: MBO ProgramsGoal Setting in Action: MBO Programs

Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals & objectives

• Goals aligned at all levels

• Based on Goal Setting Theory

Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals & objectives

• Goals aligned at all levels

• Based on Goal Setting Theory


What is MBO?What is MBO?

Key Elements

1. Goal specificity

2. Participative decision making

3. An explicit time period

4. Performance feedback

Key Elements

1. Goal specificity

2. Participative decision making

3. An explicit time period

4. Performance feedback

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.


Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives



Linking MBO and Goal-Setting TheoryLinking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes

Goal Difficulty Yes Yes

Feedback Yes Yes

Participation Yes No(qualified)


Why MBOs FailWhy MBOs Fail

Unrealistic expectations about MBO results

Lack of commitment by top management

Failure to allocate reward properly

Cultural incompatibilities


Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy

Self Esteem, which is….

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.

•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)

•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved

Not to be confused with:


Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting


Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy (Bandura)

Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy (Bandura)

1. Enactive Mastery

2. Vicarious Modeling

3. Verbal Persuasion

4. Arousal

Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and Galatea Effects


Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

Assumptions:

•Behavior is environmentally caused.

•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Assumptions:

•Behavior is environmentally caused.

•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.


Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Referent Comparisons:

•Self-inside

•Self-outside

•Other-inside

•Other-outside

Referent Comparisons:

•Self-inside

•Self-outside

•Other-inside

•Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.


Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)




Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)



Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.


Justice and Equity TheoryJustice and Equity Theory


Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final

distribution).

“Who got what?”

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process used to

determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what

decided?”Interactional Justice

The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.

“Was I treated well?”

Three types of Justice Three types of Justice


Ethical Values and Ethical Values and Behaviors of Behaviors of

LeadersLeaders

Bottom line

• All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,

• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can performAnd

• If they perform, they will be rewardedAnd

• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory


Putting It All Together

Putting It All Together

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