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Nuclear power in IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricityin India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable

sources of electricity.[1] As of 2012, India has 20nuclear reactors in operation in six nuclear power

plants,having an installed capacity of 5780 MW[2][3] and

producing a total of 29,664.75 GWh of electricity[4]

while seven other reactors are under construction andare expected to generate an additional 6,100 MW.

In October 2010, India drew up "an ambitious plan toreach a nuclear power capacity of 63,000 MW in

2032",[5] but, after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disasterin Japan, "populations around proposed Indian NPPsites have launched protests, raising questions aboutatomic energy as a clean and safe alternative to fossil

fuels".[6] There have been mass protests against theFrench-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear PowerProject in Maharashtra and the Russian-backed 2000MW Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu.The state government of West Bengal state has alsorefused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facilitynear the town of Haripur that intended to host six

Russian reactors.[6] A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear

programme at the Supreme Court.[6][7]

Despite this opposition, the capacity factor of Indian reactors was at 79% in the year 2011-12 compared to71% in 2010-11. Nine out of twenty Indian reactors recorded an unprecedented 97% Capacity factor during2011-12. With the imported uranium from France, the 220 MW Kakrapar 2 PHWR reactors recorded 99%capacity factor during 2011-12. The Availability factor for the year 2011-12 was at 89%.

India has been making advances in the field of thorium-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototypefor an atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part of India's three stage nuclear power

programme.[8] The country has also recently re-initiated its involvement in the LENR research activities,[9] inaddition to supporting work done in the fusion power area through the ITER initiative.

Contents

1 History

2 Nuclear fuel reserves

3 Nuclear agreements with other nations

4 Nuclear power growth in India

5 Nuclear power plants

6 Anti-nuclear protests

7 See also

Kaiga

Kakrapar

Kalpakkam

BARC

NaroraNew Delhi

Rajasthan

Tarapur

Jaitapur

Koodankulam

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7 See also

8 References

History

India's first research nuclear reactor and its first nuclear power plant were built with assistance from

Canada.[10][11] The 40 MW research reactor agreement was signed in 1956, and CIRUS achieved firstcriticality in 1960. This reactor was supplied to India on the assurance that it would not be used for military

purposes, but without effective safeguards against such use.[10][11] The agreement for India's first nuclear powerplant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigidsafeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. The 200 MWe RAPP-1 reactor wasbased on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the

reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.[citation needed] The technical and design information

were given free of charge by AECL to India.[citation needed] The United States and Canada terminated theirassistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.

Nuclear fuel reserves

India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear

power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India.[12] Due to

dwindling domestic uranium reserves,[13] electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83%

from 2006 to 2008.[14] Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group in September 2008 which

allowed it to commence international nuclear trade,[15] India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy

technology cooperation with several other countries, including France,[16] the United States,[17] the United

Kingdom,[18] Canada.[19] and South Korea.[20] India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia,[21][22]

Mongolia,[23] Kazakhstan,[24] Argentina[25] and Namibia.[26] An Indian private company won a uranium

exploration contract in Niger.[27]

Large deposits of natural uranium, which promises to be one of the top 20 of the world's reserves, have beenfound in the Tummalapalle belt in the southern part of the Kadapa basin in Andhra Pradesh in March 2011. TheAtomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India, which explores uranium in thecountry, has so far discovered 49,000 tonnes of natural uranium (U3O8) in just 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) of the160 kilometres (99 mi) long belt and there are indications that the total quantity could be three times that

amount.[28][29][30]

Nuclear agreements with other nations

The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a Letter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from theUSA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Expertssay that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims theright to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like GeneralElectric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification

on compensation liability for private operators".[31]

Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two VVER 1000 MW

reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) at Koodankulam in Tamil Nadu.[32] A2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity

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1170 MW each.[33] Russia has assisted in India’s efforts to design a nuclear plant for its nuclear submarine.[34]

In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. Anew accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which

includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel.[35][36]

After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign

a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008.[37] During the December 2010 visit of theFrench President Nicholas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third-generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal

caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years.[38] The contractand pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues anddifficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-

Proliferation Treaty.[39]

India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India,during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civilnuclear pact with India. The MoU on “development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of radioactiveminerals and nuclear energy” was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two

countries.[40]

On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy whichallows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba'sfive-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear

reactors.[41]

On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation andnine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed byVivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Takinginto consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both Indiaand Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual

benefit in this field.[42][43]

The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in Toronto on 28 June2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding

nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of the world's largest exporters of uranium[44]

and Canada's heavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad with CANDU-type units operating in India,Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their

2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.[45]

On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in PeacefulUses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation ofatomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information,reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astanawhere a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President Nazarbaev announced that his country wouldsupply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. India and Kazakhstan already have civilnuclear cooperation since January 2009 when Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) andKazakh nuclear company KazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the

contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.[46][47]

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South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from theNuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement,which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India’s nuclear expansion programme, and

to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.[48]

Nuclear power growth in India

India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from

2.8% to 9% within 25 years.[49] By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity will increase to

20,000 MW ( 2.0 × 1010 Watts, which is 20 GW).[50] As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world in terms ofnumber of operational nuclear power reactors. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of

which are 540 MW reactors.[51] India's US$717 million fast breeder reactor project is expected to be

operational by 2012-13.[52]

The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in partdue to the passing of the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade

of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.[53]

When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by

2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45,000 MW.[54]

India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEAsafeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development ofselect technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has beenparticularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichmentcapabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a thorium centred fuel cycle.While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could providehundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised inheavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI - anotherpublic sector enterprise like NPCIL

Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium fromindigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uraniumreserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needsof India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of

uranium per year.[55] Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India'sknown commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40–50 yearsuranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with reprocessing and breeder reactor technology, thissupply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's NuclearArsenal are only a fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning thatIndia's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal.Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the

foreseeable future.[55]

Indian President A.P.J.Abdul Kalam, stated while he was in office, that "energy independence is India's first andhighest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using thorium-based reactors.

Thorium, a non fissile material is available in abundance in our country."[56] India has vast thorium reserves and

quite limited uranium reserves.[57][58]

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Nuclear power plants

Currently, twenty nuclear power reactors produce 4,780.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).[59][60]

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 4 880

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 220 x 2 440

Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu PHWR 220 x 2 440

Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh PHWR 220 x 2 440

Rawatbhata NPCIL Kota Rajasthan PHWR

100 x 1

200 x 1

220 x 4

1180

Tarapur NPCIL Maharashtra BWR (PHWR)160 x 2540 x 2

1400

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 1 1000[61]

Total 21 5780

The projects under construction are:[62]

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Kalpakkam Bhavini Tamil Nadu PFBR 500 x 1 500

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 700 x 2 1400

Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 x 2 1400

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 1 1000

Total 6 4300

The planned projects are:[63][64]

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Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Fatehabad district NPCIL Haryana PHWR 700 x 4 2,800[65]

Chutka NPCIL Madhya Pradesh PHWR 700 x 2 1,400

Mahi Banswara NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 x 2 1,400

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 700 x 2 1,400

Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu FBR 500 x 2 1,000

Site to be decided AHWR 300 x 1 300

Kudankulam Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000

Jaitapur Maharashtra EPR 1650 x 2 3300

Kovvada Andhra Pradesh ESBWR 1594 x 6 9564[66]

Mithi Virdi (Viradi) Gujarat AP1000 1100 x 6 6600[67]

Total 27 28364

Some sites may be abandoned if not found technically feasible or due to strategic, geopolitical, international anddomestic issues.

The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :[68]

Year Total Nuclear electricity generation Capacity Factor

2008-09 14921 Million Units 50

2009-10 18798 Million Units 61

2010-11 26472 Million Units 71

2011-12 32455 Million Units 79

2012-13 32863 Million Units 80

Anti-nuclear protests

Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites

have launched protests that had found resonance around the country.[6] There have been mass protests againstthe French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MWKoodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The Government of West Bengal refused permission to a

proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host 6 Russian reactors.[6][69] But that

now is disputed: it's possible for Bengal to have its first nuclear power plant at Haripur despite resistance.[70]

A Public-interest litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear programme at theSupreme Court. The PIL specifically asks for the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory

safety measures and cost-benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies".[6][7] But the Supreme Courtsaid it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability

issue.[71]

See also

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Economics of new nuclear power plants

Energy policy of India

Electricity sector in India

List of Nuclear Power Stations in India

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Anti-nuclear movement in India

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