oasis college connection: creating a college … college connection: creating a college-going...

Oasis College Connection: Creating a College-Going Culture

A Mixed-Methods Case Study

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate School

of

Lipscomb University

in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

Sherica Clark Douglas Stewart Ronald Woodard

August 2012

Creating a College-Going Culture ii

Creating a College-Going Culture iii

Creating a College-Going Culture iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Collectively, we would like to thank Dr. Trace Hebert, Dr. Keith Nikolaus, Dr. Deborah

Boyd, Dr. Roger Wiemers and Dr. Candice McQueen for your continued support, leadership,

dedication, and mentorship. We owe our deepest gratitude to our advisor, Dr. Reva Chatman-

Buckley, for her guidance, caring spirit, and patience throughout the writing of the Capstone

project. We extend our sincerest gratitude to the Oasis College Connection. The work you do to

open the doors of opportunity is an invaluable resource to our community. We are truly thankful

for the opportunity to work with you all.

Sherica Clark wants her family and friends to know that she is abundantly grateful for

their support, encouragement and patience through her many endeavors. She is especially

thankful for the example set by her mother, Karen Clark, and late grandmother, Emma Ford, and

for the love and support of her husband, Michael Nelms.

Doug Stewart wants to thank his children Meredith, Andrew, Todd and Shelby for being

a constant source of encouragement as he traveled this path and for understanding when he did

not always have the time available for them. Special thanks to my precious grandchildren Allison

and Max whose kind and loving presence always reset my thinking about what is really

important in life. To my wonderful wife, Marcia, there are no words that can express my

appreciation for all the encouragement, discussion, laughter and love I have received from you

during this process. You have amazed me with your continued selflessness and influence for

good. You have written on my heart when no one else could have. You truly are the wind

beneath my wings.

Ronald Woodard would like to give glory and honor to the Heavenly Father for the

strength and patience to successfully navigate this process. He also sincerely thanks his loving

Creating a College-Going Culture v

wife, Cicely A. Woodard, and sons (Jonathan & Joseph) for being so patient and supportive

during this process. Additionally, he is thankful to his mother, Darlene C. Woodard, for being an

example of strength and determination. Thank you for everything that you have taught me about

life and character. As an educator, leader, father and role-model, this degree is humbly dedicated

to children all over the nation who are fighting for the opportunity to be successful amidst

poverty, violence and adverse circumstances. “Help is on the way.”

Creating a College-Going Culture vi

Abstract

This case study examined the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection pre-college advising

program in increasing college access and acceptance for low-income and first-generation

students. This study utilized a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative data examined the impact

of participation in the Oasis College Connection and student demographic variables such as

gender, ethnicity, grade point average, ACT test score, college acceptance and college

applications. Qualitative data provided insight into student experiences and gave students voice

through in-depth interviews. The population sample included 84 students. By gender, 45% of

the population consisted of male participants and 55% were female participants. Additionally,

76.2% of the participants were African-American, 10.7% of the participants were white, and

13.1% were other. All members of the sample were current and former Oasis College

Connection participants during the 2010-2012 school years, including high school seniors from

Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools and first year students from Nashville State Community

College. Data were collected from students through online questionnaires and through a series

of focus groups. Oasis College Connection mentors participated in a focus group to provide

insight on program services and operations. Major findings revealed that participation in the

Oasis College Connection program leads to increased success in preparing for and applying to

college. The researchers recommend that Oasis College Connection consider creating

interventions in earlier grades, possibly as early as elementary school, and continue to follow-up

throughout the senior year. As a result, the researchers feel that students would be better

prepared to transition into post-secondary education. This study has implications for future

research on the impact of pre-college advising services for under-achieving students.

Creating a College-Going Culture vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………... 1 Delimitations…………………………………………………………………………... 2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………… 2 The Oasis College Connection……………………………………………………... 3 National College Advising Corps………………………………………………….. 4 Community Impact Report…………………………………………………………. 5 Oasis College Connection Program Services….………...………………………… 6 Program Design…………………………………………………………………….. 6 Oasis College Connection Mentors………………………………………………… 7 The Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………… 8 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………………... 8 Oasis College Connection A6 Framework……...……………………………………... 9 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………. 12 Hypotheses……………..……………………………………………………………… 12 Naviance Succeed……………………………………………………………………… 13 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………… 13 Scope and Bounds……………………………………………………………………... 14 Role of the Researchers………………………………………………………………... 15 Definitions and Key Terms……………………………………………………………. 15II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……………………………………………………. 18 Historical Context of Post-Secondary Interventions and Access……………………… 18 Self-Efficacy…………………………………………………………………………… 21 Expectancy-Value Theory……………………………………………………………... 24 Barriers to College Access…………………………………………………………….. 25 Lack of Information……………………………………………………………………. 26 Family Educational Status……………………………………………………………... 27 Income…………………………………………………………………………………. 28 Cost of Tuition…………………………………………………………………………. 30 Academic Preparation…………………………………………………………………. 31 Aspirations……………………………………………………………………………... 36 Latino Students………………………………………………………………………… 37 African-American Males………………………………………………………………. 39 Professional School Counseling and College Advising……………………………….. 40 Framework for Mentoring……………………………………………………………... 45 Essential Functions of the Mentor…………………………………………………….. 47 Formation of the Mentor Relationship………………………………………………... 48 Characteristics of Ideal Mentors……………………………………………………….. 48 Standards of Practice…..........…………………………………………………………. 49

Creating a College-Going Culture viii

Outreach Efforts……………………………………………………………………….. 54 Pre-College Academic Preparation Programs…………………………………………. 56 Upward Bound……………………………………………………………………… 56 GEAR UP…………………………………………………………………………... 58 Elements of Success………………………………………………………………... 59 Five Pillars………………………………………………………………………….. 62 Exculpate or Blame………………………………………………………………… 65 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………... 69III. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………….. 71 Research Design……………………………………………………………………….. 71 Instrumentation …………….…………………………………………………………. 72 Pilot Testing……….…………………………………………………………………… 73 Research Participants…………………………………………………………………... 73 Data Collection Procedures…………….……………………………………………… 74 Quantitative/Statistical Analysis………….…………………………………………… 75 Variables……………………………………………………………………………….. 76 Qualitative Analysis…………………………………………………………………… 77 Ethical Consideration………………………………………………………………….. 78IV. DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………. 79 Quantitative Data………………………………………………………………………. 79 Demographic Information……………………………………………………………... 79 Descriptive Statistics…………………………………………………………………... 80 Means………………………………………………………………………………….. 80 Null Hypothesis 1…………………………………………………………………... 82 Null Hypothesis 2………………………………………………………………….. 83 Null Hypothesis 3…………………………………………………………………... 84 Null Hypothesis 4…………………………………………………………………... 85 Null Hypothesis 5…………………………………………………………………... 86 Null Hypothesis 6…………………………………………………………………... 87 Survey Responses……………………………………………………………………… 88 Question 1……………………………………………………………………………… 88 Question 3……………………………………………………………………………… 89 Question 4……………………………………………………………………………… 90 Question 5……………………………………………………………………………… 92 Question 6……………………………………………………………………………… 93 Question 8……………………………………………………………………………… 94 Question 10…………………………………………………………………………….. 95 Question 12…………………………………………………………………………….. 96 Question 14…………………………………………………………………………….. 97 Relationships…………...……………………………………………………………… 98

Creating a College-Going Culture ix

Perceptions of Services Provided by Oasis College Connection……………………… 101 Motivation and Self-Efficacy………….………………………………………………. 104V. CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS..………………… 107 Summary……………………………………………………………………………….. 107 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………… 107 Question 1……………………………………………………………………………… 107 Question 2……………………………………………………………………………… 108 Question 3……………………………………………………………………………… 109 Question 4……………………………………………………………………………… 110 Question 5……………………………………………………………………………… 111 Ethnic Classification…………………………………………………………………… 114 Metro Nashville Public Schools……………………………………………………….. 114 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………….. 115 Recommendations for the Client………….…………………………………………... 116 Implications for Further Study………….……………………………………………... 118 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………… 124 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………. 134 A. Outreach Services by Program Component…………………………………… 134 B. Lipscomb University IRB Approval Letter………………………………..….. 136 C. Notice of Informed Consent …………………………….…………………….. 137 D. Focus Group Questions………………………………………………………... 139 E. Zoomerang Survey Questions…………………………………………………. 140 F. Researcher Biographical Information………….……………………………… 144 Sherica Clark Doug Stewart Ronald L. Woodard G. Memorandum of Understanding……………………………………………….. 146

Creating a College-Going Culture x

List of Tables

Table Page

1. Comparison of Means for Scale Variables…………………………………………….. 812. Regression Tests for Number of Visits and Applications……………………………... 823. Regression Test for Number of Visits and Acceptances………………………………. 834. ANOVA for Number of Visits and Ethnicity………………………………………….. 845. Independent Samples Test for Number of Visits and Gender…………………………. 856. Regression Test for GPA and Number of Visits………………………………………. 867. Regression for Test ACT Scores and Number of Visits……………………………….. 878. Number of Contacts with Oasis College Connection………………………………….. 899. I am more knowledgeable about college admission and acceptance requirements……. 9010. Oasis College connection increased my knowledge of Financial Aid………………… 9211. Oasis College Connection provides options that match my personal interests………... 9312. Motivation to Pursue College………………………………………………………….. 95

Creating a College-Going Culture xi

List of Figures

Figure Page

1. The A6 Framework and the Five Pillars of College Success…………………………… 112. MNPS Students from Economically Disadvantaged Background……………………… 303. Cohort Survival Rate 2004-2005………………………………………………………... 324. High School Experience and Preparation……………………………………………….. 915. Level of Student Comfort Pursuing College Options Independently…………………… 946. Ability to find Financial Aid on your own as a result of Oasis College Connection

participation……………………………………………………………………………... 967. Would you refer a friend to Oasis College Connection…………………………………. 97

Creating a College-Going Culture 1

Chapter I: Introduction

More Americans than ever are enrolling in college. Between 1999 and 2009, enrollment

in post-secondary institutions increased 38% (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). However,

the path to post- secondary success remains narrow for first-generation, low-income students,

who face barriers that may limit their options. These students, who are typically enrolled in high-

poverty, low-performing schools, still face an uphill climb.

The Higher Education Act of 1964 was enacted, as a part of the Great Society programs,

to level the educational playing field for students unable to afford higher education. The

legislation created programs to offer minorities and students from low-income households an

opportunity to pursue and engage in higher education. Fifty years after the enactment of the

legislation, acceptance rates for minorities, first-generation and low-income students have

increased at post-secondary institutions. However, poverty and lack of knowledge and resources

still remain barriers to college acceptance. George and Aronson (2002) stated,

Despite the national call to leave no child behind and the ongoing commitment voiced by

our policymakers, government, and educators to provide a quality education to all the

nation’s youth, traditionally underserved (low-income, underrepresented minority, and

first-generation) students continue to perform at the lowest academic levels, drop out of

school more often, and enroll in postsecondary institutions at lower percentages than their

white, middle-class peers. (para.1)

First-generation college students face many obstacles along the path to completion of all the

necessary processes that culminate in their admission to post-secondary education. According to

Hsiao (1992), "New students to higher education often face unique challenges in


their quest for a degree; conflicting obligations, false expectations, and lack of preparation or

support are among the factors that may hinder their success” (p. 1).

In many cases, the greatest challenge of the first-generation college student is bridging the

relationship between family and the desire of being exposed to a new cultural experience in the

collegiate environment. Some of the necessary steps to the entrance goal include the successful

completion of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), filling out the appropriate

applications for post-secondary institutions of choice, independent searches for college

scholarships, collegiate housing, and any other appropriate initiatives to complete all documents

empowering the student to be qualified as a potential candidate for entrance.

Delimitations

The researchers anticipated that their professional positions could potentially interfere

with data collection and analysis. Researcher Ronald L. Woodard serves as the executive

principal of a high school receiving services from the Oasis College Connection (OCC) mentors.

Researcher Sherica Clark serves as the director of a TRIO program that provides similar services

as the OCC program at Nashville State Community College. There was some concern that

students and mentors might feel uncomfortable sharing unfavorable responses to focus group

questions. To alleviate this concern, Woodard did not moderate or take notes during the focus

groups. To eliminate concerns of data interpretation, Clark did not run the statistical analyses for

this study.

Statement of the Problem

Students from first-generation, low-income households need increased access to post-

secondary education. Despite their aspirations and academic preparation, underrepresented


students face many obstacles to college enrollment and graduation. These students face many

potential barriers to college including:

Being at a disadvantage in terms of college knowledge, personal commitment and

familial support;

Being at greater risk with respect to persistence and degree attainment;

Having lower degree aspirations;

Taking longer to complete their degree programs (Doyle & Filkins, 2002).

Without the proper information and support to navigate the often complicated web of

deadlines, requested documents, and information, students are left too confused to complete the

process. School counselors are often the only professionals tasked with assisting students

through the college application and admissions process. However, the increasing burden of

school achievement testing and decreasing school budgets leaves counselors little time to devote

individual attention to guide students and parents through the college applications and financial

aid process.

The Oasis Collge Connection program provides intensive pre-college services, such as

admissions and financial aid counseling, to students ages 14-23 who are tradionally

underrepresented on college and university campuses. The central focus of this study was to

examine the experiences of participants in the Oasis College Connection to determine the impact

of program services for students most at risk of not completing the college enrollment process.

The Oasis College Connection

The Oasis Center was formed in 1970 to provide counseling for teens dealing with

alcohol and drugs. The agency has evolved to include over twenty programs to achieve the

mission of “Helping young people move into a happy, healthy and productive adulthood” (About


Us: Oasis Center, 2012). Oasis Center programs serve more than 1,900 youth and families per

year. Participants come from more than sixty different area schools and speak more than 26

different languages (About Us: Oasis Center,2012). Programs include activities to encourage

youth engagement, promote diversity, and provide counseling and residential support. In 2009,

the Oasis Center opened a 39,000 square foot facility called the Youth Opportunity Center to

bring youth and youth services providers together under one roof. The goals of the Youth

Opportunity Center include:

1. Aligning existing youth initiatives, resources and expertise.

2. Expanding the services facing the greatest demand.

3. Increasing the operating efficiency of the partner agencies.

4. Removing as many barriers as we possibly can that will prevent youth from accessing help.

(About Us: Oasis Center, 2012)

The Oasis College Connection is presently housed in the Youth Opportunity Center

located in downtown Nashville. The Oasis College Connection provides referral services to

organizations such as STARS Nashville, Meharry Medical College, Mental Health Co-op,

Alcohol and Drug Council, Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools (MNPS), and Nashville

Career Advancement Center. The Oasis College Connection works in conjunction with these

organizations to provide comprehensive services for youth.

National College Advising Corps

The Oasis College Connection is modeled after the work of the National Advising

Corps. Founded in 2004, the Advising Corps trains and places college students in low-

performing school districts. The National College Advising Corps’ mission is to foster a college-

going culture to raise the rates of college admission and completion for first-generation,


underrepresented students (History of the Corps, 2012). The National College Advising Corps

partners with higher education institutions that serve as hosts for the program. Host institutions

provide training, recruiting, and monitoring of college advisors. Advisors, current college

students, or recent graduates work full- time in designated schools to help students identify and

apply to post-secondary schools. The program focuses on first-generation, low-income or

underrepresented students who are capable of completing college work but lack the information

or resources to attend. College enrollment is the key measurable outcome of the program.

Community Impact Report

The Oasis College Connection was formed in 2009 to meet the widening gap in college

access across the Metropolitan Nashville Public School system (MNPS). In 2006, a group of

students from the Oasis Community Impact published a report entitled College Access: from the

Inside Out, analyzing college options and service delivery for students from some of Nashville’s

poorest and most disadvantaged schools. The report revealed that students had college

aspirations but seldom received support to navigate the college entrance process (Oasis

Community Impact, 2006).

Following the release of the Community Impact report, Nashville community leaders

created the National College Citywide Plan in order to identify and address the gaps in college

access. The effort, facilitated by the National College Access Network, produced a report that

outlined the feasibility of establishing a citywide college access initiative to assist Davidson

County students and families to access higher education. The Oasis College Connection was

developed to meet those needs. The Oasis College Connection’s mission is to “Provide

comprehensive and individualized admissions and financial aid expertise to support and increase


students’ college acceptance rates, retention, and successful degree completion” (Oasis

Community Impact, 2006).

Oasis College Connection Program Services

The Oasis College Connection has three main functions:

1. College Access Resource Center – Houses staff, resources, and information.

2. Classic College Access Program – Provides direct services and in the fields of admissions

and financial aid.

3. Community-Based Paraprofessionals – Provides training and services to organizations

and mentors offering college access services to youth.

Program Design

The Oasis College Connection (OCC) serves underrepresented youth ages 14-23. The OCC

has a particular interest in working with first-generation students to provide comprehensive

admissions and financial aid information and assistance. OCC programs are structured to

increase student acceptance rates, retention, and degree completion (Oasis Community Impact,

2006). Students receive services at the Oasis College Connection office or through OCC staff in

the community and schools. The OCC recruits and trains mentors to serve as college advocates

in the Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools (MNPS) with high poverty and low college- going

rates. Mentors, usually current college students or recent graduates, are trained to facilitate

discussion with students about the college application process and serve as counselors to help

them navigate through financial aid and other college enrollment issues. A main component of

the Oasis program is to encourage self-initiative in students, increasing the self-efficacy and

confidence of the student to seek answers and take action independently.


Oasis College Connection Mentors

College Mentors are critical to the success of the Oasis College Connection program. The

mentors’ position description is to manage college, financial aid, and scholarship activities for

students and their families in order to impart hope, build confidence, communicate the

importance of education, and bring students and colleges together. Mentors provide guidance and

counseling to students and families regarding college choice and transitions from high school to

higher education. Other job functions include:

•Counsel 100 students and families on goals and college choice options.

• Provide admissions application assistance, including: application reviews, transcript

submission, essay assistance, recommendations.

• Assist students and families with filing FAFSA’s and verification (as necessary) for all

students.

• Advocate and communicate for students with postsecondary institutions.

• Verify new and continuing college attendance.

• Maintain data on student matriculation, enrollment, and retention.

• Participate in mentor/program activities and events as required.

• Provide office coverage as required.

• Represent the organization to the community in conjunction with the Director and other

staff members.

• Assist in the coordination of marketing efforts internal and external to the organization.

• Provide weekly reports to the Program Coordinator as required.

• Attend organization staff and departmental meetings as required.


The Purpose of the Study

This study explored the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection in providing pre-

college advising and promoting self-efficacy while guiding students through the college

application process.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study stems from the work of Donald Collins (2011)

surrounding higher education access and success. Collins, the developer of what he calls the Five

Pillars to College Access and Success, claims that “Many students - especially those without the

financial means and the academic preparation necessary to be successful at the college level –

fail for lack of knowledge and lack of access to such knowledge” (p. 22). Collins framed this

concept after having spent six years in New York’s public schools, approximately twenty years

as an instructor and professor, and a decade working for nonprofits in fields like civic education

and education reform. His research indicates that all students, especially disadvantaged and

underrepresented students, need to have knowledge of the five most important assets for college

acceptance.

Collins further explains the rationale supporting his theory through the report “Questions

That Matter Most: Setting the Research Agenda on Access and Success in Post-Secondary

Education,” produced for the Social Science Research Council in 2006. Collins suggested there

are five supporting pillars for success. The Five Pillars are:

(1) Social Preparation - Students must be prepared for the world outside of their towns,

cities, neighborhoods, blocks, apartment buildings, homes and individual families,

(2) Academic Preparation - Academic preparation for college requires broad

knowledge and students prepared to be able to analyze and interpret facts,


(3) Parent, Family and Community Engagement - Active parents and adults in schools

can create the atmosphere necessary for students’ academic and social preparation in

the college access and success process.

(4) Financial Means and Aid - Use social preparation and engaged parents to find

additional funds and to agitate for more need-based state and federal aid; use

academic preparation to obtain the substantial private and state-level merit-based

scholarships to cover the skyrocketing costs of college and ,finally, the

(5) Will to Power - Even with the proper academic preparation, excellent social

preparation, solid financial aid and consistent parental and community engagement, it

is ultimately up to each student to decide to overcome whatever obstacles they face

(Collins, 2011, pp. 2-3).

Oasis College Connection A6 Framework

The A6 Framework is an overarching tool used to help place into context the resources currently

used for guidance in identifying and analyzing college access and resources for students. The

Oasis College Connection (OCC) uses the A6 Framework, in alignment with the National

College Access Network, as a service delivery model. The Oasis A6 model includes:

Aspiration: Research shows that early in their middle and high school careers, the vast

majority of students, regardless of race or class, aspire to attain some sort of post-

secondary education.

Achievement: OCC will encourage student achievement as a necessary and fundamental

component of the pathway to college.

Awareness: For many low-income and first-generation students, the lack of accurate and

timely information about college often turns the aspiration of their early youth into


hopelessness. OCC believes that, with the right information at the right time and with the

right support, college can become a reality for many students who may otherwise lose

hope.

Affordability: A primary reason many low-income families give up on college

aspirations is a belief that they cannot afford it. With timely planning, accurate

communication with families, and last-dollar scholarships, OCC seeks to close the

financial gaps for low-income students.

Actualization: Many low-income and first-generation students who are accepted to

college never matriculate. OCC believes that with proper planning and direct support for

the transition from high school to college, students accepted to college will have a

dramatically improved chance of matriculating.

Attainment: The majority of low-income and first-generation students who enroll in

college never actually graduate with a degree. OCC seeks to improve retention for these

students by proper planning and the emphasis on matching students with the right schools

for them.

Theory-to-practice. This research examined the relationship between the work of the Oasis

College Connection and student success in gaining college acceptance. The Five Pillars, which

served as the theoretical framework, guided the research focus. The A6 Framework, which is the

service delivery model used at Oasis, in combination with the Five Pillars provided a rubric

through which program services were evaluated. The correlation between the theory and

working model is shown in Figure 1 below. Similarities exist between the A6 Framework and

the Five Pillars with the exception of A6 Attainment. Oasis College Connection defines


attainment as successful matriculation and degree completion, which is beyond the scope of this

study.

Figure 1. The A6 Framework & the Five Pillars of College Success

Figure 1. Diagram of the relationship between the A6 Framework & the Five Pillars of

College Success.

jjjA6Framework

A6 Framework

Awareness

EngagedParents,Family,Community

SocialPreparation

Will toPower

AcademicPreparation

FinancialAid &

ResourcesAid

A6 Framework

Actualization

A6 Framework

Attainment

A6 Framework

Aspirations

A6 Framework

Affordability

A6 Framework

Achievement


Research Questions

The researchers used the following questions to guide the study:

Is there a relationship between the number of visits in Naviance as guided by a college

mentor from the Oasis College Connection and acceptance to college?

How do students perceive the effectiveness of the services provided by Oasis College

Connection?

Does the Oasis College Connection program influence program participants to apply to

college?

Does the Oasis College Connection significantly increase the self-efficacy of students

seeking to apply for college?

Does the A6 framework as a service delivery model impact participant motivation to

attend college?

Hypotheses

The researchers tested the following null hypotheses for study:

H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in

Naviance with OCC and number of student applications for post-secondary college or career

opportunities.

H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits

in Naviance with OCC and acceptance into post-secondary college or career opportunities.

H03: Null Hypothesis: There is no statistically significant difference between the number of

self-initiated visits in Naviance with OCC based on ethnic classification of students.

H04: There is no statistically significant difference between the number of visits to Naviance

with the OCC based on gender classification of students.


H05: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number of visits in Naviance

with the OCC and G.P.A.

H06: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number of visits to Naviance

with the OCC and ACT score.

Naviance Succeed

Naviance Succeed is an online data tool designed to promote college and career readiness

through increased collaboration, rigor and transparency (Naviance, 2012). The software

integrates tools for planning across four areas: success planning, career planning, course

planning and college planning. School districts and various non-profit organizations use the

software to assess students and increase academic performance. The college planning tool allows

students and parents to search for colleges and view information about each, arrange college

tours and visits, and search for scholarship opportunities. Students can also request transcripts,

secure teacher recommendations, and track submitted college applications. Organizations that

use Naviance can track student use, submitted applications and acceptances, and disaggregated

data by demographic or other groupings. As a user of the software, Oasis College Connection

can train students to use the software appropriately and track the students through the college

search, application, and entrance processes.

Significance of the Study

Previous research results have been mixed on the effectiveness of pre-college academic

outreach programs. While more established programs like Upward Bound and Talent Search

have had multiple research studies, many other academic outreach programs are too new for long

term studies. This study examined the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection program

design in gaining college acceptance for low-income, first-generation students. As Nashville’s


only college access resource center, Oasis College Connection has an opportunity to impact the

design of future pre-college outreach programs in the area.

The results of this study may impact how Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools

(MNPS) structures pre-college advising. Other non-profit agencies seeking to develop pre-

college programs may also find the research useful. Researchers may use data presented in this

study to look at specific program characteristics such as mentoring or self-initiated contact with

college planning software and the impact on college acceptance, enrollment, or retention rates.

Additionally, these results may be used to advocate for additional expansion and funding for the

Oasis College Connection.

Scope and Bounds

The researchers conducted an analysis of twelfth grade high school students who

interacted with college mentors and staff of the Oasis College Connection (OCC) during the

2010-11 and 2011-12 cohort cycles. Quantitative and qualitative mixed-methods research

methodologies were used to determine the effectiveness of the programs currently in place at

OCC with a focus on outcomes as indicated under the A6 framework as a service delivery

model. The bounds of this study were limited to college access as measured by college

applications and college acceptance. While included within the scope of the services that are

provided by the Oasis College Connection, this study did not include matriculation, retention

rates, or degree completion. The research aids OCC staff to more effectively assist first-

generation college students to successfully access and complete the appropriate measures aimed

at successful college enrollment.


Role of the Researchers

The role of the researchers was to develop a strategic research plan to assess the needs of

their client and develop hypotheses and research questions appropriate to those needs. The

researchers used a mixed-methods approach, incorporating qualitative and quantitative data sets,

to identify program strengths and weaknesses. The focus of the researchers was to objectively

determine how the research findings might inform and impact the current work and future

guiding decisions of the Oasis College Connection (OCC). The researchers also identified

potential issues to be addressed in future research.

Definitions and Key Terms

This study uses several terms relevant to the college application and enrollment process, or

terms which are unique to the work of the Oasis Center or Oasis College Connection.

Direct PLUS Loans – These loans are unsubsidized loans for the parents of dependent

students and for graduate/professional students. PLUS loans help pay for education

expenses up to the cost of attendance minus all other financial assistance. Interest is

charged during all periods.

Direct Subsidized Loans – These loans are for students with demonstrated financial

need, as determined by federal regulations. No interest is charged while a student is in

school at least half-time, during the grace period and during deferment periods.

Direct Unsubsidized Loans – These loans are not based on financial need; interest is

charged during all periods, even during the time a student is in school and during grace

and deferment periods.


EFC – The expected family contribution is the financial need as determined by the U.S.

Department of Education using a standard formula, established by Congress, to evaluate

the financial information reported on the Free Application for Federal Student Aid

(FAFSA) and to determine the family.

FAFSA – Free Application for Federal Student Aid, the FAFSA is used to determine

student eligibility for financial aid. After filing the FAFSA, the student will receive a

Student Aid Report issued from the Department of Education that will indicate how much

he or she and the family are expected to contribute to his or her education costs based on

their financial means.

First-generation Student – Neither custodial parent/guardian has a bachelor’s degree.

Low- Income – An individual whose family's taxable income for the preceding year did

not exceed 150 % of the poverty level amount as defined by the U.S. Department of

Education.

Pell Grant – The Federal Pell Grant Program provides need-based grants to low-income

undergraduate and certain post- baccalaureate students to promote access to

postsecondary education. Students may use their grants at any one of approximately

5,400 participating postsecondary institutions. Grant amounts are dependent on students’

expected family contributions (EFC).

SES – Socio- economic status. Low SES as used in similar college outreach programs to

families with income at 150% of the federal poverty level, as defined by the U.S.

Department of Education

TRIO – Federal educational opportunity outreach programs designed to motivate and

support students from disadvantaged backgrounds. TRIO includes nine outreach and


support programs that support low-income, first-generation college students and students

with disabilities to progress through the academic pipeline from middle school to post-

baccalaureate programs.


Chapter II: Review of the Literature

The purpose of this literature review is to provide a historical context of educational

opportunity programs, examine barriers to college access and success, and explore current

models for pre-college outreach programs. The Oasis College Connection was formed to

improve the quality of college access advising that students receive as they prepare for post-

secondary education. The literature review examines the role and effectiveness of guidance

counselors with particular attention given to time spent providing pre-college counseling and

creating a college-going culture in low-performing or low socio-economic level high schools.

If guidance counselors are too overwhelmed or underprepared to provide adequate

college resources, students often receive little or no assistance in seeking out post-secondary

educational opportunities. The Oasis program model provides college mentors to assist students

through the college and financial aid application process. This literature review explores the

theoretical concept of mentoring and the core characteristics of successful mentoring outreach

programs such as Upward Bound and Gear Up.

Historical Context of Post-Secondary Interventions and Access

On November 8, 1965, Congress passed the Higher Education Act, a legislative policy

enacted by President Lyndon B. Johnson to provide resources for colleges and universities in an

effort to attract, recruit, and retain underserved students. Additionally, the Act served as the

gateway for providing scholarships and grants at the state level to help pay the costs of higher

education (McCants, 2003). The Higher Education Act has been reauthorized a number of times

since 1965. It was first reauthorized in 1968, then in 1972, 1976, 1980, 1986, 1992 and 1998


(Walsh, 2008). This Act led to sweeping legislative changes that have shaped the national

landscape with regard to diversity and equality.

The legislation was amended in 1972 to provide gender equity under the Title IX Act.

Title IX, also known as the Patsy Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act, prohibits

discrimination by educational programs and institutions that receive federal support and funding

(United States Department of Labor, 1972). The Title IV Act assists students by providing work

study programs, scholarships for universities, and low interest loans. In 1998, the Act was

amended again in order to help reduce student loan interest rates and increase Pell grant awards.

It also created a “loan forgiveness” program for teachers who teach in inner-city urban schools.

In addition, the Act created early intervention and awareness programs in order to increase

college entrance and enrollment rates (Schlam, 2004).

Access to higher education became a major concern as universities across the nation

fought to increase diversity in order to overturn bias in enrollment and recruitment practices

which created the rise of “affirmative action.” Affirmative action is defined as a series of actions

that are specifically designed to eliminate the previous effects of past discrimination in order to

prevent these practices from becoming prevalent in future decisions regarding policies, hiring

practices and/or recruitment and admissions practices (A Definition of Fairness, 1995). The

reauthorization in 2008 created radical changes to the Act which included the following:

monitoring of “diploma mill institutions” which offer non-academic-non-accredited degrees

online, public knowledge of state allocations for funding and college costs, and four-year tuition

calendars. Additionally, this legislation sought to increase the amount of Pell grants and the

opportunity to make them available in the summer months to assist students in accelerating their

graduation opportunities (Improve Access to Higher Education, 2008).


Another significant portion of the Higher Education Act was the creation of the federal

TRIO programs. Upward Bound, Talent Search and Student Support Services are the programs

that evolved from the legislation. These programs were designed to provide opportunities for

students who were economically disadvantaged and whose parents did not go to college.

Upward Bound serves high school students from low-income families and high school students

from families in which neither parent holds a degree (Higher Education Act: Forty Years of

Opportunity, 2005).

Educational reform has taken a number of different twists and turns over the past few

decades. However, many educational scholars would agree that No Child Left Behind has

arguably been the most radical reform policy and accountability measure that the nation has ever

seen. Proponents of NCLB would argue that the upside of this legislation is that it has caused

school leaders to examine the achievement gaps between all races and/or ethnicities of children

who are currently housed in the same academic setting. Idealistically, the goal is to provide a

quality education for all children. This would lead to more opportunities and access for all

children, especially minorities.

Schools across the nation are working diligently to close the achievement gap. However,

the gap remains for college access among minorities, and students from first-generation

households. These students are highly encouraged to pursue a college degree to the open doors of

opportunity. Nevertheless, many students opt not to attend college or pursue post-secondary

career training after high school. According to the Gates Foundation in the Silent Epidemic:

Perspectives of High School Dropouts, nearly 850,000 students drop out of high school

altogether each year (Bridgeland, DiIulio, & Morrison, 2006).


Self-Efficacy

The persistence of first-generation college attendees often depends on their persistence

through completion of the admission process. First generation students may not have access to

traditional support mechanisms provided in the more traditional family, who for generations has

attended college and for whom college attendance and matriculation is expected rather than

optional. They must rely on themselves to engage and navigate the system, once shown the

initial opportunities by OCC mentors, and follow the prescribed paths leading to the initial goal

of college admission. Oasis College Connection is a stimulus for students to begin the journey

toward college acceptance and, for self-efficacious students, lights the path to successfully

reaching the initial goal.

According to Albert Bandura (1977), leading expert in the field of efficacy, “Present

theory is based on the principle assumption that psychological procedures, whatever their form,

serve as means of creating and strengthening expectation of personal efficacy” (p. 193). Mastery

of personal discipline greatly impacts the initiation of the procedure as well as the application of

the required coping behavior to persist. Many times, students who are from underrepresented

backgrounds have not been reared in structured environments. They may often lose hope that

they can be successful and become easily frustrated in the process because they have lived in an

environment where social influences have been detrimental to the belief that they were

empowered to achieve.

Bandura suggests that the expectations associated with self-efficacy may vary in their

dimensional understanding. These expectations may differ in the following areas:

Magnitude

Generality


Strength (Bandura, 1977, p. 194).

When considering magnitude, a student may have varied expectations of self-efficacy ordered by

the level of difficulty of the task ranging from very simple to very difficult performance

benchmarks of accountability. Generality may prescribe the understood expectation of mastery

of the task or a sense that the efficacy must extend beyond understood parameters. This may lead

to discouragement for students who have no viable support system that counteracts their

perceived potential for success. Finally, when students have strong convictions that they will be

successful in mastering the task before them, it is more likely they will prove more successful

than students who fail to persevere in their coping efforts.

It has been suggested that students who are successful in the elimination of defensive

behaviors are those who are likely to have greater self-efficacy and be more open to

psychological change. Bandura stated that “People displaying intractable fears and inhibitions

are not about to do what they dread” (Bandura, 1977, p. 196). Students who have known failure

and discontent as well as loss of self-esteem may be more likely to avoid circumstances where

they feel there is great potential in the certainty they will again fail. It may also be true that

students do not rely on what they have experienced and mastered as the only source of what they

maintain in their emotional comprehension of potential success. Accordingly, “Seeing others

perform threatening activities without adverse consequences can generate expectations in

observers that they too will improve if they intensify and persist in their efforts” (Bandura, 1977,

p. 197). Self-efficacy may find its roots in individuals’ locus of control of how students are

impacted internally or externally and how the impact of their environment plays a role in their

self-efficacy.


Locus of control is generally referred to as how a person feels about the causations of

events in their life. It might be explained as where the blame lies for these events. Examples

might be that an individual may blame fate, God, or some undetermined spirit for the events.

The locus of control is conceptualized as referring to a one-dimensional continuum, ranging

from external to internal. Neil states “the External Locus of Control Individual believes that

her behavior is guided by fate, luck or other external circumstances. The Internal Locus of

Control Individual believes that her behavior is guided by her personal decisions and efforts,”

(Neill, 2006, p. 1). It has been suggested that the more self-internalized a person is the more

the control factor is desirable. There are apparent trends that “impact personal control” or “self-

determination” (Neill, 2006, p. 2). Mamlin, Harris, and Case suggested that these trends are:

Males tend to be more internal than females

As people get older they tend to become more internal

People higher up in organizational structures tend to be more internal

(Mamlin, Harris, & Case, 2001).

An internal locus of control can be unhealthy if it isn’t coupled with self-efficacy,

competence and the ability to successfully experience the sense of being in control. Likewise,

there needs to be a sense of the boundaries associated with one’s influence in order to fully

appreciate the feeling of control. Those with a more externalized locus of control are able to

depend on those factors outside of their control and are likely to engage a lifestyle that is happier

and more relaxed.

According to Rotter’s observations:

Different people, given identical condition for learning, learn different things.


Some people respond predictably to reinforcement, others less so, and some

respond unpredictably.

Some people see a direct and strong connection between their behavior and the

rewards and punishments received. (Rotter, 2004, p. 1)

The point of view Rotter expressed is derived from how the students think of past outcomes

compared to their current situation. It is generally held that their expectations have a causal

influence on the choices and behaviors they exhibit.

Expectancy-Value Theory

Early in their social and cognitive development, students develop distinct beliefs or

expectations about what they are good at and what achievement they value. The relationship of

expectancy and value to motivation and task accomplishment is the expectancy value theory.

Wigfield & Eccles state that “Expectancy refers to the beliefs that people have about how they

are likely to do on a particular task or activity. The values in the theory are the incentives or

reasons for doing an activity” (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000, as cited in Sander & Sanders, 2006, p.

29).

As students develop and gain various experiences, their progress toward task completion may

be defined by their level of expectancy. Sander and Sanders (2006) stated, “Expectancies are

related to a person’s confidence about their ability to complete tasks that lead to an outcome” (p.

29). Thus, students who have positive cultural and social experiences with learning and develop

strong beliefs about higher education may assign high value to academic preparation and post-

secondary education, while those with negative expectancies may assign no value to academic

preparation or aspire to higher education. As expectancies and value decrease, so does

motivation to achieve goals or complete tasks (Cole & Denzine, 2004). Students from lower


socio economic backgrounds are more likely to attend resource poor secondary schools and be

the first in the family to pursue college. These students may have less motivation and confidence

to work through the inherent barriers presented during the pursuit of college acceptance and

financial aid application. Once students feel less in control of their learning outcomes, their

motivation to accomplish a task decreases (Cole & Denzine, 2004).

Barriers to College Access

President Barack Obama declared education one of the most critical issues facing this

generation (Zurate & Burciaga, 2010). According to Dr. Monica Martinez, Senior Fellow of

Knowledgeworks Foundation, “Few American institutions have a greater impact on the quality of

life for American citizens than the public high school. High school lays the foundation for adult

participation in the American economy and society (Martinez & Klopott, 2005, p. 3). Access to

post-secondary opportunities has been problematic for many first-generation, low-income

students for a number of reasons. Confusion regarding entrance requirements, financial

hardships, and the lack of academic preparedness in high school are major factors which prevent

successful access to post-secondary opportunities for many minority students. In 1999, data

from the National Center for Educational Statistics indicated that 82% of all students nation-

wide, whose parents held a bachelor’s degree or higher, enrolled in college immediately after

high school. ACT research indicates that in 2010, only 43.4% of all first time college students

actually finished within five years as expected from public four-year institutions (ACT, 2010).

Research conducted by Susan Choy, researcher in the field of higher education on college

persistence and access, demonstrates that students whose parents did not obtain any form of post-

secondary education after high school are at a huge disadvantage in comparison to their

counterparts. Additionally, students who are able to overcome the parental barrier and


successfully enroll are still at tremendous risk for remaining enrolled and obtaining a degree

within five to six years (Choy, 2001).

Lack of Information

The lac k of information about college is also a significant barrier. In College Knowledge,

Joel Vargas indicates that “Underrepresented students and their families often lack pertinent

knowledge about the college-going process. They need significant information as early as 5th

grade, related to connecting career goals to educational outcomes” (Vargas, 2004, p. 5). Vargas

points out that the middle school years play a pivotal role in creating aspirations for higher

achievement in adolescents. Evidence suggests that students from low-income first-generation

household are more likely to attend college when their families are well informed about college

(Vargas, 2004). A study conducted by Stanford University sampled student responses from six

states, including: Maryland, Illinois, Georgia, Oregon, Texas, and California. The findings

indicated that less than 12% of the students surveyed were familiar with the course requirements

and pre-requisites for the institutions studied (Venezio, Kirst & Antonio, n.d.). This further

illustrates the degree to which the lack of information perpetuates the challenges that low-income

students face in obtaining access.

Navigating the complicated web of FAFSA questions can also prove to be difficult for

many students. Kentucky is one of five states on a national coalition that is examining the

effects of simplifying and shortening the FAFSA application process and other financial aid

forms that students receive (Kentucky Council on Post-Secondary Education, 2011). As a result

of the risk factors that low-income, first-generation students face, organizations that provide

comprehensive services starting in the eighth or ninth grade offer the best chance for success.


Family Educational Status

The level of parental educational attainment has been analyzed as a key determinant in

college persistence for first time beginning college students. A national study conducted by the

National Center for Educational Statistics in 2003-04 indicated that only 35.8 percent of all

students whose parents did not attend college actually entered post-secondary education.

Longitudinal data from the 5-year cumulative persistence and attainment trends for this

population demonstrated that only 32.5 percent actually earned bachelor’s degrees at a four-year

public institution (NCES, 2011). This finding suggests that less than one-third of students whose

parent(s) did not attend college actually enroll and earn a four-year degree. Students who come

from first time college-going families tend to lack the supporting sub-systems that are focused on

the success of the individual student. Choy states “first-generation status is associated with

leaving a four-year institution (but not a two-year institution) before the second year (Choy,

2001, p. 32). Parents’ attained level of education is also an important determining factor in the

students’ success. Furthermore, “the likelihood of enrolling in postsecondary education is

strongly related to parents’ education even when other factors are taken into account” (Choy,

2001, p. 20). The importance of parents’ educational history and the impact on their children was

noted in two specific ways; first, after three years, first-generation college-goers are as likely as

students who are not first time attendees to persist if their goal is a certificate or associate’s

degree. Secondly, after three years, first-generation students with a goal of achieving a

bachelor’s degree are less likely to persist to complete their degree when compared to students

whose families have bachelor’s or advanced degrees (Choy, 2001, p. 24).

While the relational considerations are important, it was noted by Choy that “A rigorous

high school curriculum helps mitigate the disadvantage of first-generation status” (2001, p. 24).


Programs that aid students in their efforts to follow logical and appropriate pathways are often

building social capital that is necessary for students to enter a new daunting environment that

intimidates and sometimes discourages the success of the student. Students entering college with

an anticipation of finishing their two-year associates degree find that it actually averages

approximately 3.5 years in many community colleges, even if the student is attending full time

(Rosenbaum, Rosenbaum, & Stephan, 2010, p. 8).

Income

In addition to family educational status, family income/SES also plays a significant role

in college access obtainment for first-generation students. Differences in income among students

create severe economic disparities in access. Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, and Rhee’s (1997)

research demonstrates that differences in family income are highly correlated to the number of

applications that students often submit in order to obtain entrance into the post-secondary

institution(s) of their choice. According to Hurtado et al., students whose family income falls

within the lowest income categories are likely to submit fewer college applications than students

whose family income is greater than $50,000.

Analyses of groups by income level further reveal that the majority of students who are

found in the lowest income category are either not likely to apply for college at the end of the

12th grade or are likely to apply to very few schools (Huratado, Inkleas, Briggs & Rhee, 1997).

Linked to family income are issues in affordability. Rising tuition costs in the midst of economic

strain present problems for low-income and middle class Americans.

Minority students often fall at the lower end of the income spectrum placing them at a

higher disadvantage to gain college access and post-secondary opportunities. Metropolitan

Nashville Public School (MNPS) students who meet the economically disadvantaged criteria are


reflected in Figure 2. Additionally, Figure 2, reveals that the average high school survival rate in

Metro Nashville Public Schools is fifty-six percent. The significance of this percentage is that it

represents an approximation of the number of students who might be able to attend post-

secondary schools. Schmit & Swedlow state, “When the cohort survival rate (56%) is combined

with the number of high school graduates enrolling in higher education in Tennessee (58%),

ninth grade students in the MNPS have a 32.5% chance of attending college right after high

school,” (Schmit & Swedlow, 2007, p. 5). Due to the relatively low rate of survival, it is evident

that encouragement such as provided by the Oasis College Connection may be instrumental in

increasing the number of students in the ninth through twelfth grade who may be able to bridge

to post-secondary education.


Figure 2. MNPS students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds

Figure 2. This figure indicates by school the percentage of Metropolitan Nashville Public School

students who come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Schmit & Swedlow, 2007, p.

4).

Cost of tuition

The Gates Foundation suggests that when the direct cost of tuition decreases, then

college enrollment increases. Economists estimate that as college tuition rates decrease by

$1000, then enrollment increases by 3 to 7 percentage points (Gates Foundation, 2005). Low-


and middle-income students routinely eliminate colleges from consideration based on cost,

before applying or even researching possible aid packages. In 2009, 50% of students from

families with incomes less than $35,000 and 47% of those with family incomes between $50,000

and $100,000 eliminated colleges based on cost before applying (White House Task Force on

Middle Class: Barriers to Higher Education, 2011). In 2002, a report entitled Empty Promises:

The Myth of College Access in America indicated that financial barriers prevented 48% of all

college-qualified, low-income high school graduates from attending a four-year institution (U.S.

Department of Education, 2002).

The national average cost of a public four-year institution is currently listed at $18, 373

as compared to private four year institutions at $37, 856 (Institute for College Access and

Success, 2011). Rising tuition costs are leaving low-income parents with few options. The

economic strain is just as difficult for middle class families that may not be able to afford

college, who may also make too much money to qualify for various types of need-based financial

aid.

Academic Preparation

Academic preparation is another barrier to college access. Students are expected to meet

the minimum college entrance requirements by the end of their 12th grade year (Figure 3) in

order to gain acceptance into the college of their choice. The attrition rate of students varies by

school and chronology as indicated by Figure 3, which serves as indicators for a mentoring

intervention that encourages persistence.


Figure 3. Cohort survival rate 2004-2005

Figure 3. The figure indicates the MNPS Cohort Survival Rate 9th through 12th grade, 2004-2005

(Schmit & Swedlow, 2007, p. 6).

The data in Figure 3 helps to identify which schools are in need of the most attention

when trying to determine the rate at which students are failing to graduate from high school. One

limitation of this graph is that all students are aggregated into the number, beginning at ninth

Antioch HS

East Literature Magnet School

Glencliff Comprehensive HS

Hillsboro Comprehensive HS

Hillwood Comprehensive HS

Hume Fogg Magnet HS

Hunters Lane Comprehensive HS

John Overton Comprehensive HS

Maplewood Comprehensive HS

Martin Luther King, Jr Magnet-Pearl HS

McGavock Comprehensive HS

Nashville School of the Arts

Pearl Cohn Magnet HS

Stratford Comprehensive HS

Whites Creek Comprensive HS

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Enrollment

Cohort Survival Rate 2004-2005(9th through 12th grade)

12th 11th 10th 9th


grade and ending at twelfth grade, without regard for special education, alternative forms of

education, or other factors that might impede student completion.

In many cases, academic standing will dictate whether students choose to apply to two-

or four-year schools, technical schools, or opt not to apply at all. As a result of legislation from

No Child Left Behind, there has been a national focus on “college readiness”. The U.S.

Department of Education estimates that 70% of all high school students actually graduate from

high school. Among those graduates, 32% are estimated to be qualified enough to attend a four-

year university immediately after high school (Greene & Forster, 2003). Among African-

American and Hispanic students, the graduation rates are far less durable; only 51% of African-

American students and 52% of Hispanic students graduate from high school on time. Of this

percentage, 20% of African-American students and 16% of Hispanic students are “college

ready” when they leave high school (Greene & Forster, 2003). Experts in the field of higher

education have continued to point the finger at the secondary schools for the lack of

preparedness for college. According to Martinez and Klopott (2005), “The rigor of the courses

taken in high school is the most powerful predictor of academic achievement, high school

graduation and enrollment in post-secondary education” (p. 8).

According to Choy (2001), taking a high school mathematics course was associated with

higher student enrollment rates in four-year universities. Students who took advanced math

classes generally had higher enrollment rates, overall. Among students whose parents did not

attend college, those who took advanced math courses enrolled at a higher rate (64%) than their

peers (Choy, 2001).

Math seems to be a factor in determining college readiness. Data collected in 2011 by

the ACT Corporation indicated that African-American, Hispanic, and Native- Americans 12th


grade students who were interested in STEM related careers had the lowest level of math

proficiency (Business Higher Education Forum, 2011). A study conducted by the U.S.

Department of Education revealed that low-income, first-generation college students who are

Latino or African-American who did not take upper-level/advanced math courses in high school

were less likely to obtain a bachelor’s degree and were at an increased risk of leaving college

without a degree (Martinez & Klopott, 2005).

A strong academic program is particularly significant for college enrollment among

African-American and Latino students. Edward Bell states, “School is the first public place that

many children get the opportunity to demonstrate mastery and competence outside of their

family environment. Early failure in school typically leads to classroom frustration, academic

withdrawal, and negative behavior” (Bell, 2010 p. 2). The low rates in persistence and

attainment may be attributed to the general lack of preparedness or readiness of high school

graduates for post-secondary education (Martinez & Klopott, 2005). According to Jennie Oakes,

University of California Berkeley researcher,

The intensity and quality of students’ high school courses is the most powerful factor in

increasing students’ chances for completing a four –year college degree and that impact

is far greater for African-American and Latino students than any other pre-college

opportunity. Preparing for challenging high school classes demands a rigorous middle

grades curricula-one undifferentiated by ability groups or tracks. (Oakes, 2003, p. 3)

Martinez’s findings indicate that nationally, nearly half of all students attending four-

year institutions and nearly two-thirds of all students attending community colleges must first

enroll in remedial non-credit bearing classes. Another study indicates that 40% of all first time

college students take at least one remedial course in college (Martinez & Klopott, 2005). Susan


Choy’s research indicates that the lack of academic preparation is not a barrier to college

entrance; however, it is an indicator of success once enrolled. Choy believes that low academic

expectations are a greater contributor to low enrollment rates in college (Choy, 2001).

Roderick, Nagaoka, and Coca (2008) found that college admissions tests are commonly

used as a measure of qualifications because they provide a standardized indicator of students’

college readiness—based on an independent measure of students’ cognitive achievement, basic

skills, content area knowledge, and analytic thinking ability—compared to peers nationwide.

According to De La Rosa & Tierney (2006), researchers from the University of Southern

California, studies show that a high school’s environment develops a student’s college and career

aspirations and academic preparation for college. Larosa’s study also found that many students

from inner city schools in Los Angeles perceived financial aid opportunities and college

information solely as opportunities for selected groups of students such as those taking advanced

placement courses. The study concluded that college aspirations were higher at high schools and

magnet schools that had higher college- going rates as opposed to schools where fewer students

attended college. College readiness is defined as a high school graduate who possesses the

knowledge and skills to qualify for and succeed in entry level college courses without the need

for remediation (Achieve, 2011).

A recent social impact research report from Root Cause indicates that the leading risk

factors that jeopardize college access are:

1) Being a minority

2) Born or living in poverty

3) Parents or siblings that dropped out of high school

4) Inadequate academic preparation


5) Repeated any grade between 1st and 8th

6) First-generation college student.

The report cites the leading risk-factors of college success as:

1) Taking remedial classes

2) Delayed entry into a post-secondary institution

3) Completion of high school via GED

4) Part-time enrollment

5) Pregnancy

6) Working full-time while enrolled (Root Cause Social Impact Research, 2010).

Research from College Board demonstrates that low-income students lack information about

college options, admission requirements, admission tests and college application processes, as

well as financial aid availability and application processes (Roderick, Nagoaka, & Coca, 2008).

Aspirations

Aspirations play an important role in college access for low-income students.

Unfortunately, college access does not appear to be a realistic option for many children in

poverty. Low-socioeconomic status (SES) students are less likely to have supportive peer,

family, and schooling networks during the college-preparation process. Less than half of low

SES high school students report receiving help from an adult in preparing for college. Fifteen

percent believe that they are doing most of the college preparation work on their own. Forty

percent of low SES parents have talked with their children about college, but would leave the

decision up to them (College Board, 2011). Lower income and minority students place no less

value on expected economic returns from education; however, they are less likely to translate

those college plans into actions than higher-income students. Parental encouragement is the best


predictor of students’ educational aspirations, but SES predicts probabilities of enacting

aspirations (College Board, 2011).

Latino Students

The Latino population is the largest non-white racial group in the United States (United

States Census Bureau, 2011). However, this group is severely underrepresented in higher

education. According to Zurate and Burciage (2010), misinformation about college and

increasing tuition rates are problematic barriers to access for Latino students. A national survey

found that Latino students and parents were significantly misguided in their understanding of the

U.S. financial aid process and missed opportunities because they learned about information after

the deadlines.

According to the College Board, a study of aspirations and expectations of Latino

parents found that, even though aspirations for college-going are in place, parents tailor their

expectations for children’s current academic performance based on the current family

socioeconomic status. Such findings emphasize the effect of a culture of multi-generational

poverty and a weak locus of control (College Board, 2012)

Immigration status is another barrier for many Latino students. While citizenship is not a

requirement to be educated in most states, according to Zarate, “Undocumented students are not

eligible for federal or state grants and loans; thus, leaving them to finance their education on

their own or seek private scholarships” (Zurate & Burciaga, 2010, p. 28).

Kilgore (2010) argued,

The same opportunity to become integrated and contribute to American society should be

given to those who came to the U.S. as children with their undocumented parents. When

an adult comes into the U.S. illegaly, he or she is exercising a choice and is responsiible


for its consequences. That’s not true of the child who follows his or her parents across the

border. A child should not have to suffer severe legal and economic limitations for the

simple act of following a parent’s decision. (p. 5)

The federal government has been focusing on the needs of immigrant minors. A proposal

to assist previously unauthorized youth and young adults by providing a pathway for legalization

under consideration is called the Dream Act. DREAM is an acronym for Development, Relief,

Education for Alien Minors. This Act was first introduced in 2001 and reintroduced by Senators

Orrin Hatch (R-UT) and Richard Durbin (D-IL) (Batalova & McHugh, 2010, para.1).

The National Center on Immigrant Policy created a report to inform and to empower

lawmakers and other stakeholders to:

Assess the number and other key charateristics of individuals who could gain

conditional legal status under DREAM legislation based o their age, date of arrival

in the United States, and length of residency

Understand the barriers to achieving permanent legal status under the DREAM Act

due to factors such as low educational attainment, poverty, and English proficiency.

(Batalova & McHugh, 2010, para. 2)

The key provisions of the DREAM Act would extend conditional status to unauthorized youth

who meet the following criteria:

Entered the United States before age 16

Have been continuously present in the United States for at least five years prior to

the legislation’s enactment

Have obtained a high school diploma or its equivalent (i.e., a General Education

Development diploma or GED)


Are less than 35 years of age. (Batalova & McHugh, 2010, para. 2)

Conditional status would last for six years and would permit recipients to work or go to school in

the United States and to travel in and out of the country (Batalova & McHugh, 2010, para. 2).

The pathway process would culminate at the end of a six-year period in which the

immigrants’ status would be conditional. They could then apply for lawful permanent residency

if they met the following criteria:

Obtained a degree from an institution of higher education

Completed at least two years in a program for a bachelor’s degree or higher

Honorably served at least two years in the US military

Have maintained good moral character while in conditional resident status

Immigrants who fail to meet these requirements would lose their conditional status and revert to

being unauthorized (Batalova & McHugh, 2010, paras.3, 5).

African-American Males

Black males may experience significant challenges in life which impact their ability to be

successful in school. Baruti Kafele (2009) suggested that there are unique challenges in their

lives when he states, “Many black male students enter school with unresolved issues concerning

their communities and families” (p. 43). These challenges may be translated as barriers that

impede the likelihood that students will bridge their academic futures into post-secondary

opportunities. The Schott Foundation for Public Education indicates that on the national level

only half of black males will see another graduation beyond high school (as cited in Kafele,

2009). In order to change this trend among black males, Kafele suggested that advocates of

education consider (Kafele, 2009, p. 48). It is important to assist students, especially black males,


to set goals and develop plans of action with students being held accountable to strive for their

goals throughout the years they are in school; not merely at the end of secondary education.

According to Kafele, “Even at the elementary school level, black males must focus on ultimately

attending college” (p. 14).

Professional School Counseling and College Advising

At the center of the debate about college access and enrollment is the issue of “who is

responsible” for assuring that all students are prepared and knowledgeable about college and

career opportunities. In communities with low parental involvement and educational levels,

schools are often the only source of accurate information on the college process. However, many

students, particularly low-income, minority or first-generation students, are still left behind in the

college- going process. McDonough states “individual college opportunity is predicated on K-12

institutional opportunity” (McDonough, 2005, p. 5). If the school fails to develop a culture that

encourages students to attend college and provide the information to complete the application

process, many will never realize the dream of college, and ultimately economic success.

The development of a college-going culture is critical to the success of low-income, first-

generation high school students. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2012), 86% of

high school students expect to attend college. However, many do not have the resources or

information needed to apply and enroll in post- secondary education. Research suggests that

students who develop a college plan by the tenth grade are more likely to attend college than

those that wait until their senior year (McDonough, 2003). The Pell Institute College Access

Report (2009) states that the key to improving enrollment and persistence rates for vulnerable

students is to improve the rigor of academic coursework and to provide “adequate support from

well trained counselors” to promote college enrollment (The Pell Institute, 2009).


High school guidance counselors play an important role in opening the doors to post-

secondary educational opportunities for students and their parents. Counselors typically have the

responsibility of advising students about academic and financial resources to assist them with the

college going process. The federal government’s 2011 Occupational Outlook Handbook defines

the role of high school guidance counselors as advising students regarding college majors,

admission requirements, entrance exams, financial aid, trade or technical schools, and

apprenticeship programs. Yet, too often, counselors lack the expertise and the time to provide

adequate guidance through the often confusing process of college admissions and financial aid

applications. While the American School Counselor Association recommends a counselor for

every 100 students, nationally, there is roughly “one guidance counselor for every 475 students”

(Reese, 2010, p. 16). With limited time and resources, students often do not receive enough

information and encouragement to complete the college application process. In his remarks to the

College Board AP Conference, Secretary of Education Arne Duncan (2010) remarked that

“college counselors are an invaluable yet woefully neglected resource in high schools” (para.4,).

However, many counseling professionals spend the majority of their day engaged in

administrative duties unrelated to academic or college advising (McDonough, 2005). Counselors

simply aren’t able to give students the time and attention needed to develop and pursue their

college aspirations.

Students view guidance counselors as critical to their postsecondary success. According

to a 2010 Public Agenda report, “Only three percent of young adults who graduated from high

school report that they didn't have a high school guidance counselor or never met with one to

discuss their postsecondary plans” (Johnson, Ott, & Rochkind, 2010, p. 68). However, students

have negative perceptions of their availability and effectiveness in the college planning process.


The Public Agenda youth survey reported that 6 of 10 high school graduates rated their

counselors as fair or poor for career guidance and 75 percent of students rated counselors as fair

or poor for helping them to choose which school to attend (Johnson et al., 2010). Students also

rated counselors low with helping them to identify financial aid options and for assistance in

completing college applications (Johnson et al., 2010).

Minority, low-income students and first-generation students suffer the most from the lack

of guidance. These students are likely to feel less connected to counselors, less likely to utilize

resources, and less likely to take advantage of advising and financial opportunities. In the Public

Agenda survey, students who were less connected to their guidance counselors were:

Less likely to say they chose their college because they believed that it would help

them get a good job on graduation.

Less likely to say that they chose their college on the basis of financial aid that

was offered to them.

More likely to say that they would have gone to a different college if money were

not an issue.

Less likely to say that they chose their college on the basis of its academic

reputation.

Less likely to go to college directly after high school (Johnson et al., 2010). In

Nashville, access to college opportunities is particularly bleak for students

attending schools in historically low-income neighborhoods. A survey of students

attending Maplewood and Stratford high schools found that “ninety percent of

students surveyed from East Nashville high schools in all four grade levels want

to attain some sort of post-secondary education; but of those students, less than


one-third had actually met with a guidance counselor about how to get there.”

(Oasis Community Impact, 2006, p. 6)

Guidance counselors have an important role in the development of student aspirations

and plans for college. Students perceive them to be the most knowledgeable person in the

financial aid and college admission process; however, schools must address the lack of time

counselors have available to assist students and parents. McDonough (2005) summarizes “If

counselors actively support students and their families through the college admissions process, as

opposed to simply disseminating information, this will increase students’ chances of enrolling in

a four-year college” (p. 23).

Counselors agree that the guidance system is in need of reform. The 2011 National

Survey of School Counselors survey found:

Nearly all counselors (93 percent) say they support a strategic approach to promote

college and career readiness by 12th grade, including 57 percent who strongly support

this approach. However, more than one in three of all counselors (35 percent) and 43

percent of counselors in lower-income schools do not think they have the support and

resources to be successful at promoting this mission. (Bridgeland & Bruce, 2011, p. 5)

Additionally, the report states that “71 % rate Academic Planning for College and Career

Readiness as very important, but only 34 percent say their school is successful” (Bridgeland &

Bruce, 2011, p. 8). If guidance counselors continue to be the selected advisor for students

pursuing postsecondary educational opportunities, their training and profession must be reformed

to effectively support and increase the number of college-going and degree-obtaining students.


Recently, counseling and school professionals have called on their profession to develop

standards for counselors to promote college access efforts. Researcher Patricia McDonough

(2003) identified 9 principles to develop a college going culture in schools:

1. College talk

2. Clear expectations

3. Information and resources

4. Comprehensive counseling model

5. Testing & Curriculum

6. Faculty Involvement

7. Family involvement

8. College partnerships

9. Articulation (p.1).

McDonough’s work suggests that counselors are key information points for students and parents,

but cannot bear the responsibility for a school’s “college resource infrastructure” alone

(McDonough, 2003, p. 2). The whole school must be involved in the distribution of information

to help students get accepted and enrolled in school.

Similarly, the College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy introduced

a school curriculum to encourage faculty and staff to engage in college counseling and

information distribution. The “Own the Turf” curriculum outlines eight components of college

and career counseling:

1. College aspirations

2. Academic planning for college and career readiness

3. Enrichment and extracurricular engagement


4. College and career exploration and selection processes

5. College and career assessments

6. College affordability planning

7. College and career admission processes

8. Transition from high school graduation to college enrollment ("College readiness," n.d.,

p. 3)

Since K-12 achievement and college enrollment and achievement are intimately linked, high

schools must drive the process for students pursuing college degrees. Schools must create

environments where all students are expected to succeed and have the information necessary to

navigate the college information process. When school budgets and resources and staffing are

limited, and counselors are constrained to administrative functions, other options must be

explored to ensure that the doors to college and economic opportunity remain open to all.

Framework for Mentoring

The Oasis College connection uses mentors to bridge the gap between students and

college information. Mentoring has long been advocated as a strategy to increase the likelihood

of college-going and persistence for marginalized students. Mentoring is most often defined as “a

trusted counselor or teacher or a senior sponsor or supporter” (Mentoring, 2012). Mentors are

entrusted with the care of their mentees that engulfs a broad range of action-based activities.

They may, in the case of pre-college mentoring programs, find themselves acting as guides and

surrogate parents where no biological parent relationships or support systems exist. It is

suggested by some that mentoring is an action that requires “intentions, preparation, and careful

application” (Johnson, 2002, p. 88). Johnson cites Merriam’s’ description of mentoring as “a

powerful emotional interaction between an older and younger person, in a relationship in which


the older mentor is trusted, loving, and experienced in the guidance of the younger” (Merriam,

1983 , p. 162).

Defining the mentoring experience is relatively difficult, though a common outcome is

the development of positive behaviors as influenced through positive relationship building.

Available literature suggests as many as 50 different definitions from various research and

theoretical frameworks (Blacknall & Coles, 2011). While there is no standard for qualifying the

mentoring experience, two categories emerge to divide the level of the experience. Informal

mentoring relationships usually pair a younger or less experienced person, a mentee, with an

older or more experienced person, a mentor. Informal mentoring occurs naturally and is often

evident in relationships between teachers, clergy, counselors and friends. Informal mentoring

relationships are often unintentional and do not have a prescribed time requirement.

Formal mentoring offers a structured and intentional approach to experiences (Blacknall

& Coles, 2011, p. 1). Formal programs are often facilitated by organizational entities that recruit,

train and monitor the activities of the mentoring relationship. The mentor, mentee relationship is

developed with the expectation of specified outcomes, usually a behavior change or increase in

knowledge.

Research indicates that the single most important feature of those that purported to be

successful with individual students was a close, caring relationship with a knowledgeable adult

who monitors the student’s progress (U. S. Department of Education, 2012). Pre-college

outreach programs often use mentoring to open the doors of educational opportunity for

underrepresented students.

Modeled after the National College Advising Corps, the Oasis program provides trained

mentors to facilitate positive relationships with high school students, with a goal of encouraging


college admission and enrollment. Mentors, usually college students or recent graduates, receive

intensive training in positive youth development principles, Free Application for Student Aid

(FAFSA) preparation and relationship building. Mentors are assigned to schools or community-

based locations to provide college admission and enrollment assistance. According to the

National Advising Corps website, preliminary research data suggest “schools served by the

program see an 8-12 % percentage point increase in college- going”. Partner schools report a

significant increase in scholarships and students attending college visits and workshops once

students are introduced to an advisor (National College Advising Corps, 2012).

Essential Functions of the Mentor

Functions of the mentor may be focused around the idea of “learning the ropes” with the

goal in mind of being accepted into a college of the mentee’s choice. These functions may

include sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, provision of challenging

assignments, and transmission of applied professional ethics, according to Johnson as cited in

Kitchner, 1992 and Kram, 1985. Some of the baseline developments in establishing the functions

of a mentor in their particular circumstances may include the mentor becoming a role model for

the mentee. First-time college attendees may come from families in which a parent of the same

gender is not available as a role model. Pre-college students who have not been the recipients in

the familial setting of acceptance and confirmation may have expectations of fulfillment of those

psychosocial parameters as a function of the mentor-mentee relationship. The mentor may also

function as a counselor. She might intentionally work toward developing a strong mutual

friendship with the mentee to encourage development of trust in their relationship.


Formation of the Mentor Relationship

“Informal mentorships, those that develop spontaneously without formal assignment by a

third party, are evaluated by both mentors and protégés as being more effective and meaningful

than formal (assigned) mentorships” according to Johnson (as cited in Burke, 1984; Fagenson-

Eland, Marks, & Amendola, 1997; Ragins & Cotton, 1999). It is suggested that the most

effective mentoring relationships are based on shared interests, frequent contact, and mutual

enjoyment of the relationship that is developed between the mentor and mentee. The research

further suggests that, by having a more informal relationship, the students are more at ease and

enjoy the integration of the mentoring process in their lives. The mentees develop a strong

identification with the mentor as a source of stability and one to whom they may turn for respect.

There is no room in this relationship for disingenuous perceptions. Mentors must be aware and

sensitive of these perceptions and be transparent when working with the mentee. Levinson,

Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & McKee (1978) stated,

The mentor relationship is one of the most complex, and developmentally important, a

(person) can have in early adulthood….No word currently in use is adequate to convey

the nature of the relationship we have in mind here….Mentoring is defined, not in terms

of formal roles, but in terms of the character of the relationship and function it serves. (as

quoted in Johnson, 2002, pp. 97-98)

Characteristics of Ideal Mentors

Specific personality characteristics. Effective mentors, as indicated by student surveys,

have some specific characteristics or interpersonal characteristics such as:

Intelligence

Caring


Appropriately humorous

Flexible

Empathetic

Patient

Interpersonally supportive

Encouraging and poised (Johnson, 2002, p. 89)

As cited in Johnson, “They appear to exude ‘emotional intelligence’ (Goleman, 1995), are

highly rated when perceived as ethical by their mentees (Kitchener, 1992), psychologically

well- adjusted (Cronan-Hillix, Davidson, Cronan-Hillix, & Gensheimer, 1986), intentional

role models (Gilbert, 1985), and well-known as scholars and professionals (Blackburn,

Cameron, & Chapman, 1981; Sanders & Wong, 1985). In essence, excellent mentors are

“kind, healthy, and competent” (Johnson, 2002, p. 89).

Standards of Practice

The National Mentoring Partnership (NMP) has developed the following ten standards of

practice that can serve as a guide for developing a quality mentoring program. The NMP

further states, “Though many mentoring efforts do not begin with all ten elements fully in

place, these standards correlate with those programs that achieve positive and lasting impacts

for children and youth,” (Associates, para. 3).

1. A statement of purpose and long-range plan that includes:

Who, what, where, why, and how activities will be performed

Input from originators, staff, funders, potential volunteers, and participants

Assessment of community need

Realistic, attainable, and easy-to-understand plan of operations


Goals, objectives, and timelines for all aspects of the plan

Funding and resource development plan

2. A recruitment plan for both mentors and participants that includes:

A portrayal of accurate expectations and benefits

Year-round marketing and public relations

Targeted outreach based on participants' needs

Volunteer service opportunities beyond mentoring

A basis in the program's statement of purpose and long-range plan

3. An orientation for mentors and participants that includes:

Program overview

Description of eligibility, screening process, and suitability requirements

Level of commitment expected (time, energy, flexibility)

Expectations and restrictions (accountability)

Benefits and rewards participants can expect

A separate focus for potential mentors and participants

A summary of program policies, including:

Written reports

Interviews

Evaluation

Reimbursement

4. Eligibility screening for mentors and participants that includes:

An application process and review

A face-to-face interview and home visit


Reference checks for mentors, which may include character references,

child abuse registry check, driving record checks, and criminal record

checks where legally permissible

Suitability criteria that relate to the program statement of purpose and

needs of the target population, which may include:

Personality profile

Skills identification

Gender, age, language, and racial requirements

Level of education, career interests, motivation for volunteering, and

academic standing

Successful completion of pre-match training and orientation

5. A readiness and training curriculum for all mentors and participants that includes:

Qualified staff trainers

Orientation to the program and resource network, including information

and referral, other supportive services, and schools

Skills development as appropriate

Cultural/heritage sensitivity and appreciation training

Guidelines for participants on how to get the most out of the mentoring

relationship

Do's and don'ts of relationship management

Job and role descriptions

Confidentiality and liability information

Crisis management/problem solving resources


Communication skills development

Ongoing sessions as necessary

6. A matching strategy that includes:

A link with the program's statement of purpose

A commitment to consistency

A grounding in the program's eligibility criteria

A rationale for the selection of this particular matching strategy from the

wide range of available models

Appropriate criteria for matches, including some or all of the following:

gender, age, language requirements, availability, needs, interests,

preferences of volunteer and participant, life experience, temperament

A signed statement of understanding that both parties agree to the

conditions of the match and the mentoring relationship

Pre-match social activities between mentor and participant pools

Team building activities to reduce anxiety of the first meeting

7. A monitoring process that includes:

Consistent, scheduled meetings with staff, mentors, and participants

A tracking system for ongoing assessment

Written records

Input from community partners, family and significant others

A process for managing grievances, praise, re-matching, interpersonal

problem solving, and premature relationship closure

8. A support, recognition, and retention component that includes:


A formal kick-off event

Ongoing peer support groups for volunteers, participants, and others

Ongoing training and development

Relevant issue discussion and information dissemination

Networking with appropriate organizations

Social gatherings of different groups as needed

Annual recognition and appreciation event

Newsletters or other mailings to participants, mentors, supporters, and

funders

9. Closure steps that include:

Private and confidential exit interviews to debrief the mentoring

relationship between:

Participant and staff

Mentor and staff

Mentor and participant without staff

Clearly stated policy for future contacts

Assistance for participants in defining next steps for achieving personal

goals

10. An evaluation process based on:

Outcome analysis of program and relationship

Program criteria and statement of purpose

Information needs of board, funders, community partners, and other

supporters of the program. (Associates, para. 3)


Outreach Efforts

Outreach efforts differ greatly by program characteristics such as program goals, target

population, specific services and modes and times of delivery. The factors outlined below make

up part of a model, developed by the Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis at the

University of Southern California, for comparing and evaluating outreach programs (Tierney &

Hagedorn, 2002). By identifying and prioritizing the factors that meet the specific needs of their

students and schools, practitioners can better tailor program referrals and target specific

programs for partnerships as indicated below (Pathways to College, n.d.). Specific program

delivery strategies include:

General characteristics

Primary role and mission

Target population

Program size

Program location

Primary funding sources

Desired outcomes

Improved study skills

High school completion

Academic preparation

College attendance

College graduation

Program Hosts/Sponsors

Private non-profit organizations


Community groups

Colleges and universities

K-12 schools

Federal or state governments

Academic services

Preparatory courses

Supplemental courses

Non-academic services

Field trips

College fairs

Campus visits

Cultural activities

Modes of delivery

Classroom instruction

Workshops/ small groups

Assessment and testing

Times of delivery

In-school activities

After-school programs

Weekend workshops

Summer bridge programs


Pre-College Academic Preparation Programs

Pre-college outreach programs vary a great deal across the country. Most programs

commonly target students from low-income backgrounds in middle and/or high school

(Cunningham, Redmond and Merisotis, 2003). According to Gullatt and Jan (2003), “The

services provided by collegiate outreach programs aim to counter negative school community

influences (lack of rigorous curriculum, poorly trained teachers, lack of role models) by

providing the missing elements that help students aspire to, prepare for, and obtain college

enrollment” (Gullatt & Jan, 2003, pp. 4-5). Gullatt & Jan (2003) also identified several common

features of outreach programs from a review of the relevant literature: high standards for

program students and staff; personalized attention for students, adult role models; peer support,

K-12/program integration and strategically timed interventions; long-term investment in

students; a school/society bridge for students; scholarship assistance; and evaluation designs that

contribute results to interventions.

The Federal TRIO programs, Upward Bound and GEAR UP are national models of pre-

college academic advising programs. Longitudinal research on the effectiveness of pre-college

advising programs is limited due to the unique nature of each program. However, research is

more available on Upward Bound and GEAR UP due to the size and scope of the federally

supported programs.

Upward Bound

Results of pre-college programs with a mentoring component are mixed. Upward Bound

is an intensive, federally funded educational opportunity program focused on providing

mentoring and academic instruction to increase the college aspirations of underrepresented


youth. Nationally, over 900 Upward Bound programs serve more than 65,000 students (The Pell

Institute, 2009).

The program, which serves low-income, first-generation students in grades 7-12, has a

goal of increasing the number of high school graduates that pursue post- secondary education

(Empty Promises, 2002). Participants receive academic instruction in math and science,

mentoring, college counseling, tutoring, personal counseling, post- secondary course selection,

advising and assistance completing applications for student financial aid. The service delivery

model may include weekly meetings, Saturday instruction and summer programming.

Evaluation and research of the program have centered on effectiveness and impact on

college enrollment for underrepresented students. A 1997 national evaluation of Upward Bound

programs found:

1. Many students remained in the program for a limited amount of time- On average

students only remained with the program for 19 months.

2. Upward Bound had no impact of graduation rates or student achievement.

3. Upward Bond may have some impact on post-secondary success. The study did not

follow students long enough to determine impact upon graduation.

4. Upward Bound has more impact with certain populations. Academically poor

performers, males and Hispanics benefitted more from program services than their

counterparts. (Myers & Schirm, 1999)

A 2009 controversial evaluation shows ineffective program results. The Mathematica

Policy Research studied the effects of the Upward Bound program on post-secondary success.

The report found that the Upward Bound program had no observable effect on college

enrollment, financial aid application or receipt or degree completion (Mathematica Policy


Research, Inc., 2009). Furthermore, the report noted that Upward Bound program attracted

students that were motivated and able to succeed without the intervention. A subsequent study,

conducted in response to research design flaws refuted the findings of the study. Dr. Margaret

Cahalan, Project Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, found that the Mathematica study

had technical issues and contained extreme unequal weighting among other issues. Her study

concluded that Upward Bound participants were more likely to:

1. Complete a four-year degree in math or science,

2. Enroll in selective four-year institutions,

3. Major in math or science disciplines,

4. Take chemistry and physics coursework in high school, and

5. Improve grades in math and science (as cited in Pell Institute, 2009, p. 3).

GEAR UP

Like Upward Bound, GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for

Undergraduate Programs) is designed to increase preparation for and success in college for

students in high poverty schools. GEAR UP grants are provided to states and partnering

organizations to deliver services at high poverty middle and high school. Student cohort groups

receive services from the 7th grade through high school. The service delivery model includes

school wide services to increase knowledge about college admissions, assistance with financial

aid applications and parental information about college. Services for students are delivered to an

entire school, a unique feature of the GEAR Up program. Some states also fund scholarships for

students.

Comprehensive research on the impact of the GEAR UP program is difficult due to the

relative newness of the program. A 2005 study of two schools, GEAR UP and non-GEAR UP


students in grades 8-10, found that students from GEAR UP schools were more likely to be on

track to be more college ready in English and Reading and had slightly greater academic

performance (National Council for Community and Education Partnerships, 2007).

Elements of Success

College access assistance as an empowering intervention is an emerging process. Due to

the nature and perception of the counselor’s role they tended to discourage low-achieving

students from attending college. History bears witness that every profession purports the same

story; “There is a shift in preparation away from apprenticeship methods and work experience

toward graduation from specialized university programs” (Grubb & Lazerson, 2004, p. 63).

Enrollment in postsecondary education is a process that begins several years prior to the

time of matriculation. “People decide to go to college for many reasons. Others decide not to go,

or to leave college, for just as many reasons. Economic, social, and psychological factors all can

play a role in these decisions” (Mumper, 1996, p. 192). The sequential steps to college

enrollment might be considered as, first, deciding what the student wants to pursue; secondly,

academic preparation for college-level work, taking the SAT or ACT and obtaining a successful

score above the cut standard for admission, filing applications to the institutions to which they

want to apply, and finally gaining acceptance and make financial and other arrangements (Choy,

2001, p. 22).

Some people perceive low achieving students as lacking potential. Counselors who

discourage student achievement based on their perception of the lack of psychosocial skills and

intrinsic motivation are far fewer than forty or fifty years ago. When considering the role of

education and the often low SES of children who come from families where they are first time

college-goers, there can be one clear outcome if they are not supported and encouraged to attain


a college education. As Mickelson (2000) expressed, “Education offers poor children hope and

literacy; without education, there is poverty with little hope” (p. 273).

Students may be encouraged to consider the community colleges as their initial

collegiate access point. Minority students from low-income families suffer most from the lack of

academic preparation and social, cultural, knowledge to attain post- secondary enrollment”

(Noguera, 2001; Wimberly & Noeth, 2004). However, as more extrinsic support mechanisms

become available and parents better understand the processes necessary to enroll in traditional

four-year programs, there may be greater support and enablement of students to enter colleges

and universities in anticipation of receiving a four-year degree (Arnold, 1999, p. 7).

The number of students who enter four year colleges since the 1960s has doubled.

However, in the community colleges, in the same number of years, the number of students

enrolling has increased five hundred percent. According to Rosenbaum et al. (2010), “Today

nearly half of all new college students attend community colleges, and counselors can promise

virtually all students they will be able to attend college, since open admissions offers access for

nearly everyone” (p. 5).

Traditional students may be paying for expert advice and hiring coaches for assistance to

gain better test scores for admission. Low-achieving, and underrepresented students are having a

difficult time manuvering a system that is flooded with applications and low admission rates in

2011. Hiring test coaches has become a trend. “In 2009, 26% of all top SAT scorers hired an

outside coach, 120,000 high school seniors hired educational consultants, and $3,000 was the

average amount a family paid for admissions advice” (Average US high school students, 2012,

para.1) .


There are some predictors in college going behaviors that may be impacted by strategies

that are assessed and reformed with a focus on increasing student achievement. Some of the

strategies may include: curricular offerings, academic norms and expectations, availability of

human and physical resources that support students’ academic achievement, quality of

relationships among teachers and staff, and the quality of social relations between students and

teachers (Klopett & Martinez, 2005, p. 60). A powerful, yet sometimes overlooked, influence is

that of peers and the support function they offer through pre-existing relationships. Research by

Sokatch suggests “Friends’ plans are found to be the single best predictor of four-year college

enrollment for low-income urban minority high school graduates when controlling for variables

traditionally assumed to affect college-going” (Sokatch, 2006).

The perspective of college completion diminishes the likelihood of success to students

taking high-intensity, high-quality course work in high school (Adelman, p. 3). These predictors

appear to be more pronounced for African- American and Latino students than any other pre-

college indicators for success. Adelman (1999) suggests one indicator of pre-college

preparedness that forecasts toward positive expectations of completion of a bachelor’s degree is

that students “finishing a course beyond the level of Algebra II (for example, trigonometry or

pre-calculus) in their secondary education more than doubles the odds that when the student

enters postsecondary education she will complete a bachelor’s degree” (p. 199, p.4). It is often

the case that when students whose parents or caretakers did not attend college; there is no prior

knowledge or connection to the comprehension of the process needed to begin an appropriate

search that culminates in the selection of a college that strategically fits the goals and aspirations

of the college-bound student.


College students are often perplexed in their approach to how they may be successful as

they begin their search for post-secondary educational opportunities. This challenge may often

be exacerbated when there is little to no prior background or relationship on which the student

may rely for guidance. The students often have not been exposed to systematic searches or

analyses that engage the natural sequencing of student cognitive processes once they determine a

logical starting point. They may complain that they do not know where to begin and have no

assistance locating a point that both emerges into a successful search and culminates in a

conclusion that individually meets their needs. The need for change has not gone unnoticed.

Some school restructuring to encourage new strategies for emphasis on college preparedness has

focused on structural elements including “curricular offerings, academic norms and expectations,

availability of human and physical resources that support students’ academic achievement,

quality of relationships among teachers and staff, and quality of social relations between students

and teachers (Klopott, Martinez, Swail, & Williams, 2004, p. 3.)

Five Pillars

Donald Collins states there are Five Pillars of success. The five supporting pillars for

success are: Social Preparation, Academic Preparation, Parent, Family and Community

Engagement, Financial Means and Aid, and the Will to Power (Collins, 2011, pp. 2-3).

Social Preparation focuses on the world outside of the student’s typical environment.

Collins stated, “Most disadvantaged and underrepresented students are inadequately prepared for

cultural, social class, philosophical, ideological and spiritual differences between them and most

traditional college and college-age students” (Collins, 2011, p. 2). Critical thinking becomes an

important process of everyday life due to the many changes outside of the smaller environment

to which they may be accustomed. They may experience an inordinate need to find a place


among strangers and a passion for learning to season them and find a level of engagement that

leads to success.

According to Donald Collins, “Academic preparation is one important aspect of a

student’s social preparation for college, but it’s not the only one,” (Collins, 2011, p. 2). Students

who begin the process of successfully working toward acceptance into a college of their choice

are not engaging the global context of the process because they lack exposure to the multi-

faceted considerations outside of academics that will ultimately create a new social framework

for their lives. Klopett and Martinez found that “Among the predictors of college-going

behavior, academic rigor and strong social and academic support was the most crucial predictor’s

of a student’s successful enrollment in, and completion of, postsecondary institutions (Klopett &

Martinez, 2005, p. 57).

Students understand that postsecondary education is a higher level of education and that

it will require a place of importance in their lives to be successful. There is no formula that, when

applied, guarantees success or measurable secondary teaching strategy that will guarantee

successful outcomes. It appears that high-stakes testing may have placed the emphasis more on

the teacher than the success of the student. While the focus has been on content and the ability of

the student to play it back when tested, this focus has not come without a loss in other areas.

Students must be able to use higher- order critical thinking to analyze and interpret facts so

information can be put together in unique ways that defy the use of simple reading of a textbook.

Students must be trained to think for themselves to be successful in combination with the

pedagogical processes prescribed for successful teaching and learning. Collins (2011) suggests

this process “requires good-to-great teachers, administrators, and students (p. 2).


The third pillar is involved with the engagement of parent(s), family and community.

Donald Collins states that, “This aspect of K-12 educational success never gets the attention it

deserves” (Collins, 2011, p. 2). The involvement and engagement of parents and their children

in a familial and community context may empower students to be more successful in their school

life. They may also find more cohesion on the life-school continuum as they bridge from

varying stages of academic achievement and, ultimately, to post-secondary education. This

involvement encourages communication and understanding and discourages what Collins refers

to as potential to, “evolve into abuse of staff and teachers, particularly with parents and families

who have unrealistic expectations of their children and their children’s teachers,” (Collins, 2011,

p. 2).

The Fourth Pillar of Access and Success addresses the importance of financial aid. The

emphasis is not necessarily in awareness that there may be potential sources of financial aid but

rather the active pursuit of those resources. The goal, according to Collins, is to “engage parents

to find additional funds and to agitate for more need-based state and federal aid” (Collins, 2011,

p. 3). Students who are completing the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) are

required to provide the current tax information from their parents’ tax return. Parents and

students are assigned a Personal Information Number (PIN) and sign electronically. When

parents are requested to engage this process they may be very skeptical about releasing this

personal information and may, in some cases, refuse to assist the student by completing their part

of the application. No federally assisted student aid may be awarded without a completed

FASFA because the Financial Aid Office at the schools to which the student applies needs the

index number generated from the information on the application before awarding aid. There are


also resources that may be private, or merit-based to add to the funding required for the student

to enter and persist to completion in her degree.

According to Collins, the final pillar is “Will to Power, and is the difference between

success and failure for any student based on how much pain they are willing to endure to be

successful in finishing a college degree” (Collins, 2011, p. 5). There may be many programs and

interventions occurring from the middle school years through high school when the student

engages the processes that are encouraging toward matriculation into whatever venue of post-

secondary education she identifies as her appropriate strategic fit for post-secondary success.

Ultimately, however, the success of each student depends on how the student “plans to overcome

whatever obstacles they face” (Collins, 2011, p. 5). It is important that students take ultimate

responsibility for their actions; engaging a plan to matriculate into post-secondary opportunities.

Rothstein states that, “If the nation can’t close the gaps in income, health, and housing there is

little prospect of equalizing achievement” (Rothstein, 2004, p. 131). Consequently, the

importance of the focus of college access initiatives in concert with teachers and counselors to

support the process of accessibility to those who do not have the resources and support

mechanisms in place becomes crucial.

Exculpate or Blame

As a nation, we need young people to become skilled carpenters, electricians, lab

technicians, L.P. nurses, and drill sergeants. By pushing college to the exclusion of other options,

we indulge in what might be called the inadvertent bigotry of inappropriate expectations. If we

are not careful, we can send a subtle message to students who fail to live up to those expectations

and who choose other goals for themselves, that their inadequacies are so great they cannot hope

to be successful. This can be discouraging when it is harshly implied that some students are


simply not good enough to get into college (Rosenbaum et al., 2010, p. 9). There has been a shift

in the paradigm of expectation by employers and in the relational connections with the screening

processes for employment and schools that tends to demand a more well- rounded education in

those who expect to be successful. Bell and Johnson stated that, “The need to educate, rather

than to train, by balancing immediately applicable skills with longer range attributes has

intensified the pedagogic challenge created by diversification of the student body” (Bell &

Johnson, 1995, p. xv).

Key factors that have been isolated as predictors of students at-risk have been socio-

economic background and their racial or ethnic backgrounds (Arbona, 2005, p. 527). College

access assistance programs may need a more global focus on the strategic fit and potential for

success of their constituents as they consider not only the interface of the students with the

process, but that of the family as well. Pre-college outreach programs may tend to focus their

recruitment efforts on low-income, minority students individually, in classroom settings or whole

schools. Some of the primary considerations college access programs might include are

counseling, academic enrichment, parental interventions, social and cultural enrichment,

mentoring, college scholarships, and evaluation of program’s activities (Arbona, 2005, p. 531).

The breadth and scope of access interventions is such that failure to engage one or any

combination of the programs’ components can lead to failure. One additional perspective by Bell

and Johnson is that “colleges and universities must think more carefully about how to evaluate

the outcome of collegiate education which would, of course, give guidance to the schools” (Bell

& Johnson, 1995, p. 185.)

A critical consideration that will stop the application process from continuing is a

parent’s failure to provide financial information required to assess potential for the student to


receive financial aid. The failure to release this integral piece of financial data may sound the

death knell for the process.

Students and parents may desire the success they believe accompanies completion of

post-secondary education but are challenged when engaging the adequate preparation and

intrinsic motivation required when completing the process successfully. Bracco and Kirst (2004)

stated,

High school and parent aspirations for postsecondary education entrance and completion,

sends clear signals about necessary preparation and standards for postsecondary

education and it will have a positive impact on motivation as one mechanism for trying to

equalize the playing field. (p. 20)

The necessary preparation must include all required steps to bring the process to a successful

completion. Parents can become very suspicious of processes with which they are unfamiliar;

particularly when confidential information is requested. Therefore, to avoid the potential of a

systematic failure, parents need to be engaged and confident in the process.

Teachers and their attitudes toward the potential a student has for successfully entering

postsecondary education can have a distinct impact on a student’s self-perception and,

consequently, their personal belief they can be successful in gaining admission to the school and

program of their choice.

No matter how carefully he deliberates or how artfully he develops alternative modes of

instruction, the teacher is forever involved in constituting meanings. This act of forming applies

to perspectives on the teaching act, on education viewed as intentional undertaking and as social

enterprise. It applies to the perspectives through which persons are seen, knowledge structure

apprehended and ethical problems resolved. Also, it applies to questions touching on dissent,


reform, and the transformation of cultural institutions; it applies to the methods chosen for

responding to the inhumanities of the time. The teacher cannot assert that the schools should or

should not dare to change the social order. He must choose the part he will play in such an effort

(Greene, 1973, p. 272).

When students fail to be successful in their educational goals, parents, teachers,

administrators and other vested parties may tend to exculpate themselves from accountability.

Greene suggests that the teacher is a viable participant in molding and making the social

enterprise of further education tenable and thereby instills an added value in the emotional

engagement of the student in the process. This places an additional burden on the educator

because, as stated by Boyles, “Teachers are usually interested in a process of learning that

encourages students to actively seek answers to questions and apply the developmental

knowledge to their lives and experiences” (Boyles, 2000, p. 155). The relational interest of

students and teachers may be a viable influence that provides the momentum needed for

students, where familial support structures are lacking, to be successful. While the student may

not reach out to the teacher in the context of assistance for completing the necessary steps to be

granted admittance to a post-secondary institution, the naturalistic and authoritative relationship

in lieu of more traditional support systems, may serve as the catalyst that assures positively

engaged momentum and avoids potential failure.

School counselors have historically been the avenue through which students sought

counsel regarding postsecondary pursuits. Counselors may not have the time to devote to the

focus of college issues. This leads to frustration with consequences of the student likewise

becoming frustrated (Bueschel & Venezia, 2004, p. 169). According to Finn, teachers may need

to be “able to take others perspectives, appreciate the complexity of social relationships, look for


root causes rather than simplistic solutions, and be accountable to themselves for errors while

possessing the courage and vision to act” (Finn, 1999, p. 195). This is a level of responsibility

that may be highly diverse and considered by some educators to transcend the scope of their

responsibility. This dynamic changes the role of the teacher to a more inclusive one of counselor,

role model, educator, guide, and mentor. These roles, and their powerful inherent influence, are

important to each student as they blaze a path through new areas of ingress leading to college

matriculation.

Discussion

The Oasis College Connection (OCC) provides services to students to help them navigate

the college application process. The OCC uses the A6 service delivery model as a guide to

deliver services to students. The A6 framework is a tool to structure services and resources to

build aspirations, awareness, actualization, affordability, achievement, and attainment. The five

pillars offer a theoretical framework to link student development theory to the A6 service

delivery model. Collins’ (2006) Five Pillars to College Access and Success suggest that students

need five foundational skills or support to be successful college applicants: social preparation,

academic preparation, financial aid, family and community engagement and will to power.

The review of current literature examined the barriers that prevent successful college

enrollment. Research suggests that lack of parental knowledge, low aspiration, and academic

preparation can negatively impact the college-going rate for minorities and students from low

socio-economic backgrounds. Researchers also explored the role of the high school guidance

counselor as an instrumental resource agent in the college application process. While debate

continues about the professional responsibility of counselors, further research is necessary to


determine the exact information that counselors should distribute and how they should be trained

to educate students and parents about the college-going process.

The literature review also explored similar pre- college programs such as GEAR UP and

Upward Bound. While there is still debate about the benefits and cost effectiveness of Upward

Bound, the relatively new GEAR UP program demonstrates promise and provides an opportunity

for further research.

The Oasis College Connection is built on a mentoring program model. Students are

paired with a program mentor to help them explore resources and gain confidence to navigate the

college admissions process. A review of mentoring research offers promise that strong mentoring

relationships can increase self-efficacy. However, relationships that do not offer adequate contact

time can prove to have a negative effect on students. Since the Oasis College Connection does

not prescribe a required number of contact hours between the student and program services,

researchers will strongly consider the relationship between contact hours and college admission

rates.

The Oasis College Connection gives students access to information and resources and a

mentor to help them navigate the confusing system of college applications and financial aid. As

the students work with the program, their self-efficacy increases, resulting in increased

confidence while applying for college. The Oasis College Connection provides valuable support

for the most vulnerable students. The literature suggests that program components are research-

based to target areas that will assist students who need it most to achieve admission to college.


Chapter III: Methodology

Research Design

The research team employed a mixed-methods approach to examine the relationship

between the work of the Oasis College Connection and student success in gaining college

acceptance. The Five Pillars, which served as the theoretical framework, guided the research

focus. The A6 Framework, which is the service delivery model used at Oasis, in combination

with the Five Pillars, provided a rubric through which program services were evaluated.

The philosophy of the Oasis College Connection is deeply rooted in the A6 framework,

which seeks to identify gaps in college attainment for students from first-generation, low-

income, households. The framework consists of six foundational pillars: aspirations, attainment,

affordability, achievement, awareness and actualization (Oasis College Connection, n.d.). Oasis

utilizes the framework as a service delivery model to guide their work with students. The client

seeks to understand how contact with the College Connection will impact a student’s ability to

become more intrinsically motivated to pursue college or post-secondary opportunities. Contact,

as defined by the client, refers to conversations via phone, email, and/or in person where

information is shared between a college mentor and the student. Oasis believes that contacts

between a student and mentor will lead to an increased level of confidence, awareness,

aspirations and attainment, as evidenced by visits in the Naviance college access system.


college advising and promoting self-efficacy while guiding students through the college



Research Questions


college advising and promoting self-efficacy focused on guiding students through the college


The researchers explored the following research questions:

Is there a relationship between the number of visits in Naviance as guided by a college

mentor from the Oasis College Connection and acceptance to college?

How do students perceive the effectiveness of the services provided by Oasis College

Connection?

Does the Oasis College Connection program influence program participants to apply to

college?

Does the Oasis College Connection significantly increase the self-efficacy of students


Does the A6 framework as a service delivery model impact participant motivation to

attend college?

Instrumentation

The researchers utilized an electronic online questionnaire to gather insight from the

perspective of the OCC participants (Appendix E). The questionnaire was developed through

Zoomerang, a web-based statistical program that specializes in data collection and response

sampling. The questionnaire consisted of 16 questions. There were 11 Likert Scale quantitative

questions and 2 open-ended qualitative questions. The remaining questions are strategically

designed to measure the level of confidence that students indicated in order to correlate their

responses to the construct of self-efficacy. Additionally, the questionnaire included a statement


regarding informed consent. All participants were provided with full disclosure about the

purpose and significance of the study in order to gain their consent. Participation was strictly

voluntary.

Pilot Testing

This study was piloted test in a classroom setting of six students who indicated a clear

understanding of the context, questions and purpose of it. They were objective in their

participation and had no connection to the study itself, or Lipscomb University.

Research Participants

For the purpose of this study, the sample population consisted of 12th grade high school

students who participated in the Oasis College Connection during the 2010-11and the 2011-12

cohort cycles. Quantitative methods were used to analyze data from Cohort I. The College

Connection had a cumulative total of 216 students from the 2011 class who have acceptance data

on file. However, the true sample consisted of 84 students who had both acceptance data and a

log of the number of visits listed in Naviance.

The population of respondents taking the online questionnaire consisted of

approximately 588 students. This consisted of 216 students from the 2011 cohort and 372

students from the 2012 cohort. Students who attended local MNPS magnet schools were

purposely removed from the sample population. The online questionnaires from Martin Luther

King and Hume-Fogg Magnet high schools were intentionally removed in order to maintain the

integrity of the data. Many of these students had ACT scores at or above 25 before their senior

year on average; thus, to maintain the purity of the sample, these data were not included.

The researchers believe that the sample reflects the diverse population of students who

attend the various high schools within the Metropolitan Nashville Public School District (MNPS)


and mirrors the target population of Oasis. The MNPS school district currently serves 80,000

students. Demographically, the student make-up is 46% African-American, 17.3 % Hispanic,

32.5% White, 3.9% Asian and 0.2% other (MNPS Fact sheet, 2012).

Data Collection Procedures

Focus group interviews were utilized to gain deeper insight into the respondents’

experiences with the Oasis College Connection. The researchers conducted in-depth interviews

that provided perceptual data, which served as a basis to generalize the thoughts and feelings of

the respondents about how well the Oasis College Connection met their needs. Participants were

randomly chosen by the Oasis College Connection staff to participate in the focus groups. The

focus groups were conducted on Wednesday, May 2, 2012 and Thursday, May 3, 2012. The

participants were all from one of the area schools receiving OCC services. Each group session

was approximately 45 to 60 minutes long. Researchers also interviewed Oasis College

Connection mentors on Tuesday, May 29. Six mentors from Oasis College Connection were

present. Responses were recorded and notes were taken by hand. Data were coded and analyzed

in order to gain student perceptions about the effectiveness of the services and resources that are

provided by Oasis.

Access to the referral database, Compass, was provided by the client in order to establish

contact with students from the previous cohorts. The limited amount of complete data as

provided by the client created a fully randomized sample of participants for the statistical

analysis portion of the study. As a result of data collection restrictions, students who possessed

both recorded visits in Naviance and college acceptance data automatically met the criteria to be

included in the population. Thus, these cases were selected and added to the sample. Cases that

did not include both acceptance and recorded visits were automatically disqualified from being


in the sample. Once referral data were received from the Oasis College Connection staff, the

researchers emailed the Zoomerang survey to all OCC respondents from cohorts I and II.

Quantitative/Statistical Analysis

Quantitative research methods were utilized to determine whether or not a relationship

exists between the number of visits in Naviance and college acceptance. The research team

used a correlation design to determine whether or not there was a relationship between college

acceptance and visits in Naviance as guided by a college mentor. Student self-efficacy was

determined quantitatively through a series of Likert Scale items in a questionnaire (Appendix D)

that provided a realistic perspective for the researchers about the level of confidence the

respondents gained as a result of contact hours with a college mentor.

The researchers tested the following null hypotheses for study:


Naviance with OCC and the number of student applications for post-secondary college or career

opportunities.




self-initiated visits in Naviance with OCC based on ethnic classification of students.


with the OCC based on gender classification of students.

H05: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number to Naviance with the

OCC and G.P.A.




Variables

Descriptive Statistics were used to determine the means of the following variables:

Number of Self-Initiated Naviance visits

Application to a 2-year or 4-year institution as attributed to OCC participation

Acceptance/Entrance to 2-year or 4-year institution as attributed to OCC participation

Ethnicity

Gender

ACT Scores

Grade Point Average- G.P.A.

An ANOVA test was used to determine the differences between and among the mean in the

number of visits in Naviance and the following variable(s):

Ethnicity

An Independent Samples t-Test was used to determine the statistical difference between the

number of visits in Naviance and the following variable(s):

Gender

Simple Regression tests were used to determine the degree of statistical relationship between the

number of visits in Naviance and the following variables:

Number of college applications

Number of acceptances to colleges/universities

Grade Point Average

ACT scores


Self-efficacy was measured by the degree of confidence that each respondent indicated to the

following questions on the instrument:

1. Q3- As a result of participation with the Oasis College Connection, I am more

knowledgeable about college admission and acceptance requirements.

2. Q8-I feel comfortable pursuing college and/ or post-secondary career opportunities on my

own as a result of my participation with the Oasis College Connection

3. Q10- Did time spent with the Oasis College Connection personally motivate you to pursue

college or post-secondary opportunities?

Qualitative Analysis

The theoretical framework for this study guided the researchers’ examination of the

effectiveness of the Oasis Center College Connection on increasing the motivation and self-

efficacy for participating students to complete the college-going process. The program model is

based on the assumption that if students receive guidance and support through mentoring and

other connections, their motivation to complete the tasks involved with college application will

increase. Students will also experience an increase in their own self-efficacy to seek information

and accomplish tasks. Focus group interviews with current and former program participants and

current Oasis College Connection mentors were used to capture data about the perceived

effectiveness of the services that are provided by the Oasis College Connection from the student

and staff perspectives. Additionally, these data assisted the researchers in gaining more insight

into the perceptions of students who have previously received pre-college services in order to

determine whether or not they feel more supported in their pursuit of college or post-secondary

opportunities as a result of their participation in the College Connection.


Ethical Considerations

The researchers of this study fully understood their role in protecting the parties involved.

In accordance with the University requirements, all of the researchers received specialized

training and certification in human subjects testing prior to conducting formal research.

Additionally, the researchers attended mandatory training sessions provided by the client (Oasis)

in order to obtain clearance to conduct research with at-risk students who were participants or

were under the supervision of Oasis Center College Connection. All of the participants in the

study, in addition to the information shared by the respondents, remained strictly anonymous.

Neither their identities nor their integrity were compromised as a result of their opinions or the

findings contained within this study. The researchers believed that the risk to the participants

was minimal and was further minimized by protecting and privatizing the information. The

information and consent forms were kept on file for the period of no less than one calendar year

from the date of receipt and were filed in a lockable storage unit.


Chapter IV: Data Analysis

This chapter includes an analysis of the data collected from participants in the Oasis

College Connection (OCC) program. Quantitative and qualitative data collection measures were

used to give the researchers a comprehensive understanding of the impact of the services

provided by the Oasis College Connection. All participants in the OCC database were asked to

provide their insight about the program via email. Each of the participants was sent a brief

questionnaire containing 16 questions, which consisted of quantitative questions (Likert scale)

and qualitative open response questions. Data from the survey instrument and the OCC

participant database were used to test the hypotheses presented in the study. Twelve participants

were selected by the Oasis Center College Connection to participate in four focus groups.

Additionally, six current college mentors participated in a focus group. Focus group responses

were used to generate qualitative data to answer the research questions.

Quantitative Data

Demographic Information. For the purpose of this study, the target population consisted

of 12th grade high school students who participated in the Oasis College Connection during the

2010-11 and the 2011-12 cohort cycles. Quantitative analysis was conducted on 12th grade

students who completed the 2011 cohort cycle at Oasis. Records provided by the Oasis College

Connection indicated that a cumulative total of 216 Metro Nashville Public School students from

the 2011 class had acceptance data on file. However, the true sample consisted of 84 students

who had both acceptance data and a log of the number of self-initiated visits listed in Naviance

that could be used to test for evidence of a correlation. Students who attended Martin Luther

King and Hume-Fogg Magnet High Schools were purposely excluded from the study because the

average ACT composite score at each of these schools is a 25 or higher.


By gender, 45% of the population consisted of male participants and 55% were female

participants. Additionally, 76.2% of the participants were African-American, 10.7% of the

participants were White, and 13.1% were other. The “other” category consisted of students who

identified themselves as Hispanic, Asian or other nationalities. Additional nationalities of the

participants included students from Ghana, Vietnam, Korea, and India.

Descriptive Statistics

The researchers conducted statistical analysis testing on a sample of the population which

consisted of 84 participants from the 2011 cohort of the Oasis College Connection. The nominal

variables used in the study were ethnicity, gender, and grade. Scaled variables used in the data

analysis were: G.P.A., number of self-initiated visits in Naviance, number of applications to a

college/university, number of college/university acceptances, and ACT composite score. The

researchers performed statistical analyses using SPSS 19.0 software to ensure that each of the

variables was normally distributed. Skewness and kurtosis measures for the number of visits,

number of applications, and number of acceptances were not found to be normally distributed as

indicated by having values that were out of the acceptable range of -1 and 1 for skewness and -2

and 2 for kurtosis. Thus, non-parametric tests were used to determine whether or not statistical

significance was present.

Means

The data, as shown in Table 1, provide insight about the combined averages and possible

variation of averages as demonstrated through the standard deviation. The mean for the number

of visits averaged 8.13. However, the minimum value for this variable ranged from as few as

one visit for participants to as high as 41 visits. Additionally, the researchers can infer through


the data that the average participant applied to at least two colleges and would be accepted at

least once. Participant values for G.P.A averaged 2.839, but ranged from 1.78 to 4.00.

Table 1

Comparison of Means for Scale Variables

Variable

Mean

Standard Deviation

N=number

No. Visits

No. Applications

No. Acceptances

G.P.A

ACT

8.13

2.04

1.27

2.839

17.03

8.738

2.033

.883

.54401

3.544

84

84

84

51

35


Null Hypothesis 1


Naviance with OCC and the number of student applications for post-secondary college or career

opportunities.

By using regression tests, the researchers intended to determine whether or not a

statistically significant relationship exists between the number of applications and the number of

self-initiated visits in Naviance. As indicated in Table 2, the p-value (.038) indicates that there is

a statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance and

the number of applications. The null hypothesis was rejected. Thus, the researchers can

reasonably infer that as participants increased their respective number of visits, the number of

college applications that participants completed also increased.

Table 2

Regression Tests for Number of Visits and Number of Applications

Variables

n mean

R

r2

F

P

Visits/Applications

84 2.04

.227

.052

4.554

.038


The R-squared value of .052 indicated that 5.2% of the variability in the number of applications

can be explained by the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance. Given the significance of

these data, the findings strongly suggest that the use of the Naviance database was an influential

factor in creating interest for low-income, first generation students that may desire to apply to

college.

Null Hypothesis 2



The observed p-value of (.463), as indicated in Table 3, demonstrates that there is no

statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance and

the number of college acceptances each participant had obtained. Therefore, the null hypothesis

was retained. The R-squared value (.007), indicated that the number of Naviance visits would

explain less than one percent of the variability in acceptances of each participant.

Table 3

Regression Test for Acceptances and Number of Visits

Variables n mean r r2 F p

Visits/Acceptances 84 1.27 .081 .007 .544 .463


Null Hypothesis 3


self-initiated visits in Naviance with OCC based on the ethnic classification of students.

The data shown in Table 4 indicates that the African-American population was the largest

sub-group of participants, yet accounted for the lowest average number of visits among all

groups. Inversely, the white sub-group, which accounted for the least number of participants,

had the highest average number of visits. The skewness and kurtosis indicators for ethnicity

were out of the acceptable range, which was an indication to the researchers that this variable

was not normally distributed. Thus, non-parametric measures were utilized to determine the

degree to which statistical significance existed. The researchers used the Kruskal-Wallis test to

further examine the significance. The Kruskal-Wallis test indicated that these data were not

significant (p=.211). Since the p-value was greater than .05, the null hypothesis was retained.

Thus, there was no statistically significant difference between the number of self-initiated visits

in Naviance based on the ethnic classification of students.

Table 4

ANOVA for Number of Visits and Ethnicity

Ethnicity n mean df F p White 9 14.56 --- --- ---

Black 64 7.19 --- --- ---

Other 11 8.36 --- --- --- 2(81) 2.941 .058 *Kruskall-Wallis Test –significance (.211)


Null Hypothesis 4


based on the gender classification of students

Comparisons of descriptive statistics for both variables, as displayed in Table 5, indicated

that equal variances were not present. Accordingly, the researchers employed non-parametric

measures. An Independent Samples Test was conducted in conjunction with the Mann-Whitney

test. The observed p-value was (.532), which is higher than the alpha (.05). The null hypothesis

was retained. It is important to note that female participation in the OCC, as demonstrated

through Naviance, was much higher than male participation. Female participants accounted for

nearly twice as many males. When comparing the means, female participants visited the

Naviance site 1.57 more times than males on average. Yet, there was no statistically significant

difference that would indicate that this mode of college preparation had an advantageous effect

for males or females.

Table 5

Independent Samples Test for Number of Visits and Gender

Visits/Gender n mean Std. Deviation Variance F p Male 29 7.10 7.734 59.810 1.980 .437 Female 55 8.67 9.246 85.484 -- -- *Mann Whitney Test-significance (.532)


Null Hypothesis 5

H05: There is no statistically significant relationship between the number of visits in Naviance

with the OCC and G.P.A.

Student GPA values ranged from a low 1.78 to the highest possible 4.00. The mean GPA

of the participants was 2.839. The p-value of (.270) for the regression test indicates that there is

not a statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance

and a participant’s respective GPA. This would indicate that participation in Naviance did not

increase a student’s GPA, nor was a student’s GPA at any range a significant factor in the

number of self-initiated visits. The R-squared value (.025) as displayed in Table 6 indicated that

a student’s respective GPA at any particular level would only explain 2.5% of the variability in

the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance; which provided empirical evidence that these

factors were not strongly correlated. Therefore, the researchers retained the null hypothesis.

Table 6

Regression for GPA and Number of Visits

Variables

n mean

R

r2

F p

Visits/GPA

51 2.839

.157

0.025

1.243 .270

.


Null Hypothesis 6



The ACT score variable was normally distributed, and equal variances were assumed.

The p-value of (.410) is significantly higher than .05 which indicates that there is not a

statistically significant relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance and

the observed ACT scores of the participants respectively. The R-squared value (.021) as

displayed in Table 7, would predict that ACT scores as a factor, would only explain roughly

2.1% of the variability of the number of visits that a student would have in Naviance. Given the

fact that the mean number of visits is 8.13, two percent of this number would not be significant

enough to correlate the two factors as predictors of success for students receiving pre-college

services. The null hypothesis was retained.

Table 7

Regression for ACT scores and Number of Visits

Variable(s) n mean r r2 F p

Visits/ACT 35 17.03 .144 .021 .696 .410


Survey Responses

Additional quantitative data from the survey instrument provided the researchers with

more insight about the effectiveness of the services provided by Oasis from a broader

perspective. The researchers used the Likert scale to analyze and quantify the responses from the

survey participants. Additionally, “Yes/No” responses and confidence ratings were used to

gather the most accurate insight from the participants as well. Survey question numbers 1, 3, 4,

5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 were analyzed. These data were categorized as shown in the tables below.

Question 1: Please indicate the number of contacts that you have had with the Oasis

College Connection

The researchers were seeking to examine the amount of time that student participants

typically spent or invested with a college mentor from their own respective experiences. As

indicated by Table 8, the questionnaire revealed that 30% (nearly one-third) of the participants

indicated that they had one single contact with an Oasis College Connection mentor.

Collectively, 48% of respondents indicated that they had a minimum of three or more contacts

with a college mentor. Overall, 22.8% of the respondents indicated that they personally made

five or more contacts with an Oasis college mentor during their senior year in pursuit of college

and post-secondary knowledge.


Table 8

Number of Contacts with Oasis College Connection

Number of Contacts

n- Number of Respondents

%- Response Percentage

1 21 30%

2 15 22%

3 10 14%

4 4 6%

5 12 17%

Other Responses

*More than 5

*More than 20

*10 or more

*Around 10 if not more

* A LOT

*REGULARLY

*Everyday

---

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

---

1.45%

1.45%

1.45%

1.45%

1.45%

1.45%

1.45%

Question 3: As a result of participation with the Oasis College Connection, I am

more knowledgeable about college admission and acceptance requirements.

Table 9 indicates that approximately 90% of the respondents overwhelmingly agreed that

they were more knowledgeable about the college admissions and acceptance requirements as a

result of participation with a college mentor. Ten percent of the participants opted to choose

“neutral” as a response, which indicates that they neither “agreed” nor “disagreed.”


Table 9

I am more knowledgeable about college admission and acceptance requirements

Likert Responses



Strongly Agree 32 48%

Agree 28 42%

Neutral 7 10%

Disagree 0 0%

Strongly Disagree 0 0%

Question 4: My High School experience fully prepared me to enter college or other

post- secondary opportunities that meet my personal interest.

As shown in Figure 4, only 10% of respondents expressed disagreement about being fully

prepared to enter college based on their high school academic experience. Twelve-percent had no

opinion on this topic and the overwhelming majority of respondents (78%) felt that their high

school courses, curriculum, and experiences actually prepared them well to be successful after

high school.


Figure 4. High School Experience and Preparation


Question 5: The Oasis College Connection increased my understanding of federal

grants, loans, scholarships and other types of financial aid that I may qualify for.

Survey responses to question five, shown in Table 10, provided valuable insight about the

degree to which students felt comfortable and more knowledgeable about navigating the world of

college finance. These data indicate that 88% of respondents felt that participation with a college

mentor increased their understanding of federal grants, loans, scholarships and other types of

financial aid. Only one respondent expressed disagreement, while seven participants declined to

provide their opinion by choosing “neutral.”

Table 10

Oasis College Connection increased my knowledge of Financial Aid

Likert Responses




Agree 29 42%

Neutral 7 10%

Disagree 1 2%


Total 69 100%


Question 6: The Oasis College Connection provided me with clear post-secondary

options that matched my personal interests.

Data revealed in Table 11, indicates that 84% of the respondents agreed that participation

in OCC provided them with options that matched their personal interests. Disagreement was

expressed by 3% of the participants. These data suggested that the OCC model is an effective

tool in assisting pre-college students in determining the options that work best for them. These

options include deciding upon a major, semester course load, campus location, and student

housing. Responses to question six provided strong evidence that participation with a college

mentor helped the students in choosing their path.

Table 11

Oasis College Connection provides options that match my personal interests

Likert Responses




Agree 36 53%

Neutral 9 13%

Disagree 2 3%


Total 68 100%


Question 8: I feel comfortable pursuing college/and or post-secondary options on

my own as a result of my participation with the Oasis College Connection.

Responses to question eight, as shown in Figure 5, indicate that 86% of the participants

agreed that they felt more comfortable exploring college or post-secondary options on their own

as a result of participation with the Oasis College Connection. This finding provided key insight

about increasing “student self-efficacy.” These data strongly suggests that students felt more

confident in finding information on their own accord after working with a college mentor.

Figure 5. Level of Student Comfort in Pursuing College Options Independently.


Question 10: Did time spent with Oasis personally motivate you to pursue college?

Table 12 indicates that responses from question ten strongly suggest that 76% of survey

participants were highly motivated to pursue college as a result of working with Oasis College

Connection. The findings further indicated that 3% of respondents did not feel an increased sense

of motivation as a result of working with a college mentor. Additionally, 21% of the respondents

indicated that they were only “somewhat” motivated to pursue college options.

Table 12

Motivation to Pursue College

Response



Yes 52 76%

No 2 3%

Somewhat 14 21%

Total 68 100%


Question 12: How would you rate your ability to find financial aid on your own

after contacting the Oasis College Connection?

Data for question twelve directly relates to student self-efficacy. Figure 6 strongly

suggest that 69% of the students who worked with a college mentor displayed a higher degree of

confidence in their personal ability to identify and pursue financial aid; while inversely, 4%

indicated that they were not confident. This may mean they do not feel confident working

independently. Twenty-six percent of the participants indicated they were only somewhat

confident in their ability to locate financial aid.

Figure 6. Ability to find Financial Aid on your own as a result of OCC participation.


Question 14: Would you refer a friend to the Oasis College Connection

The findings in Figure 7, demonstrate a positive response. Approximately 93% of the

participants indicated that they would refer a friend to the Oasis College Connection. Given the

nature of these findings, it would be reasonable for the researchers to infer that the majority of

OCC participants are pleased with the services.

Figure 7. Would you refer a friend to Oasis College Connection?

Qualitative Analysis

Findings


The qualitative portion of this study was designed to answer two research questions.

1. How do students perceive the effectiveness of the services provided by the Oasis

College Connection?

2. Does the Oasis College Connection significantly increase the self-efficacy of students


Researchers used focus group transcripts and survey instrument responses to focus the qualitative

portion of the study on three key themes: (1) relationships, (2) perceptions of the services

provided by the Oasis College Connection, (3) motivation and self-efficacy.

Relationships

Throughout the interviews, participants placed high value on their relationships with the

Oasis College Connection mentors. It was evident that the mentor is a critical component of

OCC success. In coded analyses, students mentioned the words “relationship” 15 times and

“comfortable” five times. When asked “Do you feel that you developed a meaningful

relationship with the staff at Oasis College Connection?, one participant responded, “I had a

good relationship with them, and they made me feel comfortable and made me think about going

to college.” Another responded, “I can talk to them about anything. I can talk to them in here or

outside of school.” A Nashville State Community College student responded, “It has been a big

role in my life.”

The work of the Oasis Center and the Oasis College Connection is deeply rooted in

giving students a voice in their personal development (Oasis Center, n.d.). Focus group

comments reflected the mentors’ commitment to developing empowering relationships.

Participants seemed to view the mentors more as friends, rather than adults providing advice.

Comments included:


Just a laid-back way people talk to you, not like teachers talk to you. I would say the

comfortable way he makes you feel at ease and the way he talks to you about what you

going to do or not going to do in your life at the time.

Another student reflected:

Well, I mean, at first, it was all professional or just come and talk about school choices

you know and about yourself in general. But now we’re friends. It was very, like,

professional at first, but now we’re friends. We have a very comfortable relationship

now.

When summarizing time with his mentor a student commented, “We talked about college but we

also built good relationships.”

Participants feel very comfortable communicating with the college mentors. While

dropping by the designated office seemed to be the most common method of communication,

students implied that calling and texting, even after hours, was also a part of their regular

communication with the mentor.

A student replied:

Anytime I need them, even if it's 10 o'clock at night or eight o'clock in the morning, I can

call him and then he will contact me. I can talk to them about anything. I can talk to them

in here or outside of school. I know if I called them I will hear back from them usually

within about thirty minutes.

Another student responded: “With me, we like texted all the time, you know, whenever, I have a

question, I just say help me. It's very personal.” An adult student receiving services at Nashville

State said “You hear from the guidance counselors in a day or two, but Ashley is just a call

away. If she's not available or can help me she gets me to talk to somebody in the Oasis Center.”


Students seemed to view the mentors as equals and not as authority figures. Repeatedly,

participants voiced that mentors treated them as “real people.” Students felt respected by the

mentors. A student voiced, “He makes me feel like a real person and talks to me with respect,

and it makes me want to show him a lot of respect.” Another student echoed the sentiment,

“They treated us with respect.”

Oasis College Connection mentors also spoke on the importance of building relationships

with students. One mentor stated, “My goal is that students feel comfortable and know that this is

a safe place. When you get students to open up about fears, it automatically creates a bond.”

Interestingly, mentors also viewed their relationships with students as more friends than

authority figures. A mentor mentioned, “We have a different power relationship than other adults

in school.” Another mentor commented, “We want to change the socialization of young people.”

It is interesting that this mentor mentioned the socialization of young people as a goal of the

program. This goal frames the work with participants more broadly than the stated goal of simply

assisting with college.

Mentors believe that their job is to build relationships with students, and that students

“want to be treated like individuals.” To facilitate relationship building, mentors work to engage

students’ interests about many subjects, not just college. Mentors build relationships with

participants by demonstrating concern and care for all aspects of a participant’s life, not just their

college aspirations. A mentor added, “We are the champions of information, and by offering our

experiences, it gives them the security to move forward.”

Daily time spent with mentors did not seem to impact the quality of the relationships

formed. During focus groups, participants agreed that the typical visit with the Oasis College

Connection mentor was between 30-45 minutes. Mentors agreed that the average time spent with


a student was about 30 minutes. The number of visits to the program is driven by individual

student needs. As one mentor summarized, “The quality of a visit is not based on quantity of

time”; however, a few mentees noted that, due to space limitations and class schedules, it was

sometimes difficult to connect with a mentor. Some mentors are assigned multiple schools and

may visit a particular school only two days a week, missing some students.

Perceptions of Services Provided by Oasis College Connection

Encouraging students to consider college is the primary focus of the work of the Oasis

College Connection. When speaking to researchers, participants revealed that the mentors at

Oasis College Connection encouraged their college aspirations.

A student reported:

He told me how important getting started with everything was to get into college. He told

me what college I need to go to, and whether I need to go to a university or a community

college first and then to the University. He helped me decide on which college I needed

to go to.

A student from East Literature reported:

When we talked they would tell me their point of view and I would tell them my point of

view and they, like, helped me talk about anything I need to talk about. That really

impacted me because I know if I need to come back and talk to them they will always be

here to help me. They deeply impacted my perspective of college. Like, when I first

started to try to think about college, I did not know what college to apply to where I could

go for free. Knowing them has help open doors and showed me things I didn't know

about college. They said what colleges I couldn't afford. As a result of all this, now I'm


getting ready to go and have a full ride and everything that wasn't covered by my

financial aid packages is covered through scholarships.

Financial aid. The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) is the first

requirement when working toward acquiring financial assistance. Scholarships search assistance

is also an important service offered. Students mentioned the FAFSA six times during focus

group sessions. At the Academy at Hickory Hollow a student said:

First of all, he helped me fill out my FAFSA to get that out of the way. Next, he helped

me to figure out which college I need to go to. He told me what I needed to fill out for my

FAFSA, and after that, we just talked about career choices and which one I would take.

We talked a lot about what I'm having to deal with in different ways, so I could do

different things.

Student responses indicate that the FAFSA was one of the first tasks completed with the mentor.

Students also received assistance identifying and completing scholarship applications. An East

Literature student told researchers how Oasis helped him to evaluate colleges and financial aid

and scholarship packages.

I guess the best thing is that it opens us up to new possibilities. Sometimes there are

school programs or scholarships that we didn't know about. I was originally going to

Belmont, but they didn't really offer me anything; but the University of Tennessee at

Knoxville offered me a full ride. I would prefer to go to Belmont, but they didn’t give me

a scholarship. I would say the same thing; you have the opportunities and the help of

others.

Another student agreed. “My representative talked with me about costs and that helped me

realize where other options are. It really helped shape where I live and where I decided to go.”


Additionally, a participant told researchers, “We will talk about what schools, what skills would

give me the most money, and what schools would be the best options so that I will make the best

choice overall.”

College advising. Perhaps one of the most valuable services offered by the Oasis

College Connection is college advising. Sessions with mentors included OCC mentors working

with students to help them identify post-secondary options. In the interview with researchers,

mentors agreed that this service was an extremely valuable part of their job. One mentor

commented, “We believe that everyone can go to college.” Another responded “It’s their future

and no one else’s. We want to help them find the right fit.”

Students also value the advising. A participant shared:

I went in for advising. It was extremely helpful. I did not end up going to my first choice

because, after speaking with my representative, she was extremely helpful when selecting

the school that I will be going to in the fall. It was never my first choice, but in speaking

with her and looking at options, I clearly want to go there, too. I'll be really happy in the

fall. With me, my whole thing was like what he said, the money thing. The help from the

representative was pushing me towards what I wanted to do. That would make me happy.

She gave me a great broad perspective.

Naviance. The Naviance application tool proved to be a valuable tool for some students.

Oasis College Connection uses Naviance to connect students to colleges and resources. A student

commented:

The college connection has been extremely beneficial because it introduced me to

software that I didn't know was accessible. The web-based program was called Naviance.

Through that, I was able to discover several different schools that I did not know about


before. I was able to look for schools based on my standards rather than their standards. I

was also able to find out about the college that I was accepted to, called Wabash. I'm

planning on attending this fall. If I had not had the college connection, I would not have

had the opportunity. It's helpful on a lot of colleges and college scholarships.

Career counseling. Participants summarized that they were encouraged to think about

the type of life they want to live. Students are encouraged to begin with the end in mind. A

student commented,

They were able to give you more perspective on what kind of person I want to be after

graduating in four years. That really helped me in getting a view to see college not just as

I'm going to get a degree, but who I want to be.

Motivation and Self-Efficacy

Oasis College mentors empower students to complete the college-going process.

According to one mentor, “We prompt students to take small steps in the process. They need to

be successful with small steps.” Program participants agreed stating, “He told me what I had to

do, but I had to step-up and do it my own self to do what I had to do to get into my college.”

Another student commented, “They wanted me to be successful. They taught us how to be

independent and to go for it.”

Banduras’ (1997) work on self-efficacy suggests when a student has strong desire to

successfully complete a task they will be successful persisting to its completion. It is more likely

they will prove more successful than students who fail to persevere in their coping efforts. Oasis

College Connection mentors encourage the development of the belief that students can be

successful at the task of completing the college application process.


The impact of enriched self-efficacy was most evident during the focus group interview

at Nashville State Community College. The students interviewed were all African-American

males and first- generation college students. One of the students revealed the impact Oasis

College Connection had on his college decisions.

I would say that every second that I spent with the Oasis Center is the reason that I can

be at this meeting. It helped me out. Not only did they help get me registered and pay for

my application; at the time I had no money. They were constantly on me to make sure

that I got everything done. Also, I would not be here if it was not for the Oasis Center.

They were very helpful and sometimes I didn't understand. They showed me how to

apply for financial aid and that helped me a lot. I would not come to this place or into this

meeting without their help. I learned a lot. They helped me with my books and to get

connected, which was amazing. I'm still using them.

The feeling of increased confidence was echoed by another student:

My first interaction was when I was kind of shy. They helped me break out of my shy

zone and allowed me to interact with more people, also the oasis people. It definitely

helped. We went on a scavenger hunt and she helped us find all the places on campus; in

the building like financial aid, because that's part of the places to find on the scavenger

hunt. They were just so willing to help me.

In expectancy value theory, Sander and Sanders (2006) define expectancies as “A

person’s confidence about their ability to complete tasks that lead to an outcome” (p. 29). The

college mentors work one on one with students, building their confidence and empowering their

decision-making skills. Students consistently indicated their relationship with their mentor, and

in some instances relationship with staff members, increased their confidence and encouraged


them to believe they could go to college. They also reflected in the focus groups that their

relationship with the mentors of the Oasis College Connection had changed their original

thinking about what school would be the best fit for them. They further indicated they felt their

connection to their mentor would continue following college entrance and that their mentor

would only be a “phone call away” for advice when needed. Students also indicated, beyond the

scope of their relationship, that they did not know how to navigate the necessary processes to

apply to college and believed they would not have been as successful without the support of their

mentor. Their work is impactful and makes a difference in the participants’ lives. A student

summarized the work of his mentor: “She gave me a boost. She gave me the confidence to know

that I can do it.”


Chapter V: Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations

Summary

This chapter provides a review of the conclusions, along with recommendations and

implications for future research for the Oasis College Connection. The purpose of this research

study was to examine the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection in providing pre-college

advising and promoting self-efficacy focused on guiding students through the college application

process. Through quantitative and qualitative data analysis, researchers determined that the Oasis

College Connection was successful in providing pre-college services and giving students the

confidence to complete the college application process.

Discussion

Research question 1: Is there a relationship between the number of visits in Naviance and

acceptance to college?

The study indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between the

number of contacts with OCC and college acceptance. College acceptance is further tied to a

number of factors which include ACT results, coursework, credit requirements, and G.P.A. On

the other hand, there was not enough statistically significant evidence to link visits in Naviance

as provided by OCC to college acceptance. Students use Naviance and help from the college

mentors to find the “right fit” in terms of college placement. The mean number of acceptances

for the participants was 1.27. On average, most participants only opted to apply to one or two

schools of their choice. Piotr Redlinski (2012) states that, “The average high school student will

apply to more than nine schools in preparation for college entrance for the fall 2012

semester” (p. 5).


The researchers fully understand that there are a number of other factors to consider that

play an integral role in student acceptance such as G.P.A., fulfillment of course requirements and

ACT scores. The intent of studying the number of acceptances was to determine whether or not

visits would register as a highly correlated factor. Unfortunately, as indicated by our r-squared

value of (.007), Naviance visits physically account for less than 1% of the variability when

considering college acceptances for the participants.

Research question 2: How do students perceive the effectiveness of the services provided by

Oasis College Connection?

Analysis of qualitative findings from this study revealed that students perceive the

services provided by the Oasis College Connection as effective and valuable in helping them

pursue college. Student experiences can be summarized into three broad categories:

relationships, services provided and motivation and self-efficacy.

College mentors provide necessary college access services for low-income and first-

generation students. Students from high poverty schools often do not feel supported or

knowledgeable in their pursuit of a college degree. Oasis College Connection provides pre-

college advising including assistance with college applications, assistance completing the

FAFSA and other scholarship applications. Assistance is also provided in identifying and

selecting an appropriate college to attend.

A strong relationship between the mentor and student is an integral part of the Oasis

College Connection. Strong relationships provide an atmosphere of trust and students are more

comfortable identifying barriers and issues with the college mentor. Mentors and mentees

identified this component as one of the most important of the process. Mentors become a guiding

influence in the student’s personal and academic decisions.


The Oasis College Connection provides valuable services for participants. Mentors serve

as guides, navigating students and their families through the often tangled web of financial aid

forms and processes and assisting in the application process. Mentors become cheerleaders for

students needing support and often become surrogate family members or guidance counselors.

Mentors also help students to imagine possibilities and evaluate opportunities regarding their

college choices.

Developing self-efficacy in students is a critical component of the process. Mentors show

students how to navigate the processes. Mentors consider themselves partners with students, not

authority figures. This shared power relationship allows participants to build confidence in their

ability to make good decisions about college and, ultimately, about life. By working with a

mentor, students feel more empowered to seek information independently.

Research question 3: Does the Oasis College Connection program influence program

participants to apply to college?

Research findings suggest that a statistically significant relationship exists between the

number of visits that participants had in Naviance and in the number of applications completed

for college admissions. The p-value (.038) indicates that there is a statistically significant

relationship between the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance and the number of

applications. The researchers can reasonably infer that, as participants increase their respective

number of visits, the number of college applications that the participant completes will increase

also. Given the significance of these data, the findings strongly suggest that the use of the

Naviance database was an influential factor in creating interest for low-income, first generation

students that may desire to apply to college.


Research question 4: Does the Oasis College Connection significantly increase the self-

efficacy of students seeking to apply for college?

It appears that 48% of all participants actually had three or more contacts with a college

mentor. Additionally, 22% of the participants actually made five or more contacts with a college

mentor. The significance of this finding suggests that increased time with a college mentor,

ultimately, leads to an increased level of perceived efficacy and independence. This, in turn,

motivates students to successfully navigate the Naviance College data base and search for other

forms of college information on their own, which, ultimately leads to more students submitting

college applications.

Additionally, the survey results indicated that 90% of all participants agreed that they

became more knowledgeable and confident about the college admissions and acceptance process.

All of the research findings seem to consistently point to the importance of self-efficacy.

Further, it should be noted that 86% of participants indicated that they were more confident

finding information about college on their own as a result of assistance from a college mentor.

Additionally, 76% of the respondents indicated that they felt personally motivated to engage in

the college selection process as a result of having assistance from a college mentor, and 93% of

respondents stated that they would refer the Oasis College Connection to a friend.

Qualitative data supported quantitative findings. Working with a mentor empowered

students to feel comfortable seeking information and making decisions about their college future.

Students responded that the mentor increased their confidence in completing college applications

and financial assistance forms. Students also expressed that they were more prepared for college

by working with the mentors. Mentors increased their awareness of college-going processes and

understanding of the options available to them.


Research question 5: Does the A6 framework as a service delivery model impact participant

motivation to attend college?

As indicated earlier in the study, the Five Pillars theory and the A6 framework have

several similarities. Responses from the participants confirmed that several components of the

A6 framework were evident.

Awareness and social preparation. As indicated by the survey, 90% of respondents

indicated that they were more knowledgeable about college as a result of participation with

Oasis. Additionally, the focus groups revealed that several students felt that the process was

enlightening.

One student stated,

Mr. Gray pretty much showed me that there were a lot of things that I didn't know I was

eligible for, or that I could be eligible for, to take advantage of those things. I didn’t know

how many opportunities I had.

Another student stated, “At first, I didn't want to go to college, I will just be done with high

school. But after I talked to him, now I do want to go to college”. These examples are living

testimonials of the impact that the College Connection had on the students.

Actualization and Will to Power. The Oasis College Connection defines “actualization”

as the initial phases of actually making college a reality. For the purpose of this study, this

process is evidenced by applications. This study indicated that there was a statistically significant

relationship between self- initiated Naviance visits as guided by a college mentor and

applications. Additionally, 76% of respondents indicated that they were personally motivated to

pursue college as a result of participation with Oasis. “Will to power,” deals with a student’s

ability to overcome adversity. In the questionnaire (Item 13), participants were asked, “Do you


feel that you would be successful finding post-secondary opportunities on your own without the

help of Oasis”? Ironically, only 57% of the respondents answered “Yes”. The remaining 43% of

respondents answered “No” or “Unsure.” By their own decree, this suggests that these students

were not personally efficacious enough to navigate this difficult process on their won. These

researchers believe that this further validates the need and necessity of the services that OCC

provides.

Affordability, Financial Aid, and Family Engagement. Research literature suggests

that navigating the world of FAFSA and financial aid presents major barriers for first generation

minority candidates. Low and middle income students routinely eliminate colleges from

consideration based on cost, before applying or even researching possible aid packages. In 2009,

50% of students from families with incomes less than $35,000, and 47% of those with family

incomes between $50,000 and $100,000, eliminated colleges based on cost before applying

(White House Task Force on Middle Class: Barriers to Higher Education, 2011). As a result of

the findings, these data indicated that 69% of all participants felt that they had increased their

knowledge regarding the financial aid process. Students also indicated that they were much more

comfortable with the process as a result of participation with a college mentor.

Focus groups revealed that most students felt strongly that their participation with OCC

was a primary factor in their ability to navigate the financial aid process. One student

mentioned, “We talked about FAFSA and what I need to know to do it. He told me what I need

to get into college.” Another student stated, “The best thing is that they actually help you and tell

you where you need to go to complete your FAFSA.” In some cases, OCC mentors became

surrogate families for students. An adult student from Nashville State Community College


reflected: “My family situation is kind of difficult. Oasis was that family. I really didn't have too

much support from my family. Oasis was really filling that gap.”

Aspirations. Research literature suggests that the lack of information about college and

the admissions process is one of the leading factors which often determines whether or not first-

generation students from low-income backgrounds opt to apply for college. In College

Knowledge, Joel Vargas (2004) indicates that “Underrepresented students and their families

often lack pertinent knowledge about the college-going process (p. 5). Qualitative findings

indicated that students perceived the Oasis College Connection as a motivating factor behind

making college possible. During a focus group session, one student stated, “At first I didn't

want to go to college. I will just be done with high school; but after I talked to him, now I do

want to go to college.” Another student stated, “Oasis College Connection is a very good

program. It has helped me to find great schools, and the many great ways to get scholarships.”

Additional comments:

Jeff Dotts and Bob Obrohta helped me more than I could ever ask for.

They helped me decide, they helped me with my essays, they helped me

with loan and grant information. When I was stressed with all of this, they

knew how to make me laugh. I'm so thankful for Oasis College

Connection!

Another student stated, “No one could have helped me more, or led me to a better path.”

These comments are indicative of the feedback which provided evidence that aspirations are

being fulfilled through the work of the A6 service delivery model.

Attainment. Attainment refers to persistence, matriculation, and degree completion

which are beyond the scope and bounds of this study.


Achievement and Academic Preparation. Achievement and Academic Preparation are

beyond the scope and bounds of this study.

Ethnic Classification

Services provided by the Oasis Collection Connection were offered equally to all

students without regard to ethnicity or gender. The researchers, however, discovered sweeping

disparities in the use of services offered by the Oasis College Connection. Empirical evidence

demonstrates that the number of self-initiated visits in Naviance was twice as high for white

students in comparison to African –American students. White students averaged 14.56 visits

while African-American students averaged 7.19. The researchers believe that limited computer

access could potentially be an additional barrier for low-income minority students. This theory

leads the researchers to infer that many low-income minority students primarily utilize the

Naviance site at school only. This finding would further indicate that the students are not

utilizing the program to its maximum capacity. Additional research and studies need to be

conducted regarding technology access for minorities. However, the researchers also believe

that further study could reveal that there could be substantial differences in the levels of personal

motivation that exist between White students and African-American students. A finding of this

magnitude could potentially impact the process by which services are delivered.

Metro Nashville Public Schools

This study has implications that could prove to be highly valuable for school officials of

the Metropolitan Nashville Public School system. The researchers revealed that school

counseling services as currently offered are not adequately meeting the college access needs of

low-income minority students. The researchers believe that the roles and responsibilities of

professional school counselors could be restructured to allow counselors with more time to build


relationships with students and assist students in pursuing college access. Student participants

indicated that the relationships with a college mentor influenced them in developing more

motivation to become successful. Additionally, this study produced overwhelming evidence that

the Naviance database is a significant factor in motivating low-income, first-generation students

to apply. Should Metro Nashville Public Schools choose to adopt this tool, it could prove to be

very effective in improving college readiness and access for low-income, first –generation

students.

Limitations

In consideration of the data and findings, the researchers have noted the following

limitations to the study: 1) Data Quality 2) Sampling/Data Collection.

Limitation 1: Data Quality. The researchers utilized the data that were provided by the

Oasis College Connection staff to access the Naviance and Compass databases. Several

challenges existed with the process of data collection. The Naviance database contained missing

fields which limited the number of possible participants that could have been used in the

statistical analysis portion of the study. Only 84 of the 216 participants actually had complete

data in all fields. In understanding the OCC process, OCC officials have informed the

researchers that data entry is an integral part of the responsibilities of the OCC mentors. OCC

officials expect the mentors to enter data during initial contacts and interactions with the student

participants. Additionally, information should be updated on an ongoing basis throughout the

year. However, we discovered that fidelity was lacking in this process. Thus, information was

incomplete. The most prevalent missing field was ACT composite scores. Very few ACT

scores were logged. A cumulative total of 35 out of a possible 216 were recorded. G.P.A.

scores, college acceptance data, and the number of applications were significantly important


pieces of data where fields were missing, as well. Efforts were made by the researchers to

capture the missing data directly from OCC. However, OCC did not have paper copies or

electronic records of the information that was requested. Therefore, the researchers had to

conduct the study under the parameters that existed.

Limitation 2: Sampling/Data Collection. The researchers utilized an electronic survey

to obtain responses from the participants for the 2011 and 2012 cohort cycles that participated in

the Oasis College Connection mentoring corps. A cumulative total of 587 participants were

provided with the questionnaire via email. However, the researchers obtained a very low

response rate from the participants. The survey response rate was approximately 11.7% which

represents a total of 69 participants. The researchers made additional efforts to obtain a greater

number of responses by submitting the questionnaire electronically on a second occasion and by

soliciting the assistance of OCC officials to obtain paper copies of the questionnaire from the

students that they respectively mentored over the course of the school year. This effort increased

the number of responses by an additional 31, which made the cumulative total number of

responses 69.

The researchers thoroughly understand the implications that the low response rate will

have on the validity of the study and the ability to accurately generalize or make scholarly

inferences as a result of the statistical validity.

Recommendations for the Client

As a result of the findings, the researchers have developed a set of recommendations for

the staff of the Oasis College Connection. Recommendations are the result of focus group

interviews and survey responses, and are intended to help the client strengthen the program for

continued success:


1. Strengthen data collection procedures to maximize services: OCC uses the Naviance web

site to track and manage students. Oasis Center might consider an additional data

collection tool to capture actual hours spent with a mentor and services provided.

2. Increase awareness of the Oasis College Connection with Metro Nashville Public

Schools (MNPS) teachers and principals: Mentors and students believed that an increased

collaboration among teachers and principals would increase effectiveness by removing

administrative barriers. Increased awareness will assist with student referrals and

utilization of services.

3. Consider including college campus visits as a part of the Oasis College Connection:

Other pre-college advising programs (AVID, Upward Bound) include college campus

tours as an important component of the program. OCC may work with partner schools to

ensure appropriate space for OCC operation: Mentors and participants identified program

space as an immediate issue. Offices are often too small to accommodate more than one

student and ensure confidentiality. Offices are not equipped with enough computers,

printers, and other office equipment, limiting effectiveness of the time spent on program

services.

4. Continue to develop connections with colleges and universities for continued student

support. Participants would feel more supported with continued services throughout

college. Support would be particularly helpful for students enrolling in regional colleges

and universities. Oasis College Connection should consider the potential impact of

continued support on college retention and graduation rates.

5. The work of the Oasis College Connection seems to be more effective at some Metro

Nashville schools than others. In order to evaluate program effectiveness and identify


challenges to success, Oasis College Connection should consider disaggregating data

(Naviance visits, number of applications, number of participants, gender, ethnicity, ACT

score and college acceptance) by high school. Identifying successes and challenges by

school will help OCC quantify program results, create a more streamlined operational,

model and work more strategically with Metro Nashville school administrators to

develop program services.

Implications for Further Research

Empirical evidence suggests that the Oasis College Connection is making a positive

impact on the students served. Future research should extend from this study. Further study on

the impact of pre-college programs, specifically the Oasis College Connection, on low-achieving

African- American males, may provide a framework for effectively targeting an

underrepresented population. Additional research might also examine the effect size of college

mentoring by gathering more contact data and disaggregating the information by hours or by

logging person-to-person contact visits. Oasis College Connection should explore the impact of

pre-college advising through early intervention, beginning as early as elementary school.

Additionally, Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools may benefit from additional research on the

College Connection’s impact on closing the college access gap for high poverty schools.

Oasis College Connection should consider tracking students from acceptance to

matriculation. Matriculation results will provide a clearer picture of the effectiveness of the Oasis

College Connection in providing college access services. Additionally, the Oasis College

Connection should authorize a longitudinal study to examine the long term effects of pre-college

advising on college persistence, and ultimately graduation rates.


Examining grade point average. The access provided to participants through Naviance

has proven to be a viable method for encouraging participants to seek and apply for post-

secondary opportunities on their own. Thirty-eight of the 84 participants that used Naviance

had G.P.A’s that were 2.50 or higher, roughly 45%. The average G.P.A. for the participants was

2.83. Given the fact that G.P.A. was not a statistically significant factor with regard to the

relationship with the number of Naviance visits, these researchers discovered that students with

G.P.A.’s of 2.5 or higher had nearly three times as many visits as students with lower G.P.A’s.

The research clearly indicates that students in the mid-range GPA category (2.4-2.8)

demonstrated the highest degree of efficacy when searching for college information via Naviance

on their own. Further research is needed to determine motivational factors to influence students

who have grade point averages that are 2.4 or below on a 4.0 scale.

African-American males. Demographically, it is important to note that African-

American female students represented the majority, consisting of 56% of the participants in the

sample population. This subgroup significantly outnumbered its counterpart, African-American

male participants, by nearly 35%. This caused the researchers to pose the question, “What

factors would lead to such a wide variance in participation”, given that there are no statistically

significant differences by race or gender? Why would there be such a large variance among the

same racial group? Literature suggests that this is a national trend. According to the U.S.

Department of Education, African American males comprise 7.9% of the population of 18 to 24

year olds in the U.S., and yet black males represent only 2.9% of the undergraduate population at

public four-year universities (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). The implication here is

that the Oasis College Connection and the concept of “College Mentors” could be a viable tool in


minimizing the occurrence of low college attendance rates for minority students, particularly

black males.

The findings of this case study are aligned with the theory identified as the Five Pillars

of Access and Success for first-time college-goers. Social Preparation, Academic Preparation,

Family and Community Engagement, Financial Means and Aid, and the Will to Power (Collins,

2011, pp. 2-3) are valid in that any additional assistance afforded students from this demographic

has a positive impact on their self-efficacy.

Conclusions

This research project has generated a means through which the Oasis College Connection

may create new strategies for assessing the effectiveness of the A6 Framework service delivery

model in conjunction with the theory of the Five Pillars of College Access and Success.

The strategic processes leading to students being successful in their college application

begins with awareness in the A6 delivery model. The mentors successfully encouraged students

to be more aware and engaged them in a more global perspective of how they need to be socially

prepared for the changes in their lives as they bridge from secondary to post-secondary

educational opportunities. Mentors talked with them about what they can expect and helped

prepare them so they would be able to effectively enter into a new social arena that was

fundamentally unfamiliar to them. This prepared the students to become more self-actualized, to

develop their individual Will to Power, and to become intrinsically motivated to be successful.

Once they became more intrinsically driven toward success, they had a more positive

view that their academic preparation, focused on school achievement, would make them

successful participants in the immediate goal of completing their college application(s). The final

alignment of the A6 service delivery model to the Five Pillars included the determination of

affordability, potential financial aid resources, and encouragement of students to engage parents


in the required process of completing financial aid documents. Mentors helped students

understand the requirements so they could be proactive with their parents to be sure the Free

Application for Federal Student Aid requirement of the application process was completed.

The relationship of the mentors of the Oasis College Connection proved invaluable as

they discussed the rationale of the process so students would understand why the steps were

necessary in the application process, and encouraged students to use the Naviance website to

seek out those otherwise unknown opportunities to be successful in the application process. The

mentors were able to continually re-enforce the students in their self-search efforts to find the

best strategic fit for their interests and financial aid opportunities that were aligned with the

school of their choice.

The impact of the mentoring relationship on the potential of first-year college students in

the Metropolitan Nashville Public School systems during the 2010-2012 school years was

qualified by measuring the variables of ethnicity, gender, and grade point average. Students

visited the Naviance web site and were tracked quantitatively. This research suggested that there

is a positive difference in the number of self-initiated visits to Naviance and student applications.

This suggests that students who never heard of Naviance would have fewer applications if not

impacted by the influence of the Oasis College Connection. Data also strongly affirmed the

Oasis College Connection when students reflected that they were more knowledgeable about

admissions and acceptance requirements of colleges owing to their participation with the Oasis

College Connection mentor.

Dramatic impact of the positive relationship of the Oasis College Connection mentors

was also evident as students reflected in the focus groups regarding how they were empowered

by their mentor interaction. A conclusion of the research was that, due to the mentor-mentee


relationship, the students developed a new level of self-efficacy when searching for options for

post-secondary education. The data further confirmed that the Oasis College Connection mentors

were effective when helping students develop a comprehensive understanding of colleges that fit

their interests and the financial aid opportunities for which they may successfully apply.

The research study also determined the impact of the Oasis College Connection on

participant self-efficacy. Students participating in the Oasis College Connection program are

from low-income households and are more likely to face barriers when pursuing their college

degree. Students may desire to complete college but lack the confidence to navigate the system.

Guidance counselors, who are often the designated college professionals in each school building,

may lack the time to provide individual attention to assist students and parents. Parents, who

have not attended college, often have limited knowledge to help their children. Students have

little support and find they are insecure in the emotional confidence needed to begin and persist

through the process to completion. The Oasis College Connection mentors supplant the parent

relationship to some degree by engaging the students and stressing the importance of the parent’s

participation, especially in the financial aid aspect of the process.

The research indicated encouraging results for first time college attendees who are

bridging a previously unexplored educational passage, which leads to the gateway of post-

secondary education. Considerations of the methods used included direct interaction with Oasis

College Connection (OCC) staff, the financial aid facilitator, and leadership at the office and on-

site mentors in the school they attended. This research confirmed that the interaction of the

Oasis College Connection mentors positively influenced student self-efficacy, served as a

determinant of how effectively first generation college-going students engage, and navigated the

required procedures necessary to complete the college application process.


This research supports that students who are low-income, first-time, college-going, and

lacking in support to navigate the college application process can be successful when provided

the support and understanding necessary to motivate them to work toward their goal. The Oasis

College Connection provides the necessary assistance that empowers students to desire success,

the will to power to overcome those potential barriers that hinders that success, and the desire to

successfully aspire to whatever is necessary to complete the college application process.


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The Education Resources Institute: Boston, MA. Retrieved from:

http://www.teri.org/pdf/research-studies/CollegeKnowledge.pdf

The Higher Education Act. Retrieved from:

http://lawhighereducation.com/75-higher-education- act-hea.html

The Pell Institute. (2009). National studies find TRIO programs effective at increasing college

enrollment and graduation [Report]. Retrieved from Pell Institute Website:

www.pellinstitute.org

Tierney, W. G., & Hagedorn, L. S. (2002). Increasing access to college: Extending possibilities for

students. New York: SUNY Press.

United States Department of Labor. (1972). Retrieved from Title IX, Education Amendments of

1972: http://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/titleix.htm

U.S. Department of Education. (2012, January). History of Federal Trio Programs. Retrieved

from: http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/trio/triohistory.html

U.S. Department of Education. (2002). The Myth of College Access in America. Washington: U.S.

Creating a College-Going Culture 133 Department of Education. Retrieved from Access Denied – U.S. Department of Education:

http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/acsfa/emptypromises.pdf

Vargas, J. (2004). College knowledge: Addressing information barriers to college. Retrieved from

College Knowledge – TERI: http://174.133.199.34/pdf/research-

studies/CollegeKnowledge.pdf

Venezio, A., Kirst, M., & Antonio, A. (n.d.). Barriers to College Access. Stanford University.

Retrieved from: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ncpi/documents/pdfs/pftwk161.pdf

Walsh, R. (2008). Gear Up: Providing Opportunities or Conflict? Retrieved from:

http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED510228.pdf.

White House Task Force Middle Class Families Report: Barriers to Higher Education. (2011).

Retrieved from

http://www.whitehouse.gov/assets/documents/MCTFstaff_report_barriers_to_college

Wimberly, G., & Noeth, R. (2004). Schools involving parents in early postsecondary planning.

Washington: American College Testing Program (ACT).

Zarate, M., & Burciaga, R. (2010). Latinos and College Access: Trends and Future Directions.

Journal of College Admissions. (209) pp. 24-29. Retrieved from

http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ906627.pdf


Appendix A

Outreach Services by Program Component

Program component Typical services provided

Counseling/awareness: Disseminates

information; provides advising and

counseling

Advising and counseling, application

assistance, workshops, campus visits, test

preparation classes

Academic Support: Prepares students

to take and succeed in college –level

course work

Academic courses, test preparation, summer

programs, academic advising, tutoring,

workshops

Personal and social enrichment: Helps

students’ to build confidence,

motivation, and awareness of strengths

and weaknesses

Leadership, social and professional skills

development seminars, field trips, peer

groups, cultural activities

Parental involvement: Assists parents

with learning about college and

supporting students’ goals and

activities

Orientation activities, volunteer

opportunities, awareness programs and

workshops for parents

Mentoring: Provides one-on-one

personalized guidance and role models

Mentoring, tutoring, workshops, cultural

programming, field trips, peer learning

groups

Career-based outreach: Links

academic preparation to college

College preparatory courses, career

planning and counseling, tutoring, field


majors, career goals, and long-term

career planning

trips

Financial assistance: Provides college

scholarships and/or helps students

apply for and secure money for college

Advising and counseling, workshops,

scholarship

application assistance, and scholarships and

grants

Sources: Cunningham, Redmond, & Merisotis, 2003; Gullatt & Jan, 2002; The College Board,

2001 (as cited in Jager-Hyman, 2004).


Appendix B

Lipscomb University IRB Approval It is a pleasure to tell you that the Lipscomb University IRB has reviewed your research proposal and found it to comply with requirements for research involving human subjects. We wish you the very best. For the IRB, -- William A. Tallon, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry Lipscomb University College of Arts and Sciences Department of Chemistry 615.966.5825


Appendix C

NOTICE OF INFORMED CONSENT

Consent Form

Researchers: Sherica Clark, Doug Stewart, Ron Woodard

Capstone Faculty Advisor: Reva Chapman Buckley, Ed.D.

Lipscomb University Department of Education

Email: [email protected]

You are invited to take part in a research study examining the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection.

What the study is about: The purpose of this study is to analyze the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection in increasing access to post-secondary opportunities for low income, first generation high school students.

What you will be asked to do: Participants will participate in a focus group designed to assess their participation in the Oasis College Connection program. Focus group sessions will last approximately 60 minutes.

Risks and benefits: There are no anticipated risks to you if you participate in this study, beyond those encountered in everyday life.

Possible benefits may include contributions to the researcher’s field of knowledge.

Taking part is voluntary: Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. If you choose to be in the study you can withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You can choose to skip any question, participate in only some tasks, etc. as appropriate to the study. Participating in this study does not mean that you are giving up any of your legal rights.

Your answers will be confidential: The records of this study will be kept private. Data will be kept in a locked drawer. Recordings will be destroyed after transcription. Any report of this

Creating a College-Going Culture 138 research that is made available to the public will not include your name or any other individual information by which you could be identified.

If you have questions or want a copy or summary of the study results: Contact the researcher at the email address or phone number above. You will be given a copy of this form to keep for your records. If you have any questions about whether you have been treated in an illegal or unethical way, contact the Lipscomb University Institutional Research Board chair, Bill Tallon at [email protected].

Statement of Consent: I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions. I consent to take part in the research study of the effectiveness of the Oasis College Connection program.

______________________________ _________________________

Participant’s Signature Date


Appendix D

Oasis College Connection Focus Group Questions

1. How did time spent with the Oasis College Connection contribute to your success in achieving

placement in college?

2. Describe the interactions that you had with the College Connection staff as you began pursuing

college.

3. ESTIMATE How much time did you typically spend with a staff member one-on-one during

your visit to Oasis? Explain.

4. Do you feel that you developed a meaningful relationship with the staff at OCC? If yes, then

please explain the impact that this relationship has or is having on your pursuit to college or career

attainment.

5. Do you feel that you would have been as successful in your pursuit of college if you had not

have established contact with OCC.?

6. What would you change about the College Connection to make the experience better for other

students?

7. What other services or programs do you feel Oasis College Connection should provide to help

students?

8. What would you say is the best thing about Oasis College Connection?

9. What would you say is your least favorite thing about Oasis College Connection?

10. What do you feel Oasis College Connection should do differently?

11. What do you feel Oasis College Connection should continue to do?


Appendix E

Zoomerang Survey Questions Oasis College Connection Questionnaire Designed by: Sherica Clark, Doug Stewart & Ron Woodard-Doctoral Candidates David Lipscomb University ***NOTICE OF INFORMED CONSENT***“By completing this survey, I volunteer to participate in this research project. I

***NOTICE OF INFORMED CONSENT***By completing this survey, I volunteer to

participate in this research project. I understand there are minimal risks to my well being by completing this questionnaire. All data collected during the research process will only be reported as aggregate (group) data and my anonymity will be protected. I may withdraw from participating in this project at any time during the data collection period. I agree to

voluntarily participate in this research project. If I have concerns or questions, I may contact Dr. Bill Tallon, Chair Lipscomb IRB at [email protected] or 615-966-5825

Page 1 - Question 1 - Choice - One Answer (Bullets)Please indicate the number of contacts that you have had with the Oasis College Connection?

1 2 3 4 5 Other, please specify

Page 1 - Question 2 - Choice - One Answer (Bullets)Please indicate the college/career path that you decided to pursue.

2-year Community College 4-Year College/University Trade School/Career College Military-Armed Forces Other, please specify

Creating a College-Going Culture 141 Page 1 - Question 3 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)As a result of participation with the Oasis College Connection, I am more knowledgeable about college admission and acceptance requirements.

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Page 1 - Question 4 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)My High School experience fully prepared me to enter college or other post- secondary opportunities that meet my personal interests.


Page 1 - Question 5 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)The Oasis College Connection increased my understanding of federal grants, loans, scholarships and other types of financial aid that I may qualify for.

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Strongly Disagree Disagree

Page 1 - Question 6 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)The Oasis College Connection provided me with clear post-secondary options that match my personal interests.



Page 1 - Question 7 - Open Ended - Comments BoxPlease provide your perspective about the effectiveness of the services that the Oasis College Connection provides.

Page 1 - Question 8 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)I feel comfortable pursuing college and/ or post-secondary career opportunities on my own as a result of my participation with the Oasis College Connection.


Page 1 - Question 9 - Open Ended - Comments BoxPlease describe your perceptions about how well the Oasis College Connection met your needs.

Page 1 - Question 10 - Choice - One Answer (Bullets)Did time spent with the Oasis College Connection personally motivate you to pursue college or post-secondary opportunities?

Yes No Somewhat

Page 1 - Question 11 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)How would you rate your ability to find financial aid and apply for college or career opportunities on your own, prior to contacting the College Connection?

Highly Confident Somewhat Confident Not Confident

Creating a College-Going Culture 143 Page 1 - Question 12 - Choice - One Answer (Drop Down)How would you rate your ability to find financial aid and apply for college or career opportunities on your own after participating with the College Connection?

Highly confident Somewhat confident Not confident

Page 1 - Question 13 - Choice - One Answer (Bullets)Do you feel that you would have been successful entering post-secondary opportunities without the help of the Oasis College Connection?

Yes No Uncertain

Page 1 - Question 14 - Choice - One Answer (Bullets)Would you refer a friend to the College Connection?

Yes No Uncertain/Maybe

Page 1 - Question 15 - Open Ended - Comments BoxHow many college applications did you submit?

Page 1 - Question 16 - Open Ended - Comments BoxWere you accepted to any colleges/universities? If so, how many?


Appendix F

Biographical Information

Sherica Clark has over 12 years of experience in program development and management.

She began her career working with AmeriCorps National Service programs, and continued her

work with community -based agencies through work with Volunteer Tennessee and United

Neighborhood Health Services. She served as the Youth Development Specialist for Nashville

Mayor Bill Purcell’s administration from 2005-2007. Clark is a 2007 graduate of Nashville’s

Young Leaders Council and serves on several local non- profit boards. As an instructional leader,

Clark has served as an adjunct faculty member at Nashville State Community College and

Columbia State Community College. Currently, she is the Director of the TRIO Student Support

Services program at Columbia State Community College. Clark earned her B.S. in Political

Science from Middle Tennessee State University, a Master’s degree in Educational Administration

from Tennessee State University.

James Douglas Stewart began teaching part time in 1996 and decided to make education a

full time second career in 2008. During the last seventeen years I have been involved in teaching or

in administration in higher education. It has been my pleasure to serve hundreds of students in

varying capacities. I have worked as an instructor, associate professor, Retention manager,

academic advisor, assessment administrator and Learning resource Center Specialist.

I received B.S. in Sociology, Business Administration, and a Master’s of Science in

Education in Brain Based Learning before pursuing an Ed.D. at Lipscomb University. I will begin

my studies in the Professional Masters of Business Administration program at Lipscomb in August

Creating a College-Going Culture 145 2012. My plans for the future include writing and work in administration in higher education. I am

also a Presidential Fellow and Oxford Scholar at O’More College and will be a visiting scholar at

Oxford Manchester during the summer of 2013.

Ron Woodard has served in the Metropolitan Nashville School District for 12 years.

Woodard served as principal at Apollo for three years. During his tenure as a turnaround leader at

Apollo Middle from 2008-2011, the school moved from being ranked 484th in TVAAS value -

added gains to being ranked 28th in the entire state of Tennessee. Prior to Apollo, Woodard served

as assistant principal at Maplewood High for one year and assistant principal at Whites Creek High

for four years. He began his career as a teacher and coach at Wright Middle School. Woodard has

also served MNPS as the president of the Middle School Athletic Association. He has served on the

Transformational Leadership Committee, the Middle School Strategic Change Committee and is

the founder of the D.A.S.H. Academy. D.A.S.H. is an acronym for the Digital Academy for

Success in High School at Apollo, where he launched the district’s first 1:1 LAPTOP INITIATIVE

for middle schools. In 2011, Woodard was named as the newly assigned Executive Principal of

Maplewood High School.

Woodard is a 2007-08 graduate of the Principals’ Leadership Academy of Nashville. He also

participated in the Principals’ Leadership Development Research Study at Vanderbilt University

from 2008-2010. He served as a delegate in the Education Leadership Learning Exchange in China

and is a member of the Tennessee Gang Investigators Association. Woodard earned a Bachelor of

Science degree in Biology from the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, a master’s degree in

Educational Administration from Tennessee State University, and is currently pursuing a doctorate

at Lipscomb University.

Woodard’s vision is to become a dynamic, cutting edge school leader who possesses a wide

body of knowledge related to instructional practices and issues regarding urban education. He

Creating a College-Going Culture 146 believes that his passion for teaching and learning and youth advocacy will provide motivation and

inspiration for children of poverty.

Appendix G

LIPSCOMB University

MEMORANDUM OFUNDERSTANDINGBETWEEN

LIPSCOMB UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATIONAND

OASIS CENTER, NASHVILLE COLLEGE CONNECTION

This Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) establishes the relationship and guidelinesbetween the above parties regarding the research partnership described below.

The Collegeof Education (COE) of Lipscomb University offers the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) degree inLearning Organizations and Strategic Change. This degree is focused on preparing leaders for publicand private organizations and academic settings. The program culminates with a practical,collaborative capstone research project with a partner organization. Oasis Center, Oasis CollegeConnection (OCC), has requested a Capstone Team to address a real research need in an authenticsetting. Successful completion of this capstone project will fulfill part of the requirements forcompletion of the Doctor of Education degree.

Oasis CollegeConnection (OCC) is an intensive college counseling program providing counseling andindividualized admissions and financial aid expertise to meet the needs of the students, theirfamilies, and the community.

OCC provides resources to students who generally have little or no access to post high schooleducation and career planning, focusing primarily on subpopulations that are underrepresentedon college and university campuses (to include first generation college students). By workingdirectly with young people and non profit partners serving the youth and their schoolscommunity wide, OCC is able to effectively assist students in finding the best possible "fit" fortheir college and career needs, with the primary aim of supporting these young people throughthe attainment of a college degree. Nashville CollegeConnection offers the following resources toyouth and community partners:

1. CollegeAccess Resource Center providing a comprehensive array of resources andinformation covering all aspects of college access including college selection, admissions,testing, housing, financial aid, and more.

2. Classic CollegeAccess Program providing direct services and expertise in the fields ofadmissions and financial aid. These services can come in the form of group activities or oneon one services between professional staff and a student/family.


3. Community based Paraprofessionals providing training and support services toorganizations currently providing college access services to youth in our community andcreating a common communicationsplatform/referral service between the organizationsand mentors.

The College of Education at Lipscomb University and OCC are entering into and operatingunder this MOU for a research partnership and agree to the following.

I. REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCEOCC has submitted a Request for Assistance (RFA) outlining the following research need:

In partnership with the Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC), OCC is inthe process of developing a "college mentoring corps," designed to improvetransitions from high school to college, provide on campus student supportservices, and then improve transitions from community college to anundergraduate institution.As part of this project, OCC is in need of developing research and evaluationaroundpersistence, retention and success of low income, first generation college boundstudents at community colleges and the impact of our model surroundingthese issues. Further, do the OCC program offerings focused on expandingyouthunderstanding about postsecondary opportunities, defined as the students'choices of formalized education, show an increase in matriculation and postsecondary success markers such as persistence, retention, attainment,application, and /or self initiated meetings?

II. PROJECT PARAMETERS

The OCC will supervise and direct a team of two to four doctoral students who will frameand conduct the research, and form recommendations for the client's research need.

The OCC will provide the training for the Ed.D. students to complete the requestedresearch project through its curriculum and capstone projectsupport structures. Thistraining and support includesbut is not limited to quantitative and qualitative researchtechniques, instrument design, and development of specific timelines, benchmarks, andprocesses pertaining to conducting research, and the assignment of a capstone facultyadviser who will oversee the team throughout the research project. Does OCC’stransformational approach make the participatingstudents more successful than thosewithout OCC supports?

OCC will provide access to a database of 1200 students with contact information and datacomprised of the following: student initiated conversations and attendance at OCC opportunities,transcripts through a data agreement with MNPS or self reported, ACT scores, number of postsecondary semesters, social economic status and FAFSA information, and guardian demographics.OCC will assist in gathering corps participants, past and present, to participate in focus groupsand or individual interviews.PROJECTED RESEARCH TIMELINE

Creating a College-Going Culture 148 OCC will present a 15 minute presentation (including Q&A) of the RFA to the Fall 2010Cohort on Client Presentation Day, which is scheduled for the morning of Saturday, July 30,2011.

Capstone Team will be assigned to OCC no later than August 10, 2011.

The Capstone Team will have an initial meeting with Jeff Dotts, Director of OCC or hisdesignee no later than August 22, 2011.

The Capstone Team will develop and submit a project proposal to OCC no later thanOctober 4, 2011.

OCC will approve or request revision of the project proposal no later than October10, 2011.

The Capstone Team will submit the approved project proposal to Lipscomb University'sInstitutional Review Board (IRB) by October 11, 2011. Substantive changes requested bythe IRB will be discussed with OCC prior to implementation.

Upon receiving approval from the IRB, the Capstone Team will formally begin the researchwith a May3, 2012 target date for completion of analysis.

The Capstone Team will submit a written draft of the report to Lipscomb's JuriedReview Committee by June 8, 2012.

The Capstone Team will schedule and give a presentation to OCC and to the JuriedReview Committee by August 1, 2012.

OCC will provide a Client Project Evaluation of the Capstone Team and research projectwithin one week following the presentation.

III. LIPSCOMB UNIVERSITY'S INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)

Capstone students are required to gain approval from Lipscomb's IRB prior to conductingresearch. All capstone teams will submit a research proposal to the IRB for their capstoneprojects. The research proposal will be submitted to and approved by OCC prior to submission toLipscomb's IRB (see Project Research Timeline).

The following outline may serve as a guide for students in building a research proposal to be sentto OCC and the IRB.

Title Page

Table of Contents

Introduction (2 3 pages)

A statement of the research topic

A statement of the research problemThe purpose of the study

The research question(s)

Methodology (2 3 pages)

Design or strategy for research


Research participants (describe participants, description of risk, voluntaryparticipation, confidentiality, anonymity)

Procedures to be followed

Data Analysis (1 page)

Describe data collection, storage, and analysis procedures

Describe disposition of the data after the study has concluded

References

Appendices

Informed consent letter

Apparatus and/or instruments to be used (questionnaire, interview questions, etc.)

Documentation from client granting permission and access for research

IV. FUNDING

The Capstone Team, the COE, and OCCwill make every reasonable effort to minimize costsassociated with this project.

Asof the date of the signing of this document, the project presented by the client isexpected to require no funding by either the COE or OCC.

Capstone Team members are expected to be responsible for normal and customary costsassociated with doctoral students engaging in doctoral research (i.e. cost of mailings, printing,paper, envelopes, postage, transportation, phone calls, email, etc.). However, should the CapstoneTeam members identify what they consider an out of the ordinary funding need, then the teammembers should seek funding from OCC during development of their project proposal and priorto submission of the proposal to Lipscomb's IRB. Regardless of when the funding need is realized,written approval and agreement to provide funding should be received from OCC prior to anyexpenditure being made. Expenditures incurred without expressed written approval from OCCwill be the responsibility of the Capstone Team members. Team members will be provided a copyof this MOU.

V. RESEARCH PRODUCT and DISSEMINATION

The Capstone Team will prepare a full report and presentation to OCC and a COE Juried ReviewCommittee. This report and presentation must meet or exceed all the requirements of thecapstone project as outlined in the COE's Capstone Project Manual (see addendum).


Hard bound copies of the report manuscript will be submitted to OCC, the COE, and BeamanLibrary on Lipscomb University's campus, and to each Capstone Team Member. The COE maymake the manuscript accessible in electronic format through conventional venues that provideaccess to culminating research projects for doctoral programs.

OCC may request an alternative manuscript format for the client's purposes.Within reason, theCapstone Team is expected to meet the client's needs and produce a copy of the manuscript in theformat requested. An alternative manuscript format may be sent to The Client electronically or as aloosely bound hard copy, but will not be included with the final manuscripts that are to besubmitted to the COE for binding.

All rights and obligation related to interests in and ownershipof the Capstone Project shall besubject to the Lipscomb University Intellectual Property Policy (a copy ofwhich is attached hereto).

VI. FAILURE TO MEET RESEARCH OBLIGATION

If the Capstone Team members cannot produce the requested research product they shallpresent their concerns to their faculty advisor. The faculty advisor will discuss the matter withThe Client and attempt to craft a remedy to continue the project. If a remedy exists that willmaterially alter the research product, then OCC, the COE designee, and the Capstone Team shallmeet and develop an altered research product that meets the needs, goals, and objectives for allparties. In that case, an addendum to this document shall set forth the new parameters of theadjusted research project.

If no remedy is available, the COE may unilaterally remove the Capstone Team from the researchproject, and OCC will hold the COE, the Capstone Team, and Lipscomb University harmless.

VII. LIABILITY

OCC shall indemnify and hold harmless Lipscomb, its Board of Directors, officers, agents, andemployees from any and all claims, losses, damages or liability, including attorney's fees,resulting from or attributable to the acts ofOCC, its employees or agents.

Lipscomb University shall indemnify and hold harmless OCC, its officers, agents, and employeesfrom any and all claims, losses, damages or liability, including attorney's fees, resulting from orattributable to the acts of Lipscomb University its employees or agents.

VIII. AUTHORIZATION

On behalf of the Lipscomb University Collegeof Education and OCC, the undersigned agree to theabove stipulations and pledge that the organizations will strive to the best of their abilities and ingood faith to complete these objectives.


Further, we pledge that should the need for modifications arise, we will in goodfaith attempt to make such changes or additions as the situation dictates and asare further detailed in subsequent mutually agreed upon addendums to thisdocument.

IX. MISCELLANEOUS TERMS

The following terms shall apply in the interpretation and performance of this MOU:

Relationship of the Parties This MOU shall not be construed to create a relationship

of partners, brokers, employees, servants or agents as between the parties.

A Advertising and Publicity Neither party shall use the other's name, or any namethat is likely to suggest that it is related to the other institution, in anyadvertising, promotion or sales literature without first obtaining the writtenconsent of the other party. Any publications regarding this MOU must be reviewedand approved by the parties.

B. Governing Law: Forum This MOU shall be governed by and construed underthe laws of the State of Tennessee, which shall be the forum for any lawsuitsarising from an incident to this MOU.

C. Waiver Awaiver of any breach of any provision of this MOU shall not be construedas a continuing waiver of said breach or a waiver of any other breaches of thesame or other provisionsof this MOU.

D. Non Assignment This MOU may not be assigned by either party without theadvancewritten consent of the other.

E. Severability In the event one or more clauses of this Agreement aredeclared illegal, void or unenforceable, that shall not affect the validity of theremaining portions of this Agreement.

The authorized representatives of both parties have executed two copies of this

Memorandum of Understanding on this 22day of July,,2012. \

LIPSCOMB UNIVERSITY

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