nutritional diseases in glasshouse tomatoes
TRANSCRIPT
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
IN
GLASSHOUSE TOMATOES
/é8/Z
Institute for Soil Fertility Groningen, The Netherlands
Horticultural Research and Experiment Station Naaldwijk, The Netherlands
CENTRE FOR
AGRICULTURAL PUBLISHING AND DOCUMENTATION
WAGENINGEN 1968
K. W. SMILDE AND J. P. N. L. ROORDA VAN EYSINGA
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
IN
GLASSHOUSE TOMATOES
With 26 illustrations and 58 references
The 'Instituut voor Bodemvruchtbaarheid' (Institute for Soil Fertility) is a governmental institution. Research work includes various aspects of soil physics, soil chemistry and soil organic matter, and of plant nutrition and fertilizer application. The 'Proefstation voor de Groenten- en Fruitteelt onder Glas' (Horticultural Research and Experiment Station) was founded and is now owned by an association of growers and it is subsidized by the Dutch government. The aim of the research work is to increase production and to improve quality of vegetables grown in glasshouses. Consequently, all aspects of cultivation under glass are studied.
© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, 1968
No part of this book may be reproduced and/or published in any form, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publishers.
Lithography: De Boer en Vink Grafische Industrie, Zaandijk Printed in The Netherlands by Zuid-Nederlandsche Drukkerij nv, 's-Hertogenbosch
Contents
7 Introduction 8 Methods 9 Description of mineral diseases; their symptoms,
incidence and control 11 Nitrogen deficiency 13 Phosphorus deficiency 15 Potassium deficiency 17 Magnesium deficiency 19 Calcium deficiency 21 Sulphur deficiency 23 Boron deficiency 25 Copper deficiency 27 Manganese deficiency 29 Molybdenum deficiency 31 Iron deficiency 33 Zinc deficiency 35 Excess boron 37 Excess manganese 39 Excess zinc 41 Excess aluminium 42 Table: Composition of nutrient solutions 44 References 48 Acknowledgements
Introduction
This book aims at being a guide to the recognition of symptoms of mineral diseases in tomatoes. It has been attempted to achieve a certain completeness by including toxicity in addition to deficiency symptoms. If an absolute or a relative shortage or excess of one or more essential nutrients occurs, plant growth is impaired; the disorder is normally called a mineral or nutritional disease. The following methods can be used to diagnose the nature of these diseases: 1 plant analysis 2 analysis of the plant's substrate 3 study of the response of plants to soil or foliar applied or injected
nutrients 4 study of visual symptoms
In many cases a correct diagnosis can be made only by applying these methods together. This will not be further discussed here; the reader is referred to the textbooks by Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964) and to Mulder and Butijn (1963). The present publication is based on the methods 1 and 4. Colour plates (made from slides and water paintings) and descriptions are given for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sulphur, boron, copper, manganese, molybdenum, iron and zinc deficiency and boron, manganese, zinc and aluminium toxicity. The first fully grown leaf above the third cluster of fruits has been used for analysis. This leaf was sampled during the first picking. The conditions under which the mineral diseases occur and the methods to prevent or cure them are reported briefly.
Methods
Hewitt (1965) describes extensively how symptoms of deficiency and excess can be induced in plants. The colour plates below mainly represent tomato plants (varieties Robar* and Eurocross**) growing on nutrient solutions in 1 litre polythene pots from the seedling stage (table). The A. R. chemicals were recrystallized twice to prevent trace element contamination. Double glass-distilled water was used. Nutrient solutions were aerated continuously and changed weekly. The pots were placed in a glasshouse in which the temperature varied from 15°-30°C and the relative humidity from 40-80%. Molybdenum deficiency was obtained in plants growing on a peat substrate. Some photographs were taken in commercial crops (mainly Victory types). The authors are aware of the fact that deficiency and excess symptoms may vary with variety, chemical and physical composition of the substrate, and climatic conditions. These restrictions should be borne in mind when using the plates and the descriptions of symptoms to diagnose nutritional deficiencies.
* a green back type in between Ailsa Craig and Tuckswood ** no green back type Fl-hybrid
8
Description of mineral diseases; their symptoms, incidence and control
It is essential to investigate if any cause of disorder in plant growth (e.g. pests and parasitic diseases, virus diseases, damage resulting from pesticides and industrial emissions, drought and excess water) can be eliminated before concluding that the disorder is nutritional. In observing the symptoms of mineral diseases attention should be paid to the plant organ affected (old or young leaf, stem, growing point etc.), appearance of the plant (dwarfing, branching, deformation), nature of the ailment (chlorosis, necrosis, or deformation only), colour and pattern of chlorosis and necrosis (see Woolley and Broyer, 1957).
Plants from experimental plots in a commercial glasshouse; to the left with, to the right without nitrogen.
Leaves from experimental plots in a commercial glasshouse; to the left with, to the right without nitrogen.
Burning as a result of too heavy dressing of ammonium nitrate lime, photographed in a commercial glasshouse.
10
Nitrogen deficiency
Description of the symptoms Shoot growth is restricted and the plant is spindly in appearance. At first the lower leaves turn yellowish green. In severe cases the entire plant becomes pale green. The leaflets are small and erect and the major veins show a purple colour, which is particularly clear on the undersides. Fruits remain small. Similar descriptions are given by Hewitt (1943), Bear et al. (1948), Groene-wegen (1963), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964). A nitrogen-deficient tomato crop is susceptible to grey mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr.) and possibly to potato blight (Phyto-phthora infestons (Mont.) de Bary). In foliar analysis nitrate nitrogen is a better indication of the nitrogen status of the plant than Kjeldahl nitrogen. Leaves of deficient plants usually contain 0.1% nitrate nitrogen (expressed on dry matter) or less; in healthy plants this level is normally 0.5-1.5%.
Incidence Nitrogen deficiency can be expected on clay soils in newly built glasshouses if insufficient nitrogenous fertilizer is applied and on sandy soils after leaching thoroughly. It can also be induced by using straw or farmyard manure containing much undecomposed straw. The deficiency often occurs in tomato plants which are raised on peat or peat and sand substrates, especially if they have been stored in the open for long rainy periods (Roorda van Eysinga, 1965).
Control Application of 2 kg N per 100m2soil(1801b/acre;0.6oz/yd2) as an inorganic fertilizer; on coarse-textured sandy soils 90 lb/acre to prevent leaf burning (see opposite). Spraying with a 0.25% solution of urea is less effective. Young plants in pots or soil blocks may receive additional dressings of 50-100 mg N per plant, supplied as a 5% solution of calcium nitrate. Plants which have been wetted by this solution should be washed.
11
Phosphate-deficient plant on water culture (water painting)
12
Phosphorus deficiency
Description of the symptoms Shoot growth is restricted and the stem remains thin, but clear symptoms are absent. In more severe cases (e.g. in water culture) leaves are small, stiff and curved downward; the upper sides are bluish green and the undersides, including the veins, purple. The older leaves may turn yellow and develop scattered brownish purple dry spots; they drop prematurely. Hewitt (1943), Bear et al. (1948), Woolley and Broyer (1957), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964) give analogous descriptions. Leaves of phosphorus-deficient plants usually contain less than 0.4% P2O5 (expressed on dry matter); in healthy plants the level is normally 1-1.5% P 20 5 .
Incidence Phosphorus deficiency may occur on low, poorly drained, iron-rich (phosphate-fixing) soils. In other cases it may be expected on barren soils landscaped by excavating or pumping in mud or sand, if no phosphate is applied. In old glasshouses it is sometimes found after deep digging of the soil. Symptoms of malnutrition may also appear in plants raised on peat substrates if no phosphate is applied (Roorda van Eysinga, 1965). Factors impeding root growth, e. g. low soil temperatures in spring and a bad soil structure, also promote phosphorus deficiency (Groenewegen, 1963).
Control Application of 5 kg P2O5 per 100 m2 soil (450 lb/acre; 1.5 oz/yd2), as double superphosphate or polyphosphate, preferably dissolved in the water. For young plants in pots or soil blocks a 5% solution of these fertilizers may be used (100-200 mg P2O5 per plant). If the plants are wetted in applying this solution they should be washed.
13
Leaves from experimental plots in a commercial glasshouse; right and centre without, to the left with potassium.
Fruits from experimental plots in a commercial i to the left with, to the right without potassium.
14
Potassium deficiency
Description of the symptoms The leaflets of older leaves develop scorched and curled margins and interveinal chlorosis; the smallest veins do not remain green. In some varieties small dry spots with brown margins appear in the chlorotic areas. Plant growth is restricted and the leaves remain small. At a later stage chlorosis and necrosis spread to younger leaves, which is followed by defoliation of the severely yellowed and curled older leaves. Uneven ripening of the fruits can be expected. Descriptions and photographs are given by Hewitt (1943), Bear et al. (1948), Woolley and Broyer (1957), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964). A potassium-deficient tomato crop is susceptible to grey mould. Leaves of potassium-starved plants normally contain less than 1% K2O (expressed on dry matter). In healthy plants leaf potassium may vary from 3-8% K2O, the optimum level depending on calcium concentration (Pijls and Van der Boon, 1952). The potassium content required for optimum quality is higher than for maximum production (Roorda van Eysinga, 1966).
Incidence As potassium has a specific influence on fruit quality, it is generally applied in liberal quantities. Consequently, a deficiency rarely occurs. It can be expected on potassium-fixing clay soils or on coarse-textured sandy soils, if manuring is neglected.
Control Application of 10 kg K 2 0 per 100 m2 soil (900 lb/acre; 3 oz/yd2), as a potassium fertilizer. The crop can also be sprayed with a 2% solution of potassium sulphate, but soil application is more effective.
15
Magnesium-deficient leaf from a commercial glasshouse.
16
Magnesium deficiency
Description of the symptoms The margins of the leaflets of older leaves show a discoloration which progresses toward the interveinal tissues. The smallest veins do not remain green. This yellowing gradually spreads from the base to the top of the plant. In the bright yellow to orange leaf tissues often many unsunken necrotic spots appear, which may coalesce into brown bands between the veins. At first plant habit and leaf size are normal and the petioles are not curved. As the starvation becomes more severe, the older leaves die and the whole plant turns yellow. The symptoms may vary between varieties, contrast the descriptions and illustrations by Hewitt (1943), Woolley and Broyer (1957), Van den Ende (1958), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964). Fruit production is not seriously affected by moderate deficiency; only in severe cases is it markedly reduced.
According to Nicholas and Stanton (1946) and Winsor et al. (1965) leaves of deficient plants usually contain less than 0.5% MgO (expressed on dry matter). In healthy plants leaf magnesium is about 1-1.5% MgO.
Incidence Slight magnesium deficiency occurs almost in all glasshouses and on all soil types. More severe cases can be expected on coarse-textured sandy soils. It is promoted by low pH and high potassium status of the soil and by inadequate supplies of nitrogenous fertilizer.
Control Kieserite and dolomitic limestone are used for prevention. In cases of acute deficiency 3-4 kg MgO per 100 m2 soil (270-360 lb/ acre; 0.9-1.2 oz/yd2) are applied as Epsom salt. High or low volume spraying with a 2% and 10% solution of this salt respectively, is more effective than soil application in acute deficiencies. It is possible to add fungicides, such as zineb; mixed spraying with maneb may cause detrimental by-effects.
17
Calcium-deficient plant on water culture.
Blossom-end rot in fruits from a commercial glasshouse.
18
Calcium deficiency
Description of the symptoms At first the upper sides of the young leaves are dark green, except for the pale margins; the undersides turn purple. The leaflets remain tiny and are deformed and curled up. Leaf tips and margins then wither and the curled petioles die back. The growing point dies. At this stage interveinal chlorosis develops in the leaflets of older leaves and scattered necrotic spots appear. These leaves eventually die as well. Fruits show blossom-end rot. The roots develop poorly and have a brownish colour. These symptoms are rather similar to those mentioned by Hewitt (1943), Bear et al. (1948), Woolley and Broyer (1957) and Wallace (1964). Wallace (1964) reports 0.81% CaO (expressed on dry matter) for leaves of deficient plants. In healthy plants leaf calcium concentrations varying from 3.5-10% CaO have been found.
Incidence In practice, calcium deficiency in vegetative parts rarely occurs. It may arise in tomato plants raised on sphagnum peat which has not been limed (Van der Boon et ai, 1966). Blossom-end rot in fruits may be found on acid soils and on soils with a high salt content (Van den Ende, 1956). The primary cause is calcium deficiency (Abdel-Hamid, 1966). Control Liming of spaghnum peat substrates (4 kg calcium carbonate per m3); in acute cases spraying with a 0.75% solution of calcium nitrate; Geraldson (1957) prescribes a 0.4% solution of anhydrous calcium chloride.
19
Sulphur deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
Sulphur deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
20
Sulphur deficiency
Description of the symptoms At first plant habit and leaf size are normal. Stem, veins, petioles and petiolules turn purple and leaves become yellow. The leaflets of older leaves show some necrosis at tips and margins and small purple spots appear between the veins. Young leaves are stiff and curl downward. (Such curling does not normally occur in nitrogen-deficient plants.) Eventually, large irregular necrotic spots appear in these leaves. Bear et al. (1948), Woolley and Broyer (1957) and Sprague (1964) give similar descriptions.
Incidence Sulphur deficiency is unknown in commercial glasshouses. It may be expected at great distances from industrial centres if fertilizers containing no sulphates are used exclusively (Sprague, 1964).
Control Application of sulphate containing fertilizers.
21
Boron-deficient plant on water culture.
Boron deficiency in leaflet induced on sphagnum peat.
22
Boron deficiency
Description of the symptoms In severe cases (water culture) shoot growth is restricted which is followed by withering and dying of the growing point. At about the same time a slight interveinal chlorotic mottling appears in the leaflets of the younger leaves. These leaves remain small and are curled inward and deformed. The smallest leaflets turn brown and die. Middle leaves show yellow to orange tints and their veins are yellow or purple. Older leaves are then yellowish green. Laterals develop but growth soon stops as growing points die. Petioles and petiolules are very brittle resulting in leaves and leaflets breaking off suddenly. The vascular tissues of petioles, petiolules and midribs are clogged. These symptoms of brittleness and clogged vascular tissues are typical and also occur in cases of moderate deficiency. Roots grow poorly and become brown. Similar symptoms are mentioned by Van Schreven (1935), Dennis and Dennis (1943), Hewitt (1943;1945), Gum et al. (1945), Bear et al. (1948), Messing (1954/ 1955), Woolley and Broyer (1957), Sprague (1964), Wallace (1964) and Woods (1965). The malformed fruits crack, turn brown and dry up (Messing, 1954/55).
In literature the following boron contents (expressed on dry matter) for leaves of deficient plants are given: 7 (Gum et ai, 1945), 10 (Lamb and Conroy, 1962), 20 (Messing, 1954/55), 20-30 and 10-27 ppm B for young and old leaves respectively (Brennan and Shive, 1948). The following concentrations are mentioned for leaves of healthy plants: 24 (Gum et al., 1945), 30 (Lamb and Conroy, 1962), 80-90 (Stanton, 1963/66), 107 (Messing, 1954/55), 50-75 and 75-125 ppm B for young and old leaves respectively (Brennan and Shive, 1948).
Incidence Boron deficiency is unknown in commercial glasshouses in The Netherlands. In other European countries it may occur on calcareous loamy sand soils. It is sometimes found in tomato plants raised on peat substrates (Bunt, 1965).
Control Application of 200 g borax per 100 m2 soil (18 lb/acre; 0.06 oz/yd2) or spraying with a 0.1-0.2% solution of this fertilizer. Sphagnum peat should receive 10 g borax per m3 (0.25 oz/yd3; Bunt, 1965).
23
Copper-deficient plant on water culture.
Copper deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
24
Copper deficiency
Description of the symptoms Stem growth is somewhat stunted. The leaves are bluish green. The margins of leaflets of middle and of younger leaves curl into a tube towards the midribs. Chlorosis and necrosis are absent. Terminal leaves are very small, stiff and folded up. Petiolules bend typically downward, directing opposite tubular leaflets towards each other. At a later stage necrotic spots develop adjacent to and on the midribs and the larger lateral veins. Similar descriptions are given by Piper (1942), Bailey and McHargue (1943), Hewitt and Jones (1950), Hewitt et al. (1954), Woolley and Broyer (1957) and Sprague (1964). The following copper contents (expressed on dry matter) have been found in leaves of deficient plants: 4-5 (Lamb and Conroy, 1962), 12 ppm Cu (Bailey and McHargue, 1943). In healthy plants leaf copper concentrations are 6-10 (Stanton, 1963/66), 11 (Bailey and McHargue, 1943) or 14-15 ppm (Lamb and Conroy, 1962).
Incidence Copper deficiency rarely occurs in practice. The disorder may manifest itself in tomato plants raised on sphagnum peat.
Control Application of 10 g copper sulphate or 150 g copper slag (1.5% Cu) per m3 peat substrate; spraying with a 0.1-0.2% solution of copper sulphate to which 0.5% hydrated lime has been added. The use of copper containing fungicides also contributes to controlling the deficiency.
25
Manganese deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
26
Manganese deficiency
Description of the symptoms Middle and older leaves, and later the younger leaves, turn pale. This produces a characteristic chequered pattern of green veins and yellowish interveinal areas. At a later stage small necrotic gradually expanding spots appear in the pale areas, especially by the midribs. Chlorosis is less severe than in iron-deficient plants whose entire leaves may turn yellowish white. Another difference is that chlorosis is not confined to the younger leaves. For descriptions and illustrations see Hewitt (1943), Gum et al. (1945), Bear et al. (1948), Mulder and Gerretsen (1952), Stenuit and Piot (1957), Wolley and Broyer (1957 , Groenewegen (1963), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964). According to Wallace (1964) and Fiskel and Mourkides (1955) leaf manganese contents (expressed on dry matter) of deficient plants are in the range of 4-8 ppm Mn. The following values are reported for leaves of healthy plants: more than 13 (Fiskel and Mourkides, 1955), 32-60 (Gum et al., 1943), 46 (Wallace, 1964) and 120-150 ppm Mn (Stanton, 1963/66). In our own work values of 27-168 (on marine clay soils) and 43-239 ppm Mn (on river clay soils) were found.
Incidence Manganese deficiency occurs on (coarse-textured) calcareous marine clay soils and on overlimed sand and peat soils.
Control High volume spraying with a 0.1% or low volume spraying with a 1% solution of manganese sulphate. Application of 5 kg manganese sulphate per 100 m2 soil (180-450 lb/ acre; 0.6-1.5 oz/yd2), together with sulphate of ammonia and/or peat moss litter. Soil application is less effective than spraying in curing the deficiency.
27
Plant with molybdenum defiency on sphagnum peat (water painting).
Molybdenum deficiency in leaf induced on sphagnum peat.
28
Molybdenum deficiency
Description of the symptoms The leaflets show a pale green to yellowish interveinal mottling. The margins curl upwards to form a spout. The smallest veins do not remain green. Necrosis starts in the yellow areas, at the margins of the top leaflets and finally includes entire composite leaves which shrivel. These symptoms progress from the older to the younger leaves, but the cotyledons stay green for a long time. Hewitt and Jones (1947), Mulder (1948) and Woolley and Broyer (1957) give similar descriptions. According to Johnson et al. (1952) leaf molybdenum of deficient plants, is 0.13 ppm Mo (expressed on dry matter) or less. In healthy plants leaf molybdenum contents of 0.3-0.4 (Stanton, 1963/66) and 0.68 ppm (Johnson et al., 1952) are reported.
Incidence Molybdenum deficiency may occur on iron-rich sand and peat soils and on acid soils which are low in phosphate (Mulder, 1954). It can also be expected in young plants raised on sphagnum peat.
Control For prevention, liming of the soil; sphagnum peat should receive 5 g ammonium or sodium molybdate per m3. For curing the deficiency application of 15 g ammonium molybdate per 100 m2 soil (1.35 lb/acre) in ample water; spraying with a 0.05% solution of this salt.
29
Iron deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
30
Iron deficiency
Description of the symptoms Chlorosis develops in the terminal leaves. At first even the smallest veins remain green which produces a fine reticular pattern of green veins on yellow leaf tissues. At a later stage chlorosis increases in intensity and also includes the smaller veins. Eventually, affected leaves turn completely pale yellow or almost white; necrosis is not severe. The symptoms progress from the terminal to the older leaves. Growth is stunted and newly formed leaves remain small. For descriptions and illustrations, see Hewitt (1944), Woolley and Broyer (1957), Sprague (1964) and Wallace (1964). The following iron contents (expressed on dry matter) in leaves of deficient plants are reported by Walsh and Clarke (1945): 130-210 and 370-520 ppm Fe for young and old leaves respectively. Leaves of healthy plants contain 120-190 (Stanton, 1963/66) to 300-450 ppm Fe (Walsh and Clarke, 1945). In our own experiments we found values of 155-193 (on marine clay soils) and 294-819 ppm Fe (on river clay soils).
Incidence Iron deficiency may be expected on dense fine sands with a bad soil structure. The incidence is rather patchy and it occurs mainly in plants bearing a heavy crop. In Ireland it has been observed on alkaline, calcareous soils, but also on very acid peat substrates (Walsh and Clarke, 1945).
Control (curative) Application of iron chelates; 5-10 g Fe-EDDHA per m2 soil (0.15-0.30 oz/yd2) or 15-20 g/m2 Fe-DTPA (0.45-0.6 oz/yd2).
31
Zinc-deficient plant on water culture.
Zinc deficiency in leaf induced in water culture.
32
Zinc deficiency
Description of the symptoms Terminal leaves remain small and the leaflets show a slight discoloration between the veins. Plant growth is stunted. Older leaves are also smaller than normal. There is little chlorosis in these leaves but irregular shrivelled brown spots develop, especially on the petiolules, but also on and between the veins of the leaflets. Petioles curl downward, complete leaves coil up. Necrosis progresses rapidly; within a few days the entire foliage may wither. Similar symptoms are described and illustrated by Hewitt and Jones (1950), Hewitt et al. (1954), the American Zinc Institute, and Sprague (1964). Guttation of leaf tissues (Hewitt and Jones, 1950;Woolley and Broyer, 1957) was not observed. According to Lingle et al. (1958) and Chapman (1960) leaf zinc (expressed on dry matter) of deficient plants varies from 6-15 ppm Zn. The following values are given for leaves of healthy plants: 27 (Lingle et al, 1958), 20-40 (Stanton, 1963/66) and 65-198 ppm Zn (Chapman, 1960). In our own experiments we found values of 48-66 (on marine clay soils) and 201-458 ppm Zn (on river clay soils).
Incidence Zinc deficiency does not occur in The Netherlands. In the western United States it is found on eroded soils and on alkaline or phosphate-rich soils (Chapman, 1960; American Zinc Institute).
Control (curative) Application of 500 gal. of a 0.2% solution of zinc sulphate per acre (Lingle et al, 1958), which is equivalent to about 100 g zinc sulphate per 100 m2 soil, or spraying with a 0.1% solution of zinc sulphate. The use of zineb as a fungicide contributes to controlling the deficiency.
33
Leaf showing boron toxicity, photographed in a commercial glasshouse.
Curling and withering sepals caused by boron toxicity, photographed in a commercial glasshouse.
34
Excess boron
Description of the symptoms Tips and margins of the leaflets of older leaves and of the cotyledons become scorched and curl. Later sunken desiccating spots may develop, surrounded by some brown concentric rings (water culture). The down curved leaflets are dry and papery to touch, and are finally shed. Symptoms progress from the older to the younger leaves. At first the plant top is almost normal in appearance but later curling also involves terminal leaves. Hewitt (1943) mentions similar symptons. In literature the following leaf boron contents (expressed on dry matter) of poisoned plants are mentioned: 125 (Mac Kay et al., 1962), 328 (Messing, 1954/55), 300-500 and 450-900 for young and old leaves respectively (Brennan and Shive, 1948), 191 and 562 ppm B for young and old leaves respectively (Bergmann et ai, 1965).
Incidence Boron excess is easily caused by too large quantities of boron fertilizers. Special care should be taken in applying such materials.
Control Leaching the soil.
35
Plant on water culture showing manganese toxicity (water painting).
Manganese toxicity in leaf induced in water culture.
36
Excess manganese
Description of the symptoms The plant is somewhat spindly and growth is resti icted. Terminal leaves remain tiny and the leaflets show interveinal chlorosis. Many necrotic interveinal spots develop in the leaflets of older leaves, making them look dirty. This is followed by necrosis of the i>idrib and the larger lateral veins. The leaves are then shed, the older o les first. These symptoms fairly well resemble those reported by Hewitt (1946), Ahmed and Twymann (1953) and Stenuit and Piot (1960). Necrotic stem lesions (Hewitt, 1946; Stenuit and Piot, 1960; and Wallace, 1964) were not observed. Millikan (1951) and Lamb (1961) mention somewhat different symptoms. They may be modified, however, by pH and calcium concentration of the substrate (Hewitt 1946). The following, leaf manganese values (expressed on dry matter) of poisoned plants are given: 1000-2000 (Millikan, 1951), 2800-4900 (Davies, 1954/55), 4500 ppm Mn (Lamb, 1961).
Incidence Desinfection of soils by steaming releases much plant avaible manganese which may induce manganese toxicity (Davies, 1954/55; Lamb, 1961). Low pH values also promote the disorder.
Control For prevention application of lime; leaching the soil after steaming (Ozaki, 1959).
37
Plant on water culture showing zinc toxicity (water painting).
38
Excess zinc
Description of the symptoms The plant is spindly and growth is severly stunted. The younger leaves are extremely small and the leaflets show interveinal chlorosis whilst the undersides turn purple. These symptoms differ from those produced by iron deficiency. Older leaves are strongly downcurved. Purplish tints develop on the undersides, spreading from the margins inward. This may be followed by yellowing (reddish brown veins excepted) before defoliation takes place. Nicholas (1950) and Forster (1950) give rather similar descriptions. According to Chapman (1960) leaves of poisoned plants contain 526-1489 ppm Zn (expressed on dry matter). Nicholas (1950) found 19-32 ppm Zn in water extracts of young leaves of poisoned plants and 61-127 ppm Zn in the residues (expressed on fresh weight). For old leaves these values were 19-66 and 85-108 ppm Zn respectively.
Incidence Zinc toxicity may occur in glasshouses if condensation drips from the galvanized frame onto the plants (Den Boer, 1963). In general, care should be taken in using such galvanized materials as wire netting (see Rauterberg and Bussler, 1964). Soil-born zinc toxicity may occur in the neighbourhood of zinc and metallurgie factotries (Henkens, 1961).
Control Application of lime and phosphate decreases the availability of soil zinc to the plant.
39
Excess aluminium
Description of the symptoms Shoot growth is restricted and the leaves remain small. The younger leaves have a bluish green colour but neither show chlorosis nor necrosis. Expanding necrotic spots do appear in the yellowing older leaves, as a result of which desiccation and defoliation occur. The stem shows a purple discoloration. These symptoms greatly resemble those of acute phosphorus deficiency (see page ) which is also clear from the description by Hewitt (1948).
Incidence Aluminium toxicity does not occur in The Netherlands. It may be one of the detrimental factors on acid soils (Hewitt, 1948).
Control Application of lime.
41
Table Composition of nutrient solutions (concentrations in ppm) for inducing deficiency and toxicity symptoms.
N deficiency
P
S
K
Mg
Ca
B
Cu
Mn
Fe
Zn
,
y
) » » , , ,
•
B excess
Mn
Zn
Al „
^s d cd
o _
984
984
984
984
49.2
984*
984*
984*
984*
984*
984
984
984
984
M"
O
X ü
168
8.4
--
168
168
168*
168*
168*
168*
168*
168
168
168
168
o z s
168
168
-16.8
168
168
168*
168*
168*
168*
168*
168
168
168
168
9, -r-d c/2 Öi)
S
712
712
-712
35.6
712
712*
712*
712*
712*
712*
712
712
712
712
o ca X
2.016
2.016
2.016
2.016
2.016
2.016
0.040
2.016
2.016
2.016
2.016
201.6
2.016
2.016
2.016
O X in
't O in
O
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
-0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
O X ^t
c
S
1.512
1.512
1.512
1.512
1.512
1.512
1.512
1.512
-1.512
1.512
1.512
453.6
1.512
1.512
O
33 5r
O o
z 0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100
2 x recrystallized
42
< H Q m £>
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
-71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
71.5
O N X
O CO e N
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
0.576
-
0.576
0.576
172.8
0.576
O N
X oo « 1
•"•• rt-o
jo
_
-
-
-
-
------
-
-
-
616.5
0 0
666
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
O in
-2, —
96
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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References
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45
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47
Acknowledgements
Originally Mr. Ch. H. Henkens who is now Agricultural Advisory Officer for Soil Fertility Problems, Wageningen, The Netherlands, has taken the initiative to make water paintings of nutritional disorders occurring in tomatoes. This publication would not have been achieved without the co-operation of mr. E. Ebels, who made the water paintings, and of the photographer, mr. J. J. Klinkhamer. Mr. S. Vermeer has taken the photographs of deficiency symptoms in commercial crops. Thanks are also due to miss E. Jong-man and miss A. Meter who conducted the water culture experiments.