Organization Behaviour

Stephen Robbins

Ninth Edition

LESSON 1

Organization:socio-economic unit purpose

Manager:accomplishes organization goals through optimum utilization of resources

Role of Manager:maintain inter-personal relationshiptake decisioncommunicate

Principles of management:planningorganizing [aligning task & people]leading [providing direction]controlling

Management Skill:technicalhumandecision -making

Difference between Effective & Successful Managers:Effective:

works for larger interestSuccess:

works for self-interest

Organization Behaviour:study impact of behaviour of individuals / groups / structure on Organization’s

effectivenessstudy based on evidence

Contribution of following disciplines to OB:Psychology

study of human behaviourSociology

study of people in relation to other peopleAnthropology

study of society to learn people’s behaviourPolitical Science

study of people’s behaviour in political environment

Challenges & Opportunities: OBresponding to globalizationmanaging workforce diversityimproving quality & productivityimproving people’s skillempowering peoplecoping with changestimulating innovationimproving ethical behaviour

Assignments

Elaborate effective & successful manager with an example.

Why is study of OB criticized as common sense, while study of physics or chemistry is proper & scientific sense

Explain the contradiction: millions are loosing their jobs at one hand, while organization are complaining that they cannot find qualified people

Behaviour is generally predictable, then why study OB

LESSON 2

Biographical Characteristics:Does biological characteristics like:age / gender / marital status / tenure have an impact on performance?

Ability to perform:skill to performcomes either knowledge / experienceone should be physically fit to perform

Ability-Job-Fit:matching job requirements in terms of activitieswithindividual’s ability to perform

Learning:permanent change

Theories of Learning:classical conditioning

learning by intuitionoperant conditioning

learning through education / trainingsocial learning

learning through observing others

Can behaviour be shaped?Yes

Methods of shaping behaviourreinforcing desired behaviour through rewards or punishment

Types of reinforcement:continuous:

every time a desired behaviour displayed, reward intermittent

reward the desired behaviour at intervals

Intermittent types:fixed ratio

reward linked to fixed eventsvariable ration

reward linked to variable eventsfixed interval

reward linked to fixed intervalvariable interval

reward linked to variable interval

ASSIGNMENTSInterview cross section of people, to verify whether biological characteristics affect

performance or not & present your observation in the class

In the past what methods were adopted to ensure people-family fit? Today why do we say it is crucial to match people-organization fit?

How might employees actually learn unethical behaviour on their jobs?

Describe the process of social learning that takes place in this class.

All the organization would benefit from hiring the smartest people they can get. Do you agree / disagree. Support your answer.

How ethical is it to control other’s behaviour in an organization?

LESSON 3

Values:principles on which one leads one’s lifeit does not change frequentlydiffers according to culture

Attitude:way an individual thinks or feelsdisplayed through behaviourin an organization, attitude refers to:job satisfaction

attitude towards jobjob involvement

identification with one’s jobperformance important to self-worth

organizational commitmentidentifying with organization’s goalswishes to maintain membership with the organization

Attitudes & Consistencyindividuals seek consistency in their attitudesif there is an inconsistency in our attitudes, we either change our attitude or rationalize the inconsistencyinconsistency creates discomfort

if the elements of dissonance is unimportant, pressure to correct the imbalance is lowif the individual has no control the over the dissonance, then he will be less receptive to attitude changeif the rewards accompanying high dissonance are high, then high rewards tends to reduce the tension inherent in the dissonance

attitudes are formed based on our experiences of life related to people or objects

The effect of job satisfaction on employee performance:is there a link between

satisfaction & productivitysatisfaction & absenteeismsatisfaction & turnover

Expression of dissatisfaction:Exit

quitVoice

do something about itLoyalty

wait for conditions to improveNeglect

not being bothered

ASSIGNMENTS1. COMMENT: MANAGERS CAN CREATE SATISFIED EMPLOYEES

2. WITH AN EXAMPLE EXPLAIN: ARE MOST PEOPLE SATISFIED WITH THEIR JOBS

3. ARE HAPPY WORKERS PRODUCTIVE WORKERS?

4 WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION & ABSENTEEISM

5. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SATISFACTION & TURNOVER?

6. IS THERE ANY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE POSSESSION OF CERTAIN VALUES & SUCCESSFUL CAREER PROGRESSION IN AN ORGANIZATION. EXPLAIN

WITH AN EXAMPLE

7. MANAGERS SHOULD DO EVERYTHING THEY CAN TO ENHANCE JOB SATISFACTION OF THEIR EMPLOYEES. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE. SUPPORT

YOUR POSITION WITH AN EXAMPLE

8 WHEN EMPLOYEES ARE ASKED WHETHER THEY WOULD AGAIN CHOOSE THE SAME WORK OR WHETHER THEY WOULD WANT THEIR CHILDREN TO FOLLOW IN

THEIR FOOTSTEPS TYPICALLY LESS THA HALF ANSWER IN THE AFFIRMATIVE. WHAT IF ANYTHING DO YOU THINK THIS IMPLIES ABOUT EMPLOYEE JOB

SATISAFCTION

LESSON 4

Personality:sum total of ways we act or react to othersaction or reactions depends upon attitude

factors determining personality:heredity

includes features like gender, physical stature, attractivenessenvironment

the culture in which one is raised.The family & the society plays a crucial role

situationchanges in different situations

personality traits:determined by tests like MBTI / Big Five

MBTI: It classifies people according to their traits:individuals are classified as per MBTI: as follows:extrovert [E] or introvert [I]

focus on the outer world or on your own inner world?Sensing [S] or intuitive [N]

focus on the basic information you take in or do you prefer to interpret and add meaning?

Thinking [T] or feeling [F] while making a decision, do you prefer to first look at logic and consistency or first look at the people and special circumstances?

Perceiving [P] or judging [P] In dealing with the outside world, do you prefer to get things decided or do you prefer to stay open to new information and options?

based on the above dimensions we have 16 types of personality traits:

ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJISTP ISFP INFP INTPESTP ESFP ENFP ENTPESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

The Big Five Modelthe five dimensions are:

extraversionsociable

agreeablenesscooperating

conscientiousnessdependable

emotional stabilitycalm

openness to experienceexperiments

Personality attributes influencing OB:locus of control

belief as to who is the master of fatemachiavellianism

believes that ends justify meansself-esteem

belief in selfself-monitoring

ability to adjustrisk-taking

willingness to take calculated risktype A personality

focus is on tasktype B personality:

focus is on relationship

personality & national culture:personality influenced by national culture

achieving personality fit:person-job fit

matching the job requirement with person’s qualification / experienceperson-organization fit

matching the nature of the individual with organization’s culture [nature]

Emotions:expression of feelings.

Feelings:It is experienced.No rationalityHas a context

Mood:also feelings, but has no context

external constraints on emotionsin past organization did not entertain emotions being displayed at workplace.Culture influences emotions.Putting feelings into task is passionputting feelings while interacting with people builds relationship,

Emotional Intelligence:it is the capability & ability of an individual to succeed in coping with

environmental demands & pressures:has following dimensions are:

self-awareness: being aware of one’s feelingsself-management: ability to manage one’s own feelingsself-motivation: ability to persist in the face of setbackssocial skills: ability to handle emotions of others

ASSIGNMENTS:1. DO PEOPLE FROM THE SAME COUNTRY HAVE A COMMON PERSONALITY

TYPE. EXPLAIN

2.WHY DO WE PAY MORE ATTENTION TO ORGANIZATION-PERSON FIT, THAN PERSON-JOB FIT?

3. HOW DOES NATIONAL CULTURE INFLUENCE EXPRESSED EMOTIONS. ILLUSTRATE WITH AN EXAMPLE.

4. THE TYPE OF JOB AN EMP-LOYEE DOES MODERATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONALITY & JOB PRODUCTIVITY. COMMENT

5. WHAT, IF ANYTHING, CAN MANAGERS DO TO MANAGE EMOTIONS?

6. GIVE SOME EXAMPLES OF SITUATIONS IN WHICH THE OVERT EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTIONS MIGHT ENHANCE JOB PERFORMANCE?

LESSON 5

Perception:a process by which an individual interprets the environment through his sensesfollowing factors influence perception:

the perceiverthe interpretation depends upon the attitude & past experience of the individual

the targetfollowing characteristics of the target influences one’s perceptiontalkative / attractive people are more likely to be noticed in a groupmotion, sound & size of the target influences perceptionrelationship of target with background influences perceptionobjectives that are close to each other are perceived togethersimilar objects, events & people are grouped together. Greater the similarity greater the probability to group them as common

the situationthe context in which we see objects or events influence our perception

Person perception: making judgments about othersour perception about people are different from the perception of the inanimate objects like desk, table etc.When we observe people we attempt to develop explanations as to why they behave in certain waysthis perception & judgment we make of others is influenced by the assumptions we make about the other person intentwhen we observe other’s behaviour we attempt to determine whether it was internally [naturally] or externally [purposely] causedthe following factors clarifies whether behaviour was caused internally or externally

Distinctivenessif behaviour unusual, then there is purpose behind itif behaviour is usual, then it is natural

Consensusif all also behave in the same way, then we say the behaviour is natural

Consistencyif the individual behaves in the same way most of the time, then we say the behaviour is natural

when we make judgments about other’s behaviour, we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors, & overestimate the influence of internal factorsthere is a tendency for individuals to attribute their own success to internal factors; while putting the blame for failure on external factors

Frequently used shortcuts in judging othersselective perception

we interpret based on our interest, attitudes, experiences & background

halo effectdrawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristics

contrast effectevaluating person’s characteristics based on comparison

projectionsattributing one’s own characteristics to other people

stereotypingjudging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs

Link between perception & individual decision making

Decision:choice making from alternatives

Problem:a discrepancy between existing & desired state

How decisions are made:rationalemotionalintuitive

rational decision making:the one that appeals to logic / reasoning

steps in rational decision making model:define the problemidentify the decision criteriaallocate weights to the criteriadevelop the alternativesevaluate the alternativesevaluate the alternativeselect the best criteria

Improving creativity in decision making:

creativity:ability to produce novel & useful ideahas following components:

expertisecreative thinking skillsintrinsic motivation

How decisions are made in an organization?Bounded rationality

focus on the essential feature at the cost of wholeintuition

based on gut level feeling

how choices are made?HeuristicsEscalation of commitment

heuristics:To avoid information overload, decision makers rely on heuristics or judgmental shortcuts tendency to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them people assess the likelihood of an occurrence by drawing analogies & seeing identical situations in which they don’t exists

escalation of commitmentsan increased commitment to a previous decision inspite of negative information

Decision making style:has two dimensions:

way of thinking [rational or intuitive]tolerance for ambiguity

the above dimensions gives rise to following four styles of decision makinganalytical

high on tolerance for ambiguityapproach is rational decision making

conceptualhigh on tolerance for ambiguityapproach is intuition decision making

behaviouralapproach based on intuitionlow on tolerance for ambiguity

directive approach is rational decision makinglow tolerance for ambiguity

Culture plays an important role in decision making

Role of ethics in decision makingcriteria to judge whether decision is ethical or not:

utilitarianismdecisions provide greatest good for greatest number

rightsshould not violate the fundamental rights of an individual

justiceimpose rules fairly & impartially.ensure equal distribution of costs & benefits

ASSIGNMENTS

1. DESCRIBE ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS THAT MIGHT CONSTRAINT DECISION MAKERS.

2. WHAT ROLE DOES INUITION PLAY IN DECISION MAKING?

3. ARE UNETHICAL DECISIONS MORE A FUNCTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKER OR THE DECISION MAKER’S WORK ENVIRONMENT. EXPLAIN.

4. FOR THE MOST PART, INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATIONS IS AN IRRATIONAL PROCESS. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE.

5. WHAT FACTORS DO YOU THINK DIFFERENTIATES GOOD DECISION MAKERS FROM POOR ONES

CHAPTER 6

Motivation:intensity, direction & persistence of efforts towards attaining a goal

Theories of motivation:Hierarchy of NeedsTheory X & Theory YHerzberg’s two actor theoryERG theoryMcClelland's theory of needsCognitive evaluation theoryGoal-setting theoryReinforcement theoryEquity theoryExpectancy theory

Hierarchy theory of needs:Physiological:

basic needs like: food, clothing & shelterSafety:

protection against loss of earningsSocial:

being accepted by othersEsteem:

sense of pride for achievementSelf-actualization:

realizing one’s potential

Theory X & Theory YTheory X:

disliking unchallenging / routine workTheory Y:

like challenging work

Herzberg’s two factor theory:Hygiene factors

includes Company policy, , Supervision, Salary.Minimum factors that should exist in a job to satisfy an employee

Motivational factorsincludes factors like: growth opportunities, recognition

ERG Theory:three core needs:

existenceincludes physiological & safety needs

relatednessincludes social & esteem needs

growthincludes self-actualization

according to Clayton Alderfer:two needs can be operative at the same timeif the higher level need not satisfied, desire to satisfy lower need increases

McClelland’s theory of needs:three needs:achievement:

strive to succeedpower

need to influence othersaffiliation

need to maintain relationship

Cognitive evaluation theoryallocating extrinsic rewards for a behaviour, which was performed intrinsically, instead increasing the performance level, decreases the performance level

Goal setting theoryspecific & difficult goals with feedback, leads to higher level of performancewhether the difficult & specific goal can be accomplished or not depends upon belief the employee has in his capability & ability to perform & deliver

Reinforcement theory:behaviour is a function of consequenceconsequence can be positive or negative

Equity theory:individuals compare their job inputs& outcomes with those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any inequities

Expectancy theory:the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome & on the attractiveness of the outcomes to the individual

Conclusion:performance is the function of ability, motivation & opportunity.If any one is absent, the performance is zeromotivation theories are culture bound

ASSIGNMENTS:

1. DOES MOTIVATION COME FROM WITHIN A PERSON OR IS IT A RESULT OF THE SITUATION. EXPLAIN

2.WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF THEORY X & Y FOR MOTIVATION PRACTICES?

3. WITH AN EXAMPLE, EXPLAIN COGNITIVE THEORY

4. WHAT IS THE ROLE OF SELF-EFFICACY IN GOAL SETTING?

5. WITH AN EXAMPLE EXPLAIN THE FORMULA: P=f[A x M x O]

6. WHAT CONSISTENCIES AMONG MOTIVATION CONCEPTS IF ANY, APPLY TO CROSS-CULTURAL SITUATIONS.

7. DOES THE THEORY OF NEEDS APPLY TO TODAY’S GENERATION OF EMPLOYEES?

LESSON 7

Application of Motivation Concepts:MBOEmployee Recognition ProgramEmployee Involvement ProgramsVariable Pay ProgramsSkill Based Pay PlansFlexible Benefits

MBO:Management By ObjectivesObjectives are laid by Corporate OfficeCorporate Objective are converted into Goals by Business UnitsBusiness Units goals are converted into Departmental GoalsDepartmental Goals are converted into Individual Goals

Employee Recognition Programdone in terms of Promotion

Employee Involvement Program:increases employee’s commitment to organization’s goalemployee’s are involved in problem-solvingemployee’s participate in decision-making

Variable Pay:Productivity savings are shared with employees in a pre-determined formulalike gainsharing, commission , incentive, productivity bonus

Skill Based PayPay for KnowledgePay for Skill

Flexible Benefitemployer invests, & employee gets the benefit

Special issues in motivationMotivating Professionals

providing challenging jobMotivating Contingent Workers

opportunity to become permanentMotivating the Diversified Workforce

have HR policies which will meet the needs of diversified workgroupMotivating Low Skilled Workers

pay & benefitsMotivating People Doing Repetitive Tasks

pleasant working environment

ASSIGNMENTS

1. CONTRAST JOB-BASED & SKILL BASED PAY

2. WHAT CAN YOU DO AS A MANAGER, TO INCREASE THE LIKLIHOOD THAT YOUR EMPLOYEES WILL EXERT A HIGH LEVEL OF EFFORT?

3. COMMENT: JOB-SATISFACTION CANNOT BE ACHIVED THROUGH EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

4. COMMENT: JOB-SATISAFCTION IS A MYTH WHICH THE PUNDITS OF MANAGEMENT ARE PURSUING.

LESSON 8

Group:two or more individuals come together to accomplish a particular objectivestypes of groups are:formal, informal

Stages of group development:forming

coming togetherstorming

positions are finalizednorming

code of conduct is finalizedperforming

members start working towards accomplishing objectivesadjourning

disbanding takes place, after accomplishing the objectives

Punctuated equilibrium model:change takes place between no action & action

External conditions imposed on the group includes:organization’s overall strategy

the strategy which the organization is pursuing influences the power of various work groups

authority structuresformerly designated leaders, have authority that others in the group don’t have

formal regulationsstandardizes the behaviours of the employees, thereby limiting the discretionary behaviours of the group members

resourcesresource allocation is done by the organization. This has a bearing on the group’s behaviour

employee selection processthe organization through its selection process determines kinds of members that will be in group

performance evaluation & reward systemgroup behaviour will be influenced by how the organization evaluates performance & what behaviours are rewarded

cultureevery organization has an acceptable standard behaviour. The group members know which behaviour will land them in trouble

physical settingthe physical work setting is laid out by the management. This creates an opportunity & barriers to work group interaction

Group member resources:knowledge & attitude

Group structure includes:formal leadership

every group has a formal leader, which is identified by a title.Roles

behaviour as per others expectation [role expectations]Sometimes the role we play is in alignment with our nature [role identity] & sometimes it is not [role conflict]sometimes members perceive how they should their role [role perception]

normsacceptable standards of behaviour as agreed by the members

statusdefined position given to group by members

size compositionsize of the group affects the overall behaviour of the members. Example: social loafing

compositioncomposition of group members has an influence on performance of the group

degree of cohesivenessdegree to which the members are attracted to each other & are motivated to stay in the group

Group process:produces synergy, creating greater outputs than the sum of individual inputs

Social facilitation effect:tendency for performance to improve or decline in response to the presence of others

Group tasks:the task the group is performing has an impact on group processes & members satisfactionstasks that have higher uncertainty & interdependent require more information processing, putting more importance on group process [interaction &

communication]

Group decision makingin terms of accuracy group decisions tend to be more accuratein terms of speed, individual decision is more superiorin terms of creativity, group decisions are more effectivein terms of acceptance group decisions are more effective

Groupthink:consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action

Groupshift:a decision could be risky or conservative depending upon whether individual or group has taken

Techniques of making group decision:interacting

face to face interactionbrainstorming

an idea generation process.No criticism allowed

nominal group techniqueindividual ideas with respect to a problem are first written the idea is presented by individual member to the group membersideas are evaluated for clarity [criteria]ideas are ranked independently by membersthe idea with highest ranking, is taken as final decision

electronic meetinginteractions among members take place through computers

ASSIGNMENTS

1. DEFINE SOCIOMETRY & EXPLAIN ITS VALUE TO MANAGERS

2. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A WORK GROUP & THE ORGANIZATION OF WHCH THE IT IS PART OF IT?

3. WHAT EFFECT IF ANY DO YOU EXPECT THAT WORKFORCE DIVERSITY HAS ON GROUP’S PERFORMANCE & SATISFACTION?

LESSON 9

Work Group:primarily shares informationmakes decisionshelp each member to perform within their area of responsibility

work team:group effort is greater than individual effort

Difference between work group & work team

work group factors work teamshare information goal collective performanceneutral / negative synergy positiveindividual accountability collectivesupplementary skills complimentary

types of team:problem-solving teamsself-managed teamcross-functional teamsvirtual teams

Components for creating effective team:work design

includes variables like:autonomy, skill variety, task identity & task significance

compositionincludes variables like:

ability, personality, roles & diversity, size, flexibility & preference for teamwork

contextual influencesincludes variables like:

adequate resources, leadership, performance evaluation & rewards

processincludes variables like:

common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, conflict & social loafing

turning individuals into team players:the challenges

individual’s resistancetransparency in communicationconflict resolutionputting team goals above individual goalsculture of the organization

shaping individuals into team playersselection / training / rewards

Contemporary issues in managing teams:Teams & TQM

TQM works on the principle of team workIt requires a change in the mindset of the employees from individual to team working

Teams & DiversityDiversity provides fresh perspective on issuesIt is difficult to unify the team & reach the agreements

Reinvigorating mature teamsEffective teams cam become stagnant.Initial enthusiasm can give way to apathyMature teams are prone to suffer from groupthinkEarly success are often due to taking having taken on easy tasks

ASSIGNMENTS

1. COMMENT: TEAMS BENEFIT BOTH THE EMPLOYEES & THE ORGANIZATION

2.HOW DO EFFECTIVE TEAM MINIMIZE SOCIAL LOAFING?

3. HOW DO EFFECTIVE TEAMS MINIMIZE GROUPTHINK?

4. LIST & DESCRIBE THE PROCESS VARIABLES ASSOCIATED WITH EFFECTIVE TEAM PERFORMANCE

5. UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS WILL THE CHALLENGE OF CREATING TEAM PLAYERS BE GREATEST?

6. HOW CAN MANAGEMENT INVIGORATE STAGNANT TEAM?

7. DON’T TEAMS CREATE CONFLICT? ISN’T CONFLICT BAD? WHY THEN WOULD MANAGEMENT SUPPORT THE CONCEPT OF TEAMS?

8. HOW DO YOU THINK MEMBER EXPECTATIONS MIGHT AFFECT TEAM PERFORMANCE?

LESSON 10

Communicationtransference & understanding of meaning

Purpose:accomplish a purpose [goal]establish relationship

Process of communication:encoding:

deciding the message in the headmessage

what is to be communicatedchannel

the medium through which the message will traveldecoding

understanding the messagefeedback loop

checking the understanding

communication apprehension:undue tension & anxiety about oral / written communication

Types of communication:verbalnon-verbalwritten

Barriers to communication:filtering

manipulation of informationselective perception

we see / hear based on our needs, experience, background & motivation

information overloadinformation overflow that exceeds an individual’s processing capacity

defensivenessfeel threatened, hence inability to understand the sender

languagewords mean different things to different people

jargonspecial terminology used to impress others

Directions of communications:upward / downward / lateral

Communication networksformal / informal

Channel richness:ranges from richest to leanest the range id from face to face, telephone, electronic mail, memos, letters, bulletins, general reportschannel richness also depends upon types of messagesit is rich in non-routine, ambiguous to leanest in routine, clear messages

Cross-Cultural Communications:has two dimensions:

cultural barriers: caused bysemantics

words means different things to different peopleword connotations

words imply different things in different languages

tone differenceslanguage can be formal or informaltone changes depending on the context

differences among perceptionpeople who speak different languages actually view the world in different ways

cultural context:high-context cultures

cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal & subtle situational cues in communication

low-context culturescultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication

Cultural guide:assume differences until similarity is provedemphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluationpractice empathytreat your interpretations as a working hypothesis

Improving communication skillsuse multiple channelstailor the message to the audienceempathize with othersunderstand the importance of face to face communication while dealing with changepractice active listeningalign words & actionsuse the grapevineuse feedback

guidelines for feedback:focus on specific behaviourskeep it impersonaltime itif negative, make sure the behaviour is controllable

ASSIGNMENTS

1. WHAT CONDITIONS STIMULATE THE EMERGENCE OF RUMOUR?

2. INEFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IS THE FAULT OF THE SENDER. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE. DISCUSS

3. WHAT CAN YOU DO TO IMPROVE THE LIKLIHOOD THAT YOUR COMMUNIQUES WILL BE RECEIVED & UNDERSTOOD AS YOU INTENDED?

4. WHY DO YOU THINK SO MANY PEOPLE ARE POOR LISTENERS

LESSON 11

Leader: an individual who influences others towards a common goal

Leadership: Style of influencing others

Theories of Leadership:trait / behavioural / contingency / neo-charismatic

trait: the attributes that differentiates a leader from non-leaders

behavioural: one’s attitude that differentiates a leader from non-leaderfollowing behavioural studies

Ohio State studies: has two dimensionsinitiating structure: the importance of structure & roles in

accomplishing goalsconsideration: the importance of relationship in

accomplishing goalsUniversity of Michigan studies: has two dimensions:

employee oriented: focus on relationshipproduction-oriented: focus on task

The Managerial grida nine by nine matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles

Scandinavian studiesdevelopment oriented leader: one who experiments, seeks new idea to implement change

Contingency theory: includes the following approaches:Fiedler contingency model Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theoryLeader-membership exchange theoryPath goal theoryParticipation models

Fiedler contingency model:a group to be effective depends upon the following variables:leader’s style of interacting with subordinates & degree to which situation gives control & influence to the leader

Hersey Blanchard’s situational theory:this focuses on follower’s readiness.It is the followers who accept or reject a leader, regardless of what the leader does. effectiveness depends on the actions of followersthe most effective behaviour depends on followers ability & motivation.If followers are unable & unwilling: leader to provide clear & specific directionsif followers are unable but willing: leader to display high task orientation & relationshipif followers are able & unwilling: leader to use supportive & participative styleif followers are able willing: leader has to do nothing

Leader-Member exchange theory:leader establishes a special relationship with small group of his followers. This group is known as in-group.The members in the group are trusted, get more attention of the leader, receive special privileges

Path-goal theoryleader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goalsprovide support & direction to ensure that their goals are compatible with

organizational objectivesleadership style has an effect on followers performance & satisfaction. For example:

directive style: is appropriate if tasks are ambiguous & stressful & leads to greater satisfactionsupportive style: if tasks are structured, this style results in high performance

& satisfactiondirective leadership: this style is redundant if employees have high ability or considerable experienceparticipative style: is useful with employees having high locus of control

leader-participation model:it provides a set of rules to determine the form & amount of participative decision-making

in different situations

sometimes leadership is irrelevant:certain individual, job & organizational variables can act as substitute for

leadership or neutralize the leader’s influence on their followers:neutralizers make it impossible for leaders behaviour to make any difference to followers outcomes. They negate the leader’s influencesubstitutes make a leader’s influence not only impossible but also unnecessary. They act as replacement for the leader’s influencecharacteristics of employees like experience, training or indifference towards

organizational rewards can substitute or neutralize the effect of leadershipjobs that are inherently unambiguous & routine or that re intrinsically satisfying may place fewer demands on the leadership variablesorganizational characteristics such as explicit formalized goals, rigid rules &

procedures & cohesive work groups can replace formal leadership

Neo-charismatic theoriesincludes: charismatic leadership / transformational leadership / visionary leadership

charismatic leadership:followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviourscharacteristics of charismatic leaders:visionary / sensitive to the environment constraints & needs of followers / willing to take risk / unconventional behaviour

transformational leadership:they make individuals realize their potential

transactional leadership:who direct individuals to organizational goals

visionary leadership:ability to create & articulate a realistic, credible attractive vision of the future of the organization. In this vision the individuals also see their goals

contemporary issues in leadership:emotional intelligence & leadershipteam leadershipmoral leadershipcross-cultural leadership

Emotional intelligence & leadership:EI has following components:

self-awareness: being aware of strength & weakness of selfself-management: manages emotionsself-motivation: bounces back, when has set backempathy: understand the feelings of otherssocial skills: manages & influences others

team leadership:the role of team leader are:

liaison with external constituencies / troubleshooting / resolve & manage conflict / coach

for this the leader should have the following skills: patience / trust others / give up authority / understand when to intervene

the new responsibilities the team leader has to assume are:coaching / facilitating / handling disciplinary problems / reviewing team & individual performance / training / openness in communication

the job of a team leader are:focus on top priorities / manage team’s external boundaries / facilitating team process

Moral leadership:the effectiveness of leadership in today’s context is the means a leader adopts to accomplish organizational goals, as well as the contents of those goals

cross-cultural leadership:leaders cannot choose their styles at will.national culture is an important situational factor that determines which

leadership style will be most effectivethe value dimension of national culture is a critical component

Trust & leadership:trust: a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically.It is the foundation of leadershipdimensions of trust: integrity: refers to honesty & truthfulnesscompetence: refers to capability & abilityconsistency: relates to reliability / predictability / good judgment in handling

situationsloyalty: willingness to protect & save the face for another personopenness: relying on other person to give full truthguidelines for building trust:

practice opennessbe fairspeak your feelingstell the truth show consistencyfulfill promisesmaintain confidencedemonstrate competence

ASSIGNMENTS:

1. WHICH LEADERSHIP STYLE DID YOUR BOSS FOLLOW. GIVE REASONS

2. DEVELOP AN EXAMPLE IN WHICH YOU OPERATIONALIZE FIEDLER MODEL?

3. DEVELOP AN EXAMPLE IN WHICH YOU OPERATIONALIZE PATH-GOAL THEORY?

4. WHAT KIND OF ACTIVITIES SHOULD YOU PURSUE THAT MIGHT LEAD TO THE PERCEPTION THAT YOU ARE A CHARISMATIC LEADER?

5. WHAT SHOULD AN INDIVIDUAL DO TO ENHANCE HIS PERCEPTION OF BEING CHARASMATIC?

6. DOES TRUST EVOLVE OUT OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OR OUT OF SPECIFIC SITUATIONS? EXPLAIN

7. WHAT ROLE DOES TRAINING PLAY IN AN INDIVIDUAL’S ABILITY TO TRUST?

LESSON 12

POWER & POLITICS

Power:a capacity an individual has to influence the behaviour of another to act in accordance with individual’s wishit is a function of dependency

Difference between Leadership & Power:factor leadership power

goal requires goal compatibility requires dependency

direction of influence downward no direction

style supportive / sharing tactic for gaining decision-making compliance

used individual group

Bases for powercoercive powerreward powerlegitimate powerexpert powerreferent power

what creates dependency?Importancescarcitynonsuitability

power tacticsways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actionsthe following are the tactics an individual adopts to influence others:reason: use data & facts to convincefriendliness: praisecoalition: get support to back up the requestbargain: negotiateassertive: demand compliancehigher authority: gain support of otherssanctions: use rewards & punishments

Power in Groups:Coalition:

an informal group, bound together by the active pursuit of a single issuethe logic of coalition: there is strength in numberscoalition in an organization seek to maximize their size, to facilitate consensus buildingcoalition gets created, when there is great deal of task & resources interdependencegreater the routine task, greater the likelihood of formation of coalitions

Politics:converting power into action

political behaviour:those activities that are not required as part of one’s role in the organization, but that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages &

disadvantages within the organizationtypes:

legitimate: normal everyday politicsillegitimate: violates the rules of the game

the reality of politics:it is a fact of life in organizationorganization is made up of individuals & groups, with different values, goals & interests. This sets up the potential for conflict for resourcesthe factors that leads to politics are:

# the realization that most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation. For example: what constitutes good performance? What's an adequate improvement?# the fielding of expertize, attitude, potential, ability to perform in the clutch, loyalty to the team, where facts don’t speak for themselves, politics flourishes. For example:political label effective management labelblaming others fixing responsibilitypassing the buck delegating authorityarrogant confident# most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, where

facts are rarely fully objective & thus, are open to interpretation, people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals & interests.

Factors contributing to political behaviour:individual

which includes:social conformityinternal locus of controlhave high need for power

organizationalwhich includes:

reallocation of resourcespromotion opportunitieslow trustrole ambiguityunclear performance evaluation systemdemocratic decision making

Impression Management:process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

Impression management techniques:conformity:

agreeing with someone else’s opinion to gain other’s approvalexcuses:

giving explanations to minimize the severity of the predicament apologies:

admitting responsibility & simultaneously seeking pardonacclamations

explanations to maximize the implications for one selfflattery:

complimenting others about their virtues, though not deservingfavours:

doing something nice to others with an intentionassociation:

enhancing or protecting one’s image by establishing links with relevant people

Defensive Behavioursorganizational politics includes protection of self-interest as well as promotionindividuals often engage in reactive & protective defensive behaviours to avoid action or blamedefensive behaviours can be classified into

avoiding actionOverconforming: sticking to rulesBuck passing: transferring responsibility to someone elsePlaying dumb: pleading ignorance or inabilityDepersonalizing: distancing from others to avoid getting

involvedStretching: prolonging a task. To appear busySmoothing: covering up fluctuations in effort or outputStalling: support publically, but do nothing privately

avoiding blameBuffing: covering your rearPlaying Safe: taking projects with probable of successJustifying: developing explanations, apologizing to

demonstrate remorse Scapegoating: blaming others or circumstances for one’s

failureMisrepresenting: manipulation of information

Ethical guidelines for political behaviour:the three ethical decision criteria are:

utilitarianism / rights / justice

ASSIGNMENTS

1. CONTRAST POWER TACTICS WITH POWER BASES. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE KEY CONTINGENCY VARIABLES THAT DETERMINES WHICH TACTICS A

POWERHOLDER IS LIKELY TO USE?

2. WHICH OF THE FIVE POWER BASES LIKE WITH THE INDIVIDUAL? WHICH ARE DERIVED FROM THE ORGANIZATION?

3. WHAT CREATES DEPENDENCY? GIVE AN EXAMPLE.

4. WHY IS POLITICS A FACT OF LIFE IN AN ORGANIZATION?

5. POLITICS ISN’T INHERENTLY BAD. IT IS MERELY A WAY TO GET THINGS ACCOMPLISHED WITHIN THE ORGANIZATIONS. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE.

DEFEND YOUR POSITION.

6. WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

LESSON 13

CONFLICT & NEGOTIATION

Conflict:a processwhen one party perceives that another partyhas negatively affected or is about to negatively affectsomething that the first party cares aboutconflicts are natural & inevitable outcome in any groupconflict can be either

functionalsupports the goals of the group, improves performance

dysfunctionalhinders group performance

types of conflict:task: conflicts over content & goals of the workrelationship: conflict based on interpersonal relationshipprocess: conflict over how work gets done

conflict process:has following stages:

potential opposition or incompatibilitycognition & personalizationintentionsbehaviouroutcomes

Stage 1: Potential source:communication:: message not clear, resulting in misunderstandingstructure: requirement of job gives results in misunderstanding personal variables: includes values

Stage 2: Cognition & Personalization:conflict at thinking level. It is objective in natureconflict at feeling level. It is subjective in nature

stage 3: Intentionsdecision to act. Decision to act has two dimensions:

cooperative putting other person’s interest firstassertive: putting self interest firstthe above dimensions gives rise to following conflict handling intentions:

compete: assertive & uncooperativecollaborate: assertive & cooperativeavoiding: unassertive & uncooperativeaccommodating: unassertive & cooperativecompromising: mid range on both assertiveness & cooperativeness

stage 4: Behaviour::conflict is visibleit includes the statements, actions & reactions made by the conflicting parties

stage 5: Outcomes:functional: enhances group’s performancedysfunctional: hinders group’s performance

Conflict management techniques:resolve stimulate

resolving techniques are:problem solving: face to face meetingsuperordinate goals: working for larger goal, which cannot be achieved with out

cooperation of othersexpansion of resources: address the scarcity of resources by increasing itavoidance: withdraw smoothing: playing down differences by focusing on common interestcompromise: both parties giving up something that is of value

stimulating techniques are:communication: using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict

levelsbringing in outsiders: adding employees to a group, who culturally differentrestructuring the organization: to disrupt the status-quoappointing a devil’s advocate: designating a critic purposely to argue

Negotiation:a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services & attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for themfollowing approaches to negotiation:

distributive bargaining: win-lose situationintegrative bargaining: win-win solution

guidelines to improve negotiation skills:begin with positive overtureaddress the problem & not personalitiespay little attention to initial offer, for they are extremes & idealisticemphasize win-win solutioncreate open & trusting climate

the negotiation process:preparation & planningdefinition of ground rulesclarification & justificationbargaining & problem-solvingclosure & implementation

issues in negotiation:role of personalitygender differences in negotiationscultural differences in negotiations

Third party negotiation:includes

mediator. A neutral person.Uses reasoning, persuasion & suggestions for alternatives

arbitratorhas authority to dictate an agreement

conciliator:trusted third partyprovides informal communication link between both the parties

consultant:impartial third party skilled in conflict managementcomes out with creative problem solving techniques

ASSIGNMENTS:

1. UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS MIGHT A CONFLICT BE BENEFICIAL TO A GROUP?

2. HOW COULD A MANGER STIMULATE CONFLICT IN HIS DEPARTMENT?

3. WHAT DEFINES THE SETTLEMENT RANGE IN DISTRIBUTIVE BARGAINING?

4. WHAT CAN YOU DO TO IMPROVE YOUR NEGOTIATION EFFECTIVENESS?

5. DO YOU THINK COMPETITION & CONFLICT ARE DIFFERENT. EXPLAIN

LESSON 14

FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE:

YOU MUST HAVE STUDIED THIS IN PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

LESSON 15

WORK DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY

YOU MUST HAVE STUDIED IN PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT OR HRM

LESSON 16

LESSON 16

HR POLICIES & PRACTICES

YOU MUST HAVE STUDIED OR WILL STUDY IN FUTURE

LESSON 17

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Institutionalization:when an organization takes on a life of its own, apart from any of its members & acquires immortality

organizational culture: [Work culture]a system of shared meaning. A common perception held by the organization’s membersan excellent organization has the following culture:

innovation & risk taking: attention to detailoutcome / people / team orientedaggressiveness [ambitious]stability [consolidation]

culture is classified as core [dominant] & non-core [sub-culture]culture consists of: beliefs, values & assumptionsa strong organization culture can act a substitute for formalization

culture as a liability:barrier to changebarrier to diversity: conformity to core valuesbarrier to acquisition & mergers

how culture begins:always with the foundersthey hire & keep employees who think & feel the way they dothey indoctrinate & socialize these employees to their way of thinking & feelingthey become role models to others

functions of culture:creates distinction between one organization & the otherconveys sense of identity for the organization membersfacilitates generating a sense of commitment to larger interest than individual interestenhances social system stabilityguides & shapes the attitudes & behaviour of the employees

How organization culture are formed:original culture derive from the founder’s philosophythis strongly influences the selection criteriathe behaviour of the seniorsprocess of socialization

A socialization model:consists of three stages:

pre-arrival stagean individual joins an organization with a set of values, attitudes & expectationshence the organization people fit becomes critical

encounter stagehere the individuals confronts a dichotomy in expectationsreaffirmation of perception takes place.If expectations do not match, the individual will have to unlearn his past, & learn the new; failing which he will feel frustrated

metamorphosis stagethe process of change the individual undergoes [unlearning & learning]here the process of socialization plays a critical role

how employees learn culture:storiesritualsmaterial symbolslanguage

matching people with culture:organization culture has two dimensions:

sociability : focus is on relationshipfocus on process rather than outcomes

solidarity: focus is on taskfocus on outcomes, rather than process

the above dimensions gives rise to four types of culture:network: high on sociability & low on solidaritymercenary: low on sociability & high on solidarityfragmented: low on sociability & low on solidaritycommunal: high on sociability & high solidarity

ASSIGNMENTS

1. COMMENT: ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE CANNOT BE CHANGED

2. WHATS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION & ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?

3. CAN AN EMPLOYEE IN AN ORGANIZATION SURVIVE IF HE REJECTS ITS CORE VALUES?

4. HOW CAN AN OUTSIDER ASSESS AN ORGANIZATION’S CULTURE?

5. IS SOCIALIZATION SAME AS BRAINWASHING. EXPLAIN

6. IF NATIONAL CULTURE INFLUENCE ORGANIZATION CULTURE, THEN HOW COME MNC SELECT THOSE PEOPLE WHOSE VALUES MATCH WITH THAT OF THE

MNCS?

7. VISIT AN INDUSTRY & STATE HOW THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION IS DONE?

LESSON 18

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & STRESS MANAGEMENT

Change:movement from existing state to desired statetypes of change:

planned: deliberately donefirst order: what was being done, continuous to be donesecond order: change brought by challenging the assumptions

Change agents:they are catalystresponsible for managing change

Forces for change:the following forces acts as stimulants for change:

nature of the workforceexample: cultural diversity

technologyexample: IT explosion

economic shocksexample: change in oil prices

competitionexample: mergers & acquisitions

social trendsexample: more awareness of clean environment

world politicsexample: opening of markets in China

What can change agents change?Structure: change in hierarchy / span of control / decision makingTechnology: substitute manual work with computerPhysical setting: changing the layout at workplace.People: work as team, rather than as individual

Resistance to change:individual

habitsecurity needseconomic factorsfear of unknownselective information processing

organizationstructural inertia:

the in-built mechanism produces stability, which it would like not to disturb

limited focus of changechange has multiple effect. Change cannot be addressed in isolation

group inertiathreat to expertizethreat to established power of relationshipthreat to established resource allocations

Overcoming resistance to changeEducation CommunicationParticipationFacilitation & supportNegotiationManipulation & Co-optationCoercion

The politics of change:Since change threatens status-quo, it implies political activitySeniors have a lot to lose from change. They have got into this position of authority by developing skills & behavioural patterns that were favoured by the organizationImpetus for change is more likely to come from outside, for they have nothing to loose.If change is inevitable, then the seniors will introduce first order change; radical change is too threatening. Radical change can be brought about only by outsiders

Organizational DevelopmentIt is planned changeIt is based on humanistic-democratic valuesit seeks to improve the effectiveness of the organization & the well-being of individuals

-Innovative Organization:

encourages experimentationrewards both success & failurescelebrates mistake

Learning Organization:has the capacity to adapt & change

Work Stress a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint or demand, related to what he desires & for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain & importanttwo conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual stress:

uncertainty over the outcomeoutcome must be important

Constraints: forces that prevent individual from doing what they desireDemands: the loss of something desired

Potential sources of stress:Environmental factors:

includes: economic, political & technology uncertaintyOrganizational factors:

includes: task, role, & interpersonal demands. And factors like: organizational structure / organizational leadership / organization’ life change

Individual factors:includes: family & economic problems / personality

Individual differences:some thrive on stressful situation, while others are overwhelmed by themthe relationship between potential stressors & experienced stress are

moderated by the following variables:perception: example: in case of downsizing; one may fear of loosing

the job, while other may think as an opportunity of getting severance amount

job experience: may be in terms of withdrawal or in terms of developing coping mechanism to deal with stress

social support: friends / co-workers can buffer the impact of stressbelief in locus of control: those with internal locus of control, believe that they control their destiny & lead less stressful life

hostility: is reflected through anger. Anger increases stress

Consequences of stress:seen at three levels:

physiological symptoms: example: increase heart & breathing rate / increase blood pressure / headache / heart attacks.Psychological symptoms: example tension / anxiety / irritability / boredom / procrastinationbehavioural symptoms: example absence / turnover [employee] increased smoking or increase in consumption of alcohol / fidgeting / sleep disorder

Managing Stress:two approaches:

individual: doing exercise / learning relaxation techniques / increasing social circle

organization: improved selection / placement / improving communication effectiveness / establishing corporate wellness program

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