notion press...of all the vastu and silpa texts. the very name ‘manasara’ means the ‘essence...

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First Published by Notion Press 2017Copyright © Lalit Chugh 2017

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ISBN 978-1-947137-35-6

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CONTENTS

1. Instituion of Worship and Canonical Literature ..................................................................................... 1

1.1 Institution of Worship and Iconography ............................................................................................ 1

1.2 Hindu Iconography and Iconometry ................................................................................................... 4

2. Hindu Mythology and Iconography of Gods and Goddesses ...........................................................13

2.1 Religions, Sects and Temple Dedication ...........................................................................................13

2.2 Distinctive Iconic or Aniconic Forms of Gods and Goddesses ................................................25

3. Adornment and Attributes of Gods and Goddesses ............................................................................81

3.1 Weapons of Gods and Goddesses ......................................................................................................81

3.2 Costumes, Musical Instruments and Ornaments of Gods and Goddesses ...........................83

4. Natyasastra, Mythology and Silpasastra .............................................................................................. 101

4.1 Points of Convergence ........................................................................................................................ 101

4.2 Classical Dance Literature, Movements and Influence on Temple Sculpture ................... 105

5. History of Religious Sculptures in Karnataka ..................................................................................... 119

5.1 Development of Hindu Temple Sculpture ...................................................................................... 119

5.2 Jaina Sculptures of Karnataka – History and Evolution ........................................................... 152

6. Important Temple Towns with Great Sculptural Wealth ................................................................. 165

6.1 Somanathapura (Hoysalas) ................................................................................................................ 165

6.2 Belur (Chennakesava Temple, Hoysalas) ....................................................................................... 183

6.3 Halebid or Dorasamudra (Hoysalas)............................................................................................... 201

6.4 Pattadakal, Aihole, Mahakuta and Badami (Badami Chalukyas) ............................................. 216

7. Some Special Temple Sculptures of Karnataka ..................................................................................247

7.1 Govardhanadhari Krishna .................................................................................................................247

7.2 Narasimha ............................................................................................................................................. 249

7.3 Mahishasuramardini ........................................................................................................................... 250

7.4 Kaliamardana Krishna ....................................................................................................................... 252

7.5 Ravana Shaking Kailasa ..................................................................................................................... 253

7.6 Garuda, Visnu’s Vahana .................................................................................................................... 255

xii contents!

7.7 Parijataharana ...................................................................................................................................... 256

7.8 Visnu as Trivikrama ............................................................................................................................ 259

7.9 Kiratarjuniyam ..................................................................................................................................... 260

7.10 Andhakasurasamhara ......................................................................................................................... 261

7.11 Ardhanariswara ................................................................................................................................... 262

7.12 Gajasurasamhara ................................................................................................................................ 264

7.13 Nrritta Ganapati .................................................................................................................................. 265

7.14 Chamunda Devi ................................................................................................................................... 266

7.15 Visnu as Varaha ....................................................................................................................................267

7.16 Natya Saraswati ................................................................................................................................... 269

8. Glossary of Terms .......................................................................................................................................271

9. References ....................................................................................................................................................279

10. Plates and Illustrations .............................................................................................................................. 291

1 INSTITUION OF WORSHIP AND CANONICAL LITERATURE

1.1 INSTITUTION OF WORSHIP AND ICONOGRAPHY

An exposition of religious iconography must have two interrelated aspects-image making as an art

and image worship as an institutionalised religious practice. The former presupposes the latter,

rather the former is an outcome of the latter. Worship as an institution is as old as the human

civilisation itself. Though the scholarly discussions of this institution may be of an academic

interest from a broad cultural point of view, the worship through some symbol or the other has

a very hoary antiquity. The object of worship or the symbols of worship have been different in

different parts of the world and at different times during the evolution of human civilisation to

its present form. In India, the objects of worship other than gods and goddesses have been fairly

well known and even today are woven into daily religious life whether for Hinduism, Buddhism

or Jainism, the three prominent religions which existed in ancient and medieval times. Paying

homage to certain trees, for example has been practiced in all these three religions.

The objective of this symbolism in worship depended upon the fundamental principle of

being grateful to an object which in some way or the other has been conducive to the well being

of human life and its primary necessities. Man has always found in Nature his protector and

the greatest benefactor. The all embracing principle of life of communion with nature formed

the first signs of religion in India. The religious life of the early Vedic society naturally revolved

around the glorification of the natural objects and forces typified as gods and goddesses and their

glorification in prayer and ritual chants was its outcome. The anthropomorphism of the objects

and forces formed the basis of iconology which in turn gave rise to resultant iconography. Hence

iconography presupposes iconology involving description of the Vedic gods and goddesses as

having hands, feet, arms, dress, chariots, vehicles and ornaments to impart life like imageries.

They may be considered as the progenitors of the images described in the early canonical

literature on iconography such as the Puranas, Agamas and the Silpasastras.

As times passed, the Aryans who followed the Vedic religion and the non-Aryans who followed

local traditional religious practices started bonding together and started adopting each other’s

practices in their respective religious traditions. Thus was born a composite religion comprising

2 KarnataKa's rIcH HerItaGe - teMPLe scULPtUres & DancInG aPsaras!

the two channels of the ritualism of the upper classes and the popular religion characterised

by image worship of the masses. Image worshipping was becoming the grand religious and

philosophical solution of the difficulty of conceiving a limitless Absolute from the practical point

of view and conveniences thereof.

From individualistic sacrificial and ritualistic performances, the congregation at tirthas was

becoming a way of collective worshipping among the Hindus. This gave rise to the construction

of temples and installation of images therein as the new and more widely accepted form of

religious propagation. Though the main theme of the puranas was the glorification of the Hindu

Trinity-Brahma, Visnu and Mahesha (Siva), the great god Visnu captured the imagination most.

The religion of puranas gave rise to the Vaisnavism cult. What puranas did in the northern parts

of India, the agamas did for glorification of the god Siva in the south and thus came forward the

cult of Saivism. Shakti worship got its codification from the Tantras. Thus these three branches

of religious literature, the puranas, the agamas and the tantras gave rise to three powerful sects

of vaisnavism, saivism and shaktism. It was from these fountain-heads that image worship as a

religious institution and the image making as an art got the encouragement for their development.

The word vastu has been derived from vastoshpati used in ‘Rig Veda’ and is meant to provide

protection, happiness and prosperity in this life as well as after death. A shloka there has the

meaning: “Oh God of structures and buildings, we are your devotees. Listen our prayer, make us

free of disease, give wealth and prosperity, and help the well-being of all persons and animals

living in the house. These houses were free from obstructions and had big compounds with great

walls.” Later the word vastu finds mention in various puranas and other Vedic texts. The Matsya

Purana has ten complete chapters devoted to architecture and sculpture and in it eighteen scholars

have been mentioned who were masters of Vastu sastra. Their names are: Bhrigu, Atri, Vasistar,

Vishwakarma, Mayan, Naradar, Nagnajit, Visalakshan, Purandaran, Brahma, Kumaraswamy,

Nandikesawaran, Sounakar, Bhargavar, Vasudevar, Anirudhar, Sukran and Brahaspati. In Agni

Purana there are sixteen chapters dealing with town planning.

The science of vastu is considered an integral part of the Hindu architecture. This science had

been developing right from the Vedic times. Being a technical subject, it was confined only to the

architects and handed over verbally or in the form of hand-written monographs. The principles of

construction, architecture and sculpture, as enunciated in the treatises on temple architecture,

have been incorporated in the science of vastu. From ancient literature, it is gathered that vastu

was treated as the science of construction of temples and royal palaces.

The word agama generally implies a traditional doctrine or precept, a sacred writing or

scripture and hence the Veda. But there is a special class of works including the mystical worship

of Siva and Shakti like the tantras which come from south India. These are sometimes known

as the beginning of the agamas. They are encyclopedic works like the puranas whose ultimate

object is also to discuss the worship of the Triad. The puranas, however deal with all the three

InstItUIon of WorsHIP anD canonIcaL LIteratUre 3!

deities forming the holy Trinity, although Visnu has received preference in as much as fourteen

of the puranas are devoted to his worship. The agamas, on the other hand initially dealt largely

with Siva though agamas dedicated to other deities too were evolved over time.

The agamas like the puranas deal with the architectural subjects too and their contribution

to Silpasastra is more extensive and valuable. Some of the agamas deal with technical matters,

which is not the case with the puranas. The agama named Kamilkagama devotes sixty of its

seventy two chapters to architecture and sculpture. But unlike puranas, Kamilkagama discusses

highly technical matters such as classification of temples by architectural styles into Nagara,

Dravida and Vesara, shapes like masculine, feminine and neuter, suddha, misra and samkirna

depending respectively on a single material, mixture of two materials and the amalgamation of

many materials. The postures of the temple images like sthanaka (standing), asana (sitting) and

sayana (sleeping) too are described here.

While the agamas and puranas dealt with architecture and sculpture more on a philosophical

and theoretical plane adding ritualistic touch to these, need for evolving knowledge for practical

construction was strong too. Between 4th century CE and 11th century CE, numerous texts were

written devoted exclusively to architecture, sculpture, measurements, geometry, planning,

construction and civil engineering. The various texts that have led to the construction of the

magnificent temples all over India during medieval times are Mayamata, Manasara, Rajavallabha,

Viswakarmaprakasa, Aparajitapraccha and Samarangana Sutradhara.

Manasara is regarded as the most standard and complete treatise, rather the fountain-head

of all the vastu and silpa texts. The very name ‘Manasara’ means the ‘Essence of Measurement’.

Of the seventy chapters of Manasara, the first eight are introductory, the next forty-two deal

with architectural matters, and the last twenty are devoted to sculpture, whether sculptural

details of idols of deities of the Hindus, the Buddhists and Jains, statues of great personages and

images of animals and birds are all given in it.

Mayamata was written by a Tamil saint named Mamuni Mayan. He was adorned as the

Vishwakarma by Veda Vyasa in Mahabharata. Mayan authored several scientific texts including

the Surya Siddhanta. A memorial is being built in his honour in Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu.

The other text that needs a special mention is Samarangana Sutradhara. This text in Sanskrit was

written by the Paramara King Bhoja of Dhar in 11th century CE. Written in 83 chapters, this text deals

with civil engineering, town planning and sculptural arts. It must be recognized that all this canonical

literature on architecture and sculpture is still alive and in use. Extensive research both by Indians

and foreigners is still on to try and understand the tenets of Hindu architecture and sculpture.

Though architecture is broadly definable as a branch of fine arts having for its object the

production of edifices pleasing to a cultivated and artistic mind, it falls primarily within the realm

of science. The principles of construction and engineering employed in building ancient temples


and the way in which these structures were designed to support weights or counteract thrust are

capable of being categorized as being scientific.

Before the replacement of the brick medium by stone, there was a short-lived phase of ‘rock

architecture’. The cut-in-caves and cut-out monoliths were imitations of the contemporary

brick and wood architecture in all their intricate details. Since Vedic rituals needed open spaces

for performing the yajna and wood architecture built spaces for discourse, much of Hindu

architecture got planned around the wood construction. The ideas got carried down right to the

age when temples started being built using stone.

1.2 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY AND ICONOMETRY

The cultural manifestation of Hinduism is uniquely complex. In particular, the visual arts

associated with the Hindu religion are recognised as being the most complex and rich of any

living religion. No serious effort to understand ancient or contemporary Indian culture can be

made without a clear understanding of the visual arts and their sources in religious belief and

practice. Any serious study of the subject emphasizes the ritual aspect of religious art - with

reference to monumental architecture, sculpture and rural arts. The evolution of temple art over

the centuries reflects on the social and anthropological roots of artistic creativity, as well as the

rites, practices and beliefs of the hundreds of millions of Indians.

The branch of knowledge that deals with the representative art in the form of pictures,

drawings, figures or images or icons is called iconography. Iconography, as it is understood in our

context, is that branch of knowledge which deals with the representative art such as portraits,

figures, artistic images or symbols, and pictures. To be precise, it is the study of religious figures

or drawings of objects.

In Indian sculpture, painting, and iconography, the majority of the figures are based on the

human body. This belongs to the drista (the visible world). All natural shapes are said to be with

life. It is also the scene of the transformation of the self. In this transformed shape, the self is

represented in art. The transformation results from an inner process of realization. It is not visible

to the physical eye; it belongs to the adrista (the unseen). The world of the inner reality differs

from the outer world but cannot exist without it. Therefore, art serves as the meeting ground

of the two worlds and relates to the transformation of the inner world to that of the outer. The

Indian understanding of the relationship of the background to the images was the transformation

of a raw stony substance to an animate figure endowed with the dynamism of life with features

and expression in it. The early religious images are traced back to the second millennium BCE.

The iconographic development in India has been continuous at least for about seven thousand

years. The iconic specimens found in the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, the proto-historic

phase of Indian history and the descriptive hymns dealing with iconic conceptions in the Rig Veda

show a continuum of sort.


The term silpa designates any kind of art, a fine or mechanical art (64 such arts are enumerated

in Silpasastras), a skill in any art and crafts in the Indian tradition. Its origin is traced to the Vedas.

Silpa is a pervasive term and includes within the ambit of its meaning anything creative, imitative,

ideational, or skilful which in one sense or the other involves dexterity of hand or mind or both.

Silpa also implies a technique, a ceremonial act, an artifact, indeed anything that either leads

to or is a tangible product of some craft. The Aitareya Brahmaṇa regards silpa as the anukaraṇa

(imitation) of deva silpa (divine art). By silpa the divine personages create and strengthen the

cosmic forces, and by it a transmutation is brought about in different, disparate phenomena. It

is the principle by which the non-manifested is rendered manifest, and the manifest derives its

corporeality and colours.

Iconography has several integral elements in it. They include the classification of images,

textual principles of making images, mode of casting, materials employed in making images, the

accessories, and the characters of gods and goddesses. Strict and most elaborate rules were laid

down for the measurements of the various parts of the body and their relative proportions and

the different postures. In course of time, representations of gods and goddesses were made. An

impression of their power and personality was created by the sthapatis.

In the old Indian value of measurement of length there are two different kinds of units, namely,

the absolute and the relative. Of these, the first is based on the length of certain natural objects,

while the second is obtained from the length of a particular part or limb of the person whose

measurement is under consideration.

“Iconometry” means the measurements of the icons. Iconometry is the use of relative units

and in the field of image making it is the most interesting part. The measurements used for making

images are the basis for perfection. Proportions of images are ruled by complex iconometrical

canons. The accuracy in measurement is the criterion of perfection. The sthapatis have always

produced their images according to prescribed measurements. In the making of the images, the

sthapati follows two types of iconometry, the talamana and the angulamana. The word tala

refers to the length of the palm, which is considered to be equivalent in sculptures, as in human

beings, to the length of face from forehead to chin. Generally, images are made according to the

navatala measurement. That is, the length of the image is nine times the length of its palm or

face. The nine-face length is distributed thus: face, one tala; throat to navel, two; navel to the

tip of the knee, three; lower knee to ankle, two, and the remaining one tala is divided among the

height of foot, knee and top knot. Dwarfish figures may be made according to the caturasratala,

or four-tala formula, four times the length of the image’s face.

Iconometry as a science that deals with the measurements of the images may differ from

region to region and period to period in the Indian context. The details regarding measurements

of the anga or “parts” (e.g. the length of nose, the breadth and width of eyes and so on) are

laid down in the silpasastra and agama. The original works dealing with sculpture are Kasyapa


Silpam and Manasam. Both these works deal with every branch of silpa. Especially in south India

the works of Agastya, Kasyapa and Vishwakarma are followed in carving sculpture. In Agastya

Sakaladhikara eleven ways are specified by which the height of an image can be determined. Late

Ganpathi Sthapathi, a temple architect of international repute; in his book “Sirpa Chennool”, has

written the significance and elegance of making the icons using different materials and methods.

This serves as the proper text book and guide for the artisans and students even today.

Canons of iconometry follow the ancient “Talamana” system in which the basic units are

the angula and the tala, and the latter stands for the length of the palm. The angula is either

a fixed length or a proportion. A span can be defined in many ways namely mulaberanglam,

mananglam or matharangulam. A tala or span is defined to be 12 angulas in the texts and an

angula is approximately equivalent to 3/4th of present day inch in use. Angula may be defined

as proportionate measure and fixed measure. The measurement of angula is divided into 8

yavas. All images in temples follow the directions from the above canonical guidelines. Subashini

Venkatraman of the Department of Computer Engineering, Eritrea Institute of Technology

published a paper on computerization of the Talamana system in the International Journal of

Computer Applications in May 2011.

The artist who worked on Hindu religious sculptures had very little freedom for the

expression of his genius being bound by canonical guidance taken from the various silpa texts.

The sastras insist on proportions and demand that the images be strictly fashioned according

to the principles laid for the images to be worthy of worship. Even with such restrictions, artists

did produce extraordinarily beautiful images and the masterpieces are there everywhere to see.

Talamana dictated the iconometric proportions generally and well set rules were prescribed for

the hierarchy of gods and goddesses and other terrestrial and celestial beings to be carved in

images. In order to give extraordinarily imposing and beautiful appearance to gods and goddesses,

their images tended to be elongated compared with the images of demi-gods and terrestrial

beings. According to Sukraniti, the female figures should always be in 7 (seven) tala proportions.

Probably this was applicable to the terrestrial woman. In the saptatala system, the height of the

figure is 84 angulas while the length of the face is 12 angulas and thus the ratio of length to face

is 7.

The head-height ratios for the other measures were like this:

Height in

angulas

Length of Face

in angulas

Ratio of height

and Tala

Dasatala 120 13 9.25

Navatala 108 12 9

Saptatala 84 12 7


It is clear from the above table that in case of female figures the maximum height to head

ratio was 9.25. Taller the figures, more graceful they appear and hence goddesses and other

mythological female figures tend to have elongated images. Head to height ratios for apsaras

and surasundaris too were higher than those of terrestrial women in images and it was still

higher for goddesses. This corresponds to an ascending order of beauty where apsaras are

supposed to be more beautiful than terrestrial women and goddesses even more beautiful than

apsaras. Agamas insist that the deities should always be conceived as youthful figures i.e. in the

prime of their youth.

Alongwith the measurements of different limbs of the goddesses, the canonical texts also

prescribe the norms for the shapes of different limbs for super-human beauty. The creation of

super mundane beauty being the main consideration in shaping the figures of goddesses and

apsaras, canonical literature recommended little exaggeration of the outer corners of the eyes,

breasts and hips.

Different attributes, weapons, and postures that are special for each deity must be present in

the image for it to be worthy of worship. Such details are described in the various silpasastras,

treatises on sculptures, generally considered to have been compiled between the 3rd and the

12th centuries CE. The popular silpasastras provide rules for both the iconography and for the

iconometry of the images. Though these silpasastras do not agree in all details, they do agree on

the significant attributes of the more popular deities. Sculptors may show a special preference

for one or another of the silpasastras.

Silpasastras and Silparatna instruct the sculptors and the architect to follow the rules and

formulations laid down for making images. The Silpasastras detail the classification of images,

the mode of casting images, the attributes in the hands of images, the costumes, ornaments and

headgear of images, and the characters of the gods and the goddesses.

Iconographical literature may be divided into the following seven sub-divisions:

i) Puranas; ii) Agamas; iii) Tantras; iv) Silpasastras; v) Pratistha Paddhatis; vi) Dhyanas and

vii) Sadhanas. Vedic lore; however is the primordial source from which all these currents

have flown. Vishwakarma and Maya are regarded as the ancient progenitors of the tradition

of Vastu-vidya. They are the founders of the two distinct schools of Hindu architecture viz.

the Aryan or Northern and the Dravidian or Southern schools. Two treatises among the silpa

texts are very well known by the authorship of sages as Agastya (Sakaladhikara) and Kasyapa

(Amsumadbheda). The origin and development of architecture (temple building) was almost

synchronous with the origin and development of temple sculpture (the making of the cult

images, icons and images of the gods and goddesses or deities to be installed in the temples).

Literary sources like the puranas, agamas, tantras, pratistha paddhatis on the one hand and

silpa texts on the other evolved in conjunction with each other and contents of some of them

are described below.


Puranas

Puranas have contributed a great deal to both temple architecture and iconology. References to

these subjects may be found in all the eighteen puranas but nine of them have treated the subject

more systematically. The iconographical details are largely contained in the Matsya, Agni, Skanda,

Garuda, Linga, Bhavisya and Visnu (particularly, the Visnudharmottara) Puranas. The three puranas

that merit special attention for the present work are Matya, Agni and Visnudharmottara Puranas.

Matsya Purana: Matsya Purana is considered to be a very ancient text and is regarded

older than Agni and Visnu Puranas. Iconographical details of the Hindu pantheon are described

in at least ten of the over 250 chapters. Among saiva icons, several of the anthropomorphic

forms of Siva like Ardhanariswara, Lingodbhava murtis and composite Siva-Narayana images

are described in it. Other deities finding prominent place in this purana are Brahma, Garuda,

Kartikeya, Ganesha, Mahishasuramardini, Indra and Indrani. The most significant contribution of

this purana is in respect of the system of proportional measurements to be adopted while making

images in accordance with the Talamana system of measurement.

Agni Purana: The architectural and sculptural details in Agni Purana may be considered to be

the most elaborate among all puranas. Out of its sixteen chapters devoted to Silpa, iconography

occupies the major part in thirteen of them. Deities of the Panchayatana have been described

from an iconographer’s point of view. Among the vaisnava icons all the Dasavatara murtis

besides some extraordinary forms of Visnu find detailed in Agni Purana.

Visnudhamottara Purana: This purana besides describing iconography in detail also gives

an elaborate treatment to painting of icons and theory of painting. The last forty-two chapters

deal with iconography in such detail as may not be found in any other text and it epitomises the

stage of development of Hindu iconography. This purana not only describes all the traditional

Panchayatana class deities to be worshipped as cult objects but also the minor deities, gods and

celestial bodies like Dikpalas, Nagas, Yakshas, Gandharvas, Navagrahas and Adityas.

Brihatsamhita

It is a semi purana and hence from its characteristic puranic lore and relative antiquity, its

iconographical contents are very important. The value of this text is enhanced by the elaborate

description of the characteristic features of the images of the deities (pratima laksana). It imparts

the practical guidance for artistic traditions to be followed by the artists. It has four chapters on

iconography, the 58th being on pratima laksana.

Agamas

The number of agamas is greater than the puranas. As against eighteen puranas, agamas number

twenty eight. The principal agamas dealing with iconographical subjects are Kamika, Karna,

Suprabheda, Vaikhanasa and Amsumadbheda.


The agamic tradition, in general, has been dated to the pre-Mauryan period as references to

the tradition are found in later Vedic literature of Atharvaveda. The agama or aagama tradition is

often contrasted with the nigama tradition; the latter possibly a reference to the unchanging Vedic

tradition. Agama refers to scriptures “that which has come down”. It also means “a traditional

doctrine, or system which commands faith”.

Agamas deal with the philosophy and spiritual knowledge behind the worship of the deity, the

yoga and mental discipline required for this worship, and the specifics of worship offered to the

deity. The ritualistic patterns of worship in the agamic religion differ from the Vedic form. While

the Vedic form of yajna require no idols and shrines, the agamic religions are based on idols

with puja as means of worship. The agamic deities are pinned to a specific spot and assume the

territorial nature of the deity.

Each agama consists of four parts:

◆◆ Kriya pada – consists of rules for construction of temples; for sculpting, carving, and

consecration of idols of deities for worship in temples; for different forms of initiations

or diksha.

◆◆ Charya pada – lays down rules for daily worship (puja), observances of religious rites,

rituals, festivals and prayaschittas (penance).

◆◆ Yoga pada – concentrates on yoga and the mental discipline.

◆◆ Jnana pada – consists of philosophical and spiritual knowledge, knowledge of reality and

liberation.

The agamas state three essential requirements for a place of pilgrimage - sthala, tirtha and

murti. Sthala refers to the temple, tirtha, to the temple tank and murti to the deity or deities

worshipped. A temple may also be associated with a tree, called the sthala vriksham. For

instance, the Kadamba tree at the Madurai Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple is the sthala

vriksham.

Elaborate rules are laid out in the agamas for silpa (the art of sculpture) describing the quality

requirements of the places where temples are to be built, the kind of images to be installed, the

materials from which they are to be made, their dimensions, proportions, air circulation, lighting

in the temple complex etc. The Manasara and Silpasastra are some of the works dealing with

these rules. The rituals followed in worship services each day at the temple also follow rules laid

out in the agamas.

Tantras as an iconographical source are really of far reaching importance but unfortunately

have not been studied properly to give them the significance they deserve in the Hindu

iconographical research. The list of tantras is formidable and these are full of iconographical

material.


Silpasastras

Puranas, agamas and tantras are not architectural treatises but religious texts with contents

that are meant to guide temple architectural and sculptural processes. Silpasastras on the other

hand are proper architectural treatises. There are numerous such texts, some among them are

exclusively followed in the northern Indian architecture and some in the southern architecture

while there are some which find acceptance everywhere. However, the most significant among

them with strong presence in the southern architecture are Mayamata, Manasara, Kasyapa

Amsumadbheda, Agastya Sakaladhikara and Srikumar’s Silparatna. The treatises generally

followed in the northern architecture are Vishwakarma Prakasa, Vishwakarma Vastusastra,

Samarangana Sutradhara, Aparajitapraccha and Rupamandana. Manasara and Mayamata are

regarded as the most standard of the silpa texts.

Agastya Sakaladhikara is a treatise exclusively devoted to temple sculpture. This text is in

the line of agamic traditions of worship and object of worship is Siva. Most of its chapters are

devoted to the Siva worship methodology and pratima laksanas for images of Siva.

Kasyapa Amsumadbheda is one of the larger texts on Vastusastra. It deals with sculpture

more elaborately than Manasara. It has devoted thirty nine chapters to sculpture and follows the

same traditions as the agamas. Saiva icons are the predominant ones covered in this treatise. Its

commentary on Talamana is another speciality. Agastya’s and Kasyapa’s treatises are identical

to all intent and purposes. Between the two, Kasyapa’s work is more authoritative, more copious

and complete and is popular among the artisans in the south.

Silparatna of Srikumara is a later medieval southern text on sculpture. It deals with

practically all classes of icons viz. saiva, vaisnava and shakta and those other belonging to the

Panchayatana groups along with images of the miscellaneous deities as have been described in

Visnudhamottara Purana. Srikumara lived at the close of the 16th century CE and compiled this

work on the authority of the vast silpa literature available then at the instance of Deva Narayana,

a ruler of the North Travancore state. This text has thus copied much from earlier existing texts,

most notably the agamas.

Vishwakarma Silpa is part of the northern or Aryan texts on temple architecture and

sculpture. Vishwakarma is believed to be the architect of the Devas and the founder Acharya of

the Aryan Vastu-vidya. It is believed that he got it straight from Brahma, the creator. According

to the northern tradition Brahma is the Sthapaka and Vishwakarma, the Sthapati architect. One

conceives and the other executes. There seem to have been more than one title for Vishwakarma’s

work. Vishwakarma Prakasa, Vishwakarma Vastusastra, Vishwakarma Silpasastra are all the

other titles by which it is known.

Samarangana Sutradhara is a medieval treatise written by the renowned King Bhoja of Dhar

in the 11th century CE. It is a landmark in the development of the Hindu science of architecture


and engineering. It has consolidated the floating architectural lore of the subcontinent into one

single treatise and also evolved an ornamental style of its own called the Lata style or the Gurjara

School of temple architecture. It is less copious in treatment of sculpture as such but added some

newer dimensions to the iconological prescriptions. The rasas and rasa-drstis, the mudras as the

canons of pictorial art are some of the novelties of this text.

Aparajitapraccha is also a medieval treatise almost contemporary of Samarangana Sutradhara.

Though not so standard a compendium as Samarangana Sutradhara, the Aparajitapraccha of

Bhuvanadevacharya is complimentary to it to some extent. It delineates upon the sculptural

details having background not only of the puranas and the Pancharatra texts but also of the

agamas and tantras thus bringing in an interrelated influence between the northern and southern

canons and traditions.

Rupamandana is a historical treatise written by Mandana of Malva. The word rupa or bimba

or bera all signify icons. Mandana is stated to have been in the employ of King Kumbharana,

husband of legendary Meera of Mewar. Rupamandana was written during the early part of the

15th century CE.

Since sculptures found in the temples of Karnataka were created by artists coming from

various diverse locations and different schools of art, a rich synthesis of the northern and

southern art is visible here. Right from the times of the Chalukyas of Badami, Karnataka had

this rich tradition of assimilating the best traditions from all parts of the sub-continent. Even the

artists travelled long distances to work at locations of heightened temple building activity. Just

like in temple architecture where Karnataka architects followed both the Nagara and Dravida

styles to later create their very own Vesara style, in the sculptural art too they created and

established a distinguished style of the land. The Hoysala School of art still stands out distinctly

as an unparalleled art movement.

HINDU MYTHOLOGY AND ICONOGRAPHY OF GODS AND GODDESSES

2.1 RELIGIONS, SECTS AND TEMPLE DEDICATION

Temples and epigraphs form an important means to understand history and the social, cultural

and economic past of the land. Temple building was one of the conspicuous practices of the people

of Karnataka irrespective of the dynasty reigning at any particular time. Epigraphs left in the

temple premises by the people of those times form the right guide to know about the patronage,

grants, nature of activities pursued in the temples, social and cultural issues related with the

temples, deities installed in the temple and the motivation behind building such magnificent

monuments. The temple building activity was a cultural expression of political, social, economic

and religious development of those periods and thus led to the development of various forms of

artistic expression. Temples are the historians of heritage and they should not lose their identity.

It is necessary to preserve them with due care and they should not be allowed to become mere

showpieces. They must continue to remind the society of the grandeur of the past and continue

to inspire people into delivering their best.

Forms of Gods and Goddesses to whom the temples were dedicated

Worship of gods and goddesses may date back to prehistoric times. However, to know about the

gods and goddesses and temples built in their honour we have to rely on supporting historical

evidence besides the existence of relics of past. Any commentary on these matters would

thus be based on such historical evidence. Existing monuments (whether standing or in ruins),

inscriptions and epigraphical records, memorials from the past and travel records of foreign

visitors constitute a reliable way to reconstruct the history associated with heritage.

Since temple building activity is directly associated with the growth of religions and the

proclivity of the ruling dynasties towards any given religion, a study of the religions of the

land is essential. It will be noticed in the succeeding chapters how the three principal religions

viz. Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism influenced the arts and architecture, culture and social

development in Karnataka in the past. However, with the emergence of Hinduism as the most

dominating pantheon since the 4th century CE, its contribution to the art and architecture is more

2


noticeable than the other religions. By the 12th century, Hinduism had become the most popular

and powerful faith in Karnataka with its various sects and sub-sects and attracted the attention

of the kings, nobles, officials, tradesmen, preachers, philosophers and artisans. It is observed

that worship of Siva was widespread throughout the length and breadth of the state. Viewing

from historically available evidence, it appears that Siva cult probably goes further back than that

of Visnu. Shakti cult as such may be perhaps of the same antiquity as the Visnu cult but worship

of mother goddess in one form or the other was possibly in existence as tribal and local practice

much earlier than historical evidence suggests.

Siva

Siva as a popular god does not manifest himself in avataras (incarnations) as Visnu. He is

mostly worshipped as his popular symbolic form, the Linga. Various temples do depict him in

his anthropomorphic forms too but that seems to have commenced later probably in the 5th or

6th century CE. The earliest reference to Siva temple is found in an inscription from Vasana of

the Satavahana period assigned to 245 CE. However, the evidence of the earliest Siva Linga

is available at Talagunda in the form of Pranaveswara temple (Plate 1). The Talagunda pillar

inscription of the Kadambas assignable to 450 CE refers to an eternal Sthanu (Siva Linga)

which was worshipped earlier by Satakarni, probably of the Satavahana dynasty. It is opined

by scholars that the Satakarni could probably be the King Gautamiputra Satakarni. If that is

to be believed then the Siva Linga at Talagunda is the earliest historically and Pranaveswara

temple is the oldest in the state. Another pillar inscription found at Malavalli, a few km away from

Talagunda is assignable to 3rd century CE. It refers to a command issued by the king Vinhukada

Chutukulananda Satakarni I to his revenue officers (mahavalabham-rajjukam) relating to a grant

free of all taxes to Brahmin named Kondamana for enjoyment of god Malapali (Siva). Some loose

sculpture lies scattered around the pillar inscription at Malavalli and a Siva temple of yore stands

close to it. All these three inscriptions go into suggesting that worship of Siva was prevalent in

Karnataka during the times of Satavahanas and probably earlier. Siva has been a popular Hindu

god right from Satavahana period till the Hoysalas and all intervening dynasties too patronized

temples of Siva.

It is evident that Karnataka has been a hub of saivite religious activities. Saivism being one of the

oldest and most widely spread Hindu cults, consisted of several sub-sects like Pasupata, Lakulisa,

Kalamukha, Kapalika, Natha-pantha etc. Virashaivism too is deeply rooted in Karnataka. Siva

temples in Karnataka are known by over 150 different names, the most popular among them being,

Iswara, Mulsthaneswara, Mahadeva, Someswara, Chandrasekhara, Mallikarjuna, Nageswara,

Siva, Kalleswara, Rameswara. Prominent temples dedicated to Siva are located at Aralaguppe

(Kalleswara, Nolambas), Alur (Arkeswara and Deseswara, Gangas of Talkad), Narasamangala

(Rameswara, Gangas of Talkad), Talkad (Pataleswara, Gangas of Talkad), Madivala, Bengaluru

(Someswara, Cholas), Kolar (Someswara, Cholas), Shiggaon (Kamaleswara, Rashtrakutas), Bagali

HInDU MytHoLoGy anD IconoGraPHy of GoDs anD GoDDesses 15!

(Kalleswara, Rashtrakutas/Kalyani Chalukyas), Lakkundi (Kasivisveswara, Kalyani Chalukyas),

Kuknur (Navalinga, Rashtrakutas), Pattadakal (Mallikarjuna, Chalukyas of Badami), Badami

(Bhutanatha, Kalyani Chalukyas), Balligavi (Kedareswara, Hoysalas), Basaralu (Mallikarjuna,

Hoysalas), Barkur (Panchalingeswara, Alupas), Nandi (Bhoganandiswara, Nolambas), Talagunda

(Pranaveswara, Kadambas), Halebid (Hoysaleswara, Hoysalas) and many more places.

Visnu

Next to saivism, vaisnavism seems to have been the most popular Hindu sect as is evidenced

by the number of temples in Karnataka and epigraphical records. Visnu in Rig Veda is sun-god.

According to vaisnavism, Visnu is the Supreme Being and he alone is the manifestation of the

Universe. Vaisnavism too was patronized by all dynasties in Karnataka. However, proliferation

of Visnu temples occurred only after the 10th century and Cholas and Hoysalas were responsible

for the construction of the largest number of vaisnavite temples even though temples dedicated

to Visnu were built as early as 6th century by the Chalukyas of Badami.

The earliest inscriptional reference to Visnu is assignable to the Gangas of Talkad. It is assigned

to the reign of King Madhava III (440-469 CE) and was found at Keregalur in Hassan district. Temples

of Visnu belonging to various periods are located at Halasi (Bhoo Varaha Lakshminarasimha

temple, Kadambas), Cave 3 at Badami is dedicated to Visnu (Chalukyas of Badami), Srirangapatna

(Sriranganathaswamy, Gangas of Talkad), Domlur in Bengaluru (Chokkanathaswamy, Cholas),

Belavadi (Veeranarayana, Hoysalas), Javagal (Lakshminarasimha, Hoysalas), Malurpatna

(Narayanaswamy, Cholas), Marehalli (Lakshminarasimha, Cholas), Melukote (Cheluvanarayana,

Hoysalas), Thondanur (Nambinarayana, Hoysalas) Talkad (Kirtinarayana, Hoysalas), Hangala

(Varadarajaswamy, Gangas of Talkad), Narasapur (Ugranarasimha, Kalyani Chalukyas).

One temple that needs special mention for its magnificent idol is Veeranarayana temple at

Ingaleshwar of 11th century CE built during the times of Kalyani Chalukyas. This temple located

in an obscure location hidden among a cluster of residential units houses an amazingly beautiful

image of Narayana (Plate 2).

Visnu is believed to have ten incarnations. Among them Rama and Krishna are very popular.

Karnataka’s mythological links with Ramayana are very well known. Temples dedicated to Rama

are located at various places. However, inscriptional references to these temples are few. The

important historical Rama temples in Karnataka are located at Hiremagalur (Kodandarama,

Gangas of Talkad), Kudlur (Ramadevaru Sitadevi Temple, Cholas), Ramanathapura (Pattabhirama,

Hoysalas). Kodandarama temple at Hiremagalur (Plate 3) perhaps is the earliest Rama temple in

Karnataka. This temple is assigned to the Ganga King Madhava II (461-485 CE) which was later

expanded during the times of the King Nitimarga II (904-919 CE).

Temples dedicated to Krishna in Karnataka are numerous. The earliest reference to Krsna in

inscriptional records is assignable to the Chola King Rajendra Chola Deva I and is dated 1013 CE


and found at Honganur near Channapatna (Plate 4). This inscription refers to a land grant for the

god Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar (Visnu) and is now called Gopalakrishna temple. Gopalakrishna

temple in Honganur has two unique features. Krishna’s image (Krishna playing on flute) here

depicts the legs in a manner opposite to normally it is seen in Krishna’s images. Instead of the

right leg crossing in front of the left one as is usual, the idol here has the left leg crossed in front

of the right one. And instead of the leg in front being bent to stand on the toe, it is the leg behind

that is bent to be standing on the toe. Another feature of the temple is that Krishna’s foster

mother Yashoda has a shrine dedicated to her next to Krishna’s shrine. Another temple dedicated

to Krishna and built by the Cholas is the Navanitha Krishna temple at Doddamalur.

The Krishna temple at Udupi dates back to the 13th century CE. The idol here was installed

by the vaisvanite saint Madhavacharya. It is said that once Kanakadasa, a pious worshipper

and devotee of Krishna, was staying in a makeshift hermitage in front of Krishna matha. There

was an earthquake in the night and the outer wall of the temple cracked leaving a wide opening

for Kanakadasa to have darshana of the idol. Till today, devotees worship Krishna by praying

through the same window where Kanakadasa was seeing the offerings/Pooja from outside. It is

known as Kanakana khindi, and is decorated by an arch named after him. A statue of his has also

been erected. A similar window covers the immediate front of the idol and is called Navagraha

khindi.

Other prominent temples dedicated to Krishna in Karnataka are located at Belur (Chennakesava,

Hoysalas), Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Hoysalas), Chennakesava (Dharampura, Hoysalas),

Saumyakesava (Nagamangala, Hoysalas), Kesavaswamy and Krishna Temple Ensemble (Hoovina

Hadagali, Kalyani Chalukyas).

Shakti and her various forms

Various different manifestations of the Shakti that one can come across in Karnataka are:

Mahishasuramardini

According to legend, Durga killed the demon Mahishasura, who was considered unconquerable.

Hence, following his slaying, she was given the title Mahishasuramardini (conqueror of

Mahisha). The story of this is retold in Devimahatmyam part of Markandeya Purana. Generally

portrayal of Mahishasuramardini is that of Durga appearing with eight hands riding a fierce-

looking lion.

She is holding khadga (sword), dhanush (bow), bana (arrows), ghanta (bell) in her four right

hands; her four left hands display pasa, sankha, and dagger. An attendant holds a chatra (parasol)

over Durga’s head. She is in the battlefield with her army of female warriors and ganas (dwarfs).

She is shown attacking, with arrows, the demon Mahisha, causing him to retreat with his followers.

Mahishasura is armed with a gada (club). Mahisha is a zoomorphic buffalo or the biomorphic


(half animal with buffalo head on human body). Mahishasuramardini is a popular cult deity in

India through the ages. While temples dedicated exclusively to Mahishasuramardini may not be

found in Karnataka, the goddess occupies an important place among the parivaradevatas of

Siva at various saivite temples, prominent ones being the Rameswara Temple at Narasamangala,

Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal and Ravanaphadi Cave at Aihole. Images of Mahishasuramardini

can also be found in the devakoshthas (niche) inside the mahamandapa of several vaisnava

temples as well, prominent among them being the Lakshminarayana Temple at Hosaholalu. Images

of the goddess on the walls of various Hoysala temples are a common sight, more particularly at

Somanathapura, Basaralu and Halebid (Plate 5).

Chowdeswari

Centuries ago, it is said, that there was a kingdom called Nandavaram on the banks of the river

Tunga in Karnataka. According to a legend the King of Nandavaram was a Shakti upasaka

(devotee). With the help of Mantra Shakti, the King used to wake up at 4 O’clock in the morning,

reach Kasi, bathe, in the holy Ganga and return to his kingdom before dawn and offer worship to

Devi at Nandavarma. This was his daily practice. The Queen becoming suspicious of his absence

questioned the King. The King revealed everything in detail. She having made up her mind to test

the King compelled him to take her also with him. The King reluctantly accepted. The next day,

he took her to Kasi along with him. The Queen had her monthly menstrual cycle during their stay

at Kasi. This affected the King and he lost his Mantra Shakti. As he was unable to return to his

kingdom as usual, the King became restless and worried.

While walking along the banks of Ganga being unable to find a solution, he saw a group of

brahmins performing Chandi Homa and went near them. The brahmins, having learnt the reasons

for his restlessness promised to pass on to the King one fourth of what they had acquired as

punya (religious merit) by offering Arghya to Surya every day at the appropriate time which

would purify the Queen and enable them to return to their kingdom. They asked the King what he

would give them in return for their help. The King promised to give grants to them for purposes

of their performing religious and charitable deeds whenever they approached him. Thus the

King got the power from the brahmins and returned to his kingdom. He never again made use of

Mantra Shakti.

Years rolled on. There came a terrible famine in Kasi. The brahmins having remembered

the King’s promise went to Nandavaram and met him. They reminded him of his promise. The

King had totally forgotten his promise. He abused the brahmins and incurred their displeasure.

From that day onwards all the efforts of the King started yielding negative results. The brahmins

worshipped Chowdeswari and requested her to come down to Nandavaram as the only witness

for the King’s promise. Devi did as they desired. The King realized his mistake. He appealed to

Devi and brahmins.


The dynasty of brahmins thus settled at Nandavaram came to be known as Nandavariks and

Chowdeswari became their kuladevata, she is also the family deity of Thogataveeras. There still

exists a beautiful temple of Chowdeswari at Nandavaram on the banks of Tungabadra and she is

being worshipped on all the days of the year.

Temples dedicated to Chowdeswari exist in abundance largely in the southern districts,

more particularly at Dasarighatta in Tumakuru and Meditumbihalli in Kolar. Western Gangas and

Cholas patronized numerous temples in her honour.

Lakshmi

Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material and spiritual), as

well as the embodiment of beauty. She is the consort and active energy of Visnu. Representations

of Lakshmi are also found in Jaina monuments. Lakshmi is also called Thirumagal because she is

endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or Gunas, and also because she is the source

of strength even to Visnu. When Visnu incarnated on the earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna,

Lakshmi incarnated as his consort: Sita (Rama’s wife), and Rukmini (Krishna’s wife). In the ancient

scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. Lakshmi’s iconography

and images have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be

from second half of 1st millennium CE. In modern times, Lakshmi is worshiped as the goddess of

wealth. She is also worshipped as the consort of Visnu in many temples.

The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is

derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective (lakshaya).

Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism

- dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kama (pursuit of

love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation).

In Lakshmi’s iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying

a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian

traditions (Plate 6). It symbolically represents reality, consciousness, and karma (work, deed) in

the Sahasrara context, and knowledge and self-realization in other contexts. The lotus, a flower

that blossoms in clean or dirty water, also symbolizes purity and beauty regardless of the good

or bad circumstances in which its grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom

and not be affected by evil in one’s surrounding. Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is

sometimes shown with one or two elephants and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolize

work, activity, and strength, as well as water, rain, and fertility for abundant prosperity. The

owl, called pechaka in eastern regions of India, signifies the patient striving to observe, see, and

discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. The owl, a bird that becomes

blind in daylight, is also a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge

and wealth has been acquired.


The most well known temple of goddess Lakshmi in Karnataka was built by the Hoysalas

called Lakshmidevi Temple at Doddagaddavalli near Hassan. This temple has four principal

shrines dedicated to Kali, Lakshmi, Visnu and Siva as Linga. The Kali shrine is guarded by two

vetalas showing only skin over skeletons. The shrine where cult-image of Lakshmi is housed

is on the eastern side and has a closed antarala. The southern garbhagriha has Visnu image

on a pedestal and the western one has a Linga. The most important shrine here is that of

Lakshmi.

In the Lakshminarasimha Temple at Marehalli near Malavalli in Mandya district, Lakshmi is

seated on the left lap of Visnu. The temple doors are graced by Bhudevi and Neeladevi and

these deities too are worshipped in this temple. Prominent among the beliefs here is that an

Amrutkalasa (pot filled with nectar) lies beneath the feet of Lakshmi which when invoked with

devotion fulfills all desires.

Saraswati

Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning. She is a part of

the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. All the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Visnu

and Siva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively.

The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda. She is also revered by

believers of the Jaina religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects. The

goddess Saraswati is often depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in pure white often seated on

a white lotus, which symbolizes light, knowledge and truth. She not only embodies knowledge

but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes

from dress to flowers to swan-the colour symbolizing sattwa guna or purity, discrimination for

true knowledge, insight and wisdom. She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes

just two. When shown with four hands, those hands symbolically mirror Brahma’s four heads,

representing manas (mind, sense), buddhi (intellect), citta (imagination) and ahamkara (Ego).

Brahma represents the abstract, whereas she action and reality.

The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning - a pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary,

garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (lute or vina). The book she holds symbolizes

the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of

learning (Plate 7). The mala of crystals represents the power of meditation, inner reflection and

spirituality. The pot of water represents powers to purify the right from wrong, the clean from

unclean, and the essence from the misleading. In some texts, the pot of water is symbolism for

soma - the drink that liberates and leads to knowledge. The musical instrument, typically a vina,

represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge

that creates harmony. Saraswati is also associated with anuraga, the love for and rhythm of

music, which represents all emotions and feelings expressed in speech or music.


A hamsa or swan is often located next to her feet. In Hindu mythology, hamsa is a sacred bird.

It thus symbolizes discrimination between the good from the bad, the essence from the superficial,

eternal from the evanescent. Due to her association with the swan, Saraswati is also referred to

as Hamsavahini, which means ‘she who has a hamsa as her vehicle’. Sometimes a citramekhala

(also called mayura, peacock) is shown beside the goddess. The peacock symbolizes colorful

splendor, celebration of dance, and peacock’s ability to eat poison (snakes) yet transmute from

it a beautiful plumage. A beautifully carved image of Saraswati can be found at the Saraswati

Temple in Gadag.

Aditi or Lajja Gouri

Lajja Gouri is one of the cult divinities whose nomenclature and iconography along with its origin

and development are yet to be completely understood. Conceptually, Lajja Gouri antecedents

have been traced back to Indus Valley Civilization of about 2500-1500 BCE. It is also opined that

Lajja Gouri may have originated either as a tribal or local level gramadevi with pot serving as her

original aniconic form.

Goddess in her form as Lajja Gouri is also known as Aditi, Adya Shakti, Matangi, Renuka,

Yellamma, Nagna-Kabanda, Kamalamma and many other names. She is the most ancient goddess

form in Hinduism. This mysterious, lotus-headed Goddess, who is always portrayed with legs

opened and raised in a manner suggesting either birthing (her posture is the traditional Indian

village posture for giving birth) or sexual receptivity, is most frequently referred to as Lajja Gauri.

Lajja Gauri is still actively worshiped even today as a “fertility goddess” in some rural locales.

The first scriptural references to Aditi appear in no less exalted a source than the Rig Veda

itself. Here, she is also referred to as Uttanapad because of the posture in which she is seated.

Whatever Lajja Gauri’s ultimate origins, she is clearly a very auspicious goddess. Everything

about her suggests life, creativity, and abundance. Her images are almost always associated with

springs, waterfalls and other sources of running water - vivid symbols of life-giving sustenance.

Her belly usually protrudes, suggesting fullness and/or pregnancy; in earlier sculptures, her

torso was often portrayed as an actual pot, another ancient symbol of wealth and abundance.

Lajja Gauri’s head is usually a lotus flower, an extremely powerful, elemental symbol of both

material and spiritual well-being.

The legs, in uttanapad, are spread more naturally with the knees up, the feet are flexed with

soles up, and the toes are tensed. The nude body is ornamented with necklace, channavira (body-

encompassing jewelry that hangs from the neck, crosses between the breasts, passes around the

waist and up the back), girdle, bracelets, and armlets that are like a vine tendril wrapping around

the arms and actually ending in a leaf. Tassels of the anklets also seem plantlike. There is a cloth

woven through the thighs.

It was John Fleet in 1881 who wrote his reaction on seeing for the first time Lajja Gouri image

at Mahakuta. While Lajja Gouri’s image can be seen at many temples in Karnataka, the earliest


image probably dates back to 3rd-4th century CE found in Sannati. However, the most prominently

known image is now housed in the museum at Badami (Plate 8). This stone image was taken from

the Naganatha temple in Nagaral (Naganathakolla). The other image is on a mutilated slab in

which the lotus head is replaced by a human one. Such images in the form of yoninilaya are also

found in the Hucchimalli-gudi (plinth of the agramandapa) and Galaganatha group of temples in

Aihole.

Saptamatrikas

Matrikas also called Matara and Matri is a group of Hindu goddesses who are always depicted

together. The word Matrika in Sanskrit means mother. Since they are usually depicted as a heptad,

they are called Saptamatrika(s) (seven mothers). The saptamatrikas are, Brahmani, Vaishnavi,

Maheswari, Indrani, Kaumari, Varahi, Chamunda and Narasimhi.

The Matrikas assume paramount significance in the goddess-oriented sect of Hinduism,

tantrism. In shaktism, they are “described as assisting the great Shakta Devi (goddess) in her

fight with demons”. Some scholars consider them saiva goddesses. They are also connected

with the worship of warrior god Skanda. In most early references, the Matrikas are described as

having inauspicious qualities and often described as dangerous. They come to play a protective

role in later mythology, although some of their inauspicious and wild characteristics still persist

in these accounts. Thus, they represent the prodigiously fecund aspect of nature as well as its

destructive force aspect.

In the 6th century encyclopedia Brihatsamhita, Varahamihira says that “Mothers are to be

made with cognizance of (different major Hindu) gods corresponding to their names”. They

are associated with these gods as their spouses or their energies (Shaktis). Originally believed

to be a personification of the seven stars of the star cluster the Pleiades, they became quite

popular by the seventh century and a standard feature of goddess temples from the ninth

century onwards.

Sculpture of the saptamatrikas with Virabhadra on one side and Ganapati on the other and

the seven matrikas in the middle are found in several saivite temples in Karnataka (Plate 9).

Saptamatrikas’ sculpture can also be seen in various Hoysala temples carved on the outer walls.

Large sized images of the saptamatrikas can be seen in Rameswara temple at Narasamangala

and Arkeswara temple, Alur. Both the temples were constructed under the Western Ganga King’s

grants.

Lalita Tripurasundari

Tripurasundari (Beautiful Goddess of the Three Cities) also called Ṣhoḍashi (Sixteen), Lalita (She

Who Plays) and Rajarajeswari (Queen of Queens), is one of the group of ten goddesses of Hindu

belief, collectively called Mahavidyas or Dasa-mahavidyas. She is the foremost and the most

important in Dasa-mahavidyas. All other Mahavidyas conclude in her vidya i.e. Sri Vidya. Her

consort is Kameswara.


Tripurasundari is described as being of dusky, red, or golden colour, depending on the

meditational form, and in union with Siva. The couple is traditionally portrayed on a bed, a throne,

or a pedestal that is upheld by Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Isana (another form of Siva, depicted in

the Tantras) and Sadasiva forming the plank. She holds five arrows of flowers, a noose, a goad

and sugarcane as a bow. The noose represents attachment, the goad represents repulsion, the

sugarcane bow represents the mind and the arrows are the five sense objects.

Tripurasundari is also worshipped as the Sri Yantra, which is considered by practitioners of

Sri Vidya to be a truer representation of the goddess. Tripurasundari combines in her being Kali’s

determination and Durga’s charm, grace, and complexion. She has a third eye on her forehead.

Usually four-armed and clad in red, the richly bejeweled Tripurasundari sits on a lotus seat laid

on a golden throne. An aura of royalty characterizes her overall bearing and ambiance.

Lalita Tripurasundari is the presiding deity of the village Muguru located in the T.Narsipura

taluk. There is an ancient temple of the goddess in the village. Another temple of Tripurasundari

is located at Utanalli in Mysore. A temple dedicated to her as Rajarajeswari built during the reign

of the Alupas is located at Polali.

Yellamma/Renuka

Renuka/Renu is a Hindu goddess worshipped predominantly in Maharashtra, Karnataka and

Telengana is another avatar/form of goddess Parvati/Shakti. “Renu” means “Atom or Mother of

the Universe”. Sometimes, Lajja Gauri is assumed be the same as Renuka.

Renuka/Renu or Yellamma or Ekvira or Ellaiamman or Ellai Amma are the several names

by which the goddess is known in various parts of Deccan and south India. Her devotees

revere her as the ‘Mother of the Universe’ or ‘Jagadamba’. The story of goddess Renuka or

Yellamma begins thus: King Renuka (father of Renuka) performed a yajna, a ritual performed

to maintain peace and good health. He was blessed with a daughter, who originated from the

fire of this yajna. Renuka was a bright and active child and became the most beloved child of

her parents.

When she was eight, sage Agastya, who was the guru of king Renuka, advised him to have

his daughter married to Jamadagni when she reached maturity. Jamadagni was the son of Ruchik

Muni and Satyavati and had obtained the blessings of the gods by performing severe penance.

Renuka and Jamdagni Muni lived in the Ramshrung hills, near the present day Saundatti area of

Belagavi district. Renuka helped Jamdagni Muni in all of his tasks of performing various rituals

and puja. Gradually she became close and dear to Jamdagni. After a while the King Renuka was

blessed with another daughter called Anjana (Anjana Devi). Renuka would wake up early in

the morning to bathe in the Malaprabha River with complete concentration and devotion. Her

devotion was so powerful that she was able to create a pot to hold water made only of sand, one

fresh pot every day. She would fill this pot, on the bank of the river and would use a snake which


was nearby, turning it into a rope-like convolution and placing it on her head so that it supported

the pot. Thus, she brought the water to Jamdagni for his rituals of oblation.

Renuka gave birth to five sons: Vasu, Viswa Vasu, Brihudyanu, Brutwakanwa and Rambhadra.

Rambhadra was the youngest and most beloved, gaining the favour of Siva and Parvati and called

Parasurama (the sixth incarnation of Visnu). One day when Renuka went to the river, she saw

Gandharva spirits playing. These were young couples carelessly frolicking in the water with

abandon. For a moment, she lost her concentration and devotion to her husband faltered as she

was physically attracted to one of the Gandharvas. As she was distracted, she lost her power of

collecting water in unbaked pots which she had gotten because of her chastity. She lost the water

which she had collected. Disappointed, she returned to the ashram. Seeing Renuka returning

empty-handed, Jamadagni became furious and angrily ordered her to go away.

After being cursed by her husband, Renuka went east and sat in the forest to meditate. In

her penance, she met the saints Eknath and Joginath. She prayed to them and asked to gain the

mercy of her husband. They first consoled her and then instructed her to follow their advice

exactly as told. They told her to purify herself, first bathing in a nearby lake, and then to worship

a Sivalinga which they had given to her. Next, she should go to the nearby town and beg for rice

from the houses (this ritual, called “Joga Bedodu”, is still practiced by women during a particular

month in Karnataka). After collecting the rice, she was to give half to the saints and cook the

remaining half, adding jaggery, partaking of the cooked rice with full devotion. They said that if

she performed this ritual for three days, she would be able to visit her husband on the fourth day.

Knowing the anger of Jamadagni, they warned her that she may not be fully pardoned by him

and that she would have to experience the most difficult time of her life. But after passing through

those difficult moments, she would be blessed by her husband and worshipped by people for

times to come. Renuka followed their instructions with devotion and worshipped the Sivalinga

with full care and reverence. On the fourth day, she went to see her husband.

Jamadagni was still furious with Renuka and ordered his sons to punish their mother. One by

one, four of them refused flatly. Jamadagni, who possessed the power to burn anyone to ashes

with his one look, went berserk and turned the four of his sons into ashes. Parasurama, who was

not there when this happened, found his mother weeping near the pile of ashes when he arrived

and his father was still raging mad. Jamadagni told him what happened and ordered him to behead

his mother for her infidelity. Parusurama had to think quickly. Knowing his father’s powers and

the extent of his anger, Parasurama immediately obeyed his father, using his axe.

His father then offered a boon to Parusurama, who asked for his mother and brothers to

be brought back to life. To everybody’s astonishment, Renuka’s spirit multiplied and moved to

different regions and all the five persons were back alive. This miracle inspired her sons and

others to become her followers, and worship her.


In many traditions, Renuka and Yellamma are taken to be two names for the same goddess.

Matangi, Renuka, and Yellamma are all names of the Goddess. Every year, there is a gathering

of many of her devotees at the Yellamma Gudi temple in Saundatti. One very famous Temple of

Renuka Yellamma is located in Bidarahalli, Gadag. Many devotees from different region come to

temple in the month of kartik to celebrate Karthik of Renuka-Yellamma. Another temple called

Renukambe Temple is atop a hill in Chandragutti in Shivamogga district. This temple is an example

of ancient architecture and dates back to the Kadamba period. One more temple of Yellamma

dating back to the 10th century CE is located in Badami.

Yogini cult

Yogini is the female counterpart of yogi, a master practitioner of yoga. In the Hindu tradition,

mother is first guru (teacher) and in the Yoga tradition, proper respect of yoginis is a necessary

part of the path to liberation. A yogini is the sacred feminine force made incarnate: the goddesses

of mythology (Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali) as well as the ordinary human woman who is

enlightened, both having exuberant passion, spiritual powers and deep insight, capable of giving

birth to saints, peacemakers, and yogis.

In some branches of tantra yoga, ten wisdom goddesses (or dakinis) serve as models for a

yogini’s disposition and behavior. In the mythological context, the word yogini may indicate an

advanced yoga practitioner who is one or more of the following:

◆◆ A female who is an associate or attendant of Durga, a fierce aspect of the Divine Feminine,

who slays illusion and delusion through insight and liberation.

◆◆ In several tantric cults, the term refers to an initiated female who may take part in

maithuna tantric rituals.

In the Kolaramma temple in Kolar, Chola King Rajendra I built a new saptamatrika shrine adjacent

to the original shrine. In one of the inscriptions there is reference to the yogini cult and is

possibly related to the additional shrine. The record inscribed lists the various deities for whose

worship the offerings were made included the saptamatrikas with Ganapati and Virabhadra,

Chamundeswari of the Mulsthana, Yogeswari, Kshetrapala-devatas, Maha Sasta and Surya Deva.

Provision was made for offering intoxicating drinks as part of worship of Yogeswara and Yogini.

Surya

Surya worship was popular among different classes of the society and even royal patronage was

available for building Surya temples. In Karnataka, temples of Surya were constructed under

the more popular name as Aditya. The fact that Aditya was a popular god is also reflected from

the fact that many kings had -aditya as the ending part of their name such as Vikramaditya,

Vijayaditya, Vinayaditya and Abhinavadiya. Though various independent temples were built

dedicated to sun god, shrines dedicated to Surya inside larger temple complexes too also existed.


A shrine dedicated to Surya stands facing the Siva in Kalleswara temple at Bagali. Durga temple

at Aihole is believed to have been dedicated to Surya. A picture of the wall image of standing

Surya from the Lakshminarasimha Temple at Nuggehalli is placed at the end as Plate 10.

Syncretistic gods

Kesavaditya, Ardhanariswara, Sankara-narayana, Surya-narayana and Visnu Maheswara were

the common syncretistic forms of gods in whose honour temples were built either as principal

deity or as having a shrine dedicated to them in a larger temple complex. Temples with all three

gods constituting the Hindu trinity viz. Brahma, Visnu and Maheswara too were built. Such

temples were called the Traipurusha temples. An interesting aspect of Traipurusha worship was

their association with salas (schools). In an inscription of the Rashtrakutas dated 945 CE, with

reference to a Trapurusha sala that was located at Salotgi agrahara was found.

Village deities

The worship of village deities is considered the little tradition in Hinduism. Some village deities

have their origin in the tribal gods of yore. The village as a social and cultural unit very often

seeks the protection of a village deity from all evils. Among the worship of village deities, the

worship of female deities dominates the worship of male deities. They are worshipped as the

guardian deities and are monistic with regard to ethical symbolism. These deities are believed

to control weather, in particular rains, to bring and cure epidemic and animal diseases and to

guard the village against natural calamities. The worship of village deities has been practiced

much before the onset of puranic gods. However, kings from various dynasties patronized village

deities and gave grants of lands for building temples dedicated to them.

The Naga image housed in Madhukeswara temple in Banavasi given by the Chutu princess

seems to have been the village deity of those times (Plate 11). The inscription found at Banashankari

temple near Badami from the period of King Jayasimha II and dated 1019 CE records that

Dwvoja (sculptor) was the servant of Banadadevi (forest goddess). Another inscription found at

Banashankari issued under the same king in 1024 CE states that Ketimayya, the maanevergade

(superintendent) erected a stone pillar in front of the temple of Banadadevi, the goddess of

forest or vegetation. It seems to have been a village deity and later became popular by the name

Banashankari and so did the village. Usually, the suffix abbe is found with the names of local

goddesses, many scholars argue that Banadadevi was in fact Banadabbe.

2.2 DISTINCTIVE ICONIC OR ANICONIC FORMS OF GODS AND GODDESSES

Hindus believe gods and spirits are peripatetic and have a potential for varied manifestations.

Chief deities appear in a wide variety of forms, expressing their multiple roles and moods. These

forms can be iconic, that is, with a resemblance to human form; or aniconic, in other words, in

an abstract symbolic form such as a pile of stones or a linga or a geometric configuration like


the yantras or chakras. Organic and inorganic matter is perceived as a potential residence for a

deity or spirit, particularly the sacred images produced for veneration in a temple or domestic

shrine. The image is generally required to be beautiful to encourage the deity to enter it, and the

material from which it was made must be unblemished. Divine energy is believed to be infused by

ritual, and the final task of the ceremony is to open the eyes of the image by means of a specific

chanted mantra (spoken or sung religious formula) and the completion by the artist of this part

of his work.

To be ritually effective and sacred an image must be given the correct preparation and

invocation, after which it is perceived not only as an icon or symbol but is also believed to hold

a numinous presence. The image is also said to emanate a particle of the divine whole, the divine

perceived not in man’s image as a separate entity but as a formless, indescribable omnipresent

whole. The image allows the worshipper to catch a reflection of the deity whose effulgence

transcends what the physical eye can see. This divine effulgence is beheld in man’s inner vision.

An image is a murti not because it resembles the deity it represents but because it conforms to

prescribed measurements and symbolic conventions.

Hindu images have a very distinct appearance. The deities possess human or animal

characteristics but represent superhuman beings. They are portrayed sometimes with many

upper limbs, sometimes with more than one head. They express mood and movement in their

posture and gesture; they hold emblems and can be placed in dynamic relation to other figures

or symbolic animals. They inhabit realms beyond our normal existence. This mythical world and

the gods who inhabit it express the Hindu belief that ‘the Universe is boundlessly various, that

everything occurs simultaneously and that all possibilities are not mutually exclusive’. Hindu

aniconic and iconic symbols seek to represent forces and energies - aspects of a single supreme

undifferentiated Iswara which is unmanifest and in real terms unrepresentable.

The idea of Trimurti dates back to the Vedic times. The Vedic triad of Agni, Surya and Rudra

developed into the puranic trimurti of Brahma, Visnu and Siva. According to Visnudharmottara

the existence of the Universe is guided by three-fold principle of Energy or Quality viz. Rajasa,

Satvika and Tamasa. The Brahma aspect here represents the creative activity, the Vaisnava

aspect is the one that maintains and sustains the Universe and the Saiva aspect simply destroys

it. The main features of the Trimurti sculpture according to agamic texts are: from the right to left

of the erect image of Siva should be emerging those of Brahma and Visnu (Plate 12). Both these

should be sculptured with their respective attributes. The most striking example of Trimurti in

Karnataka temples can be found among the wall images of Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebid.

While there is a very strong presence of the followers of Siva and Visnu among the Hindus,

Brahma does not find that kind of cult following. Hence there exist a large number of temples

dedicated to Siva and Visnu, very few temples exclusively dedicated to Brahma can be found.

Even the Silpa texts, puranas and mythological literature are dotted with numerous forms and


iconographical depictions of Siva and Visnu but very little is written about Brahma. Later with

the arrival of the Tantric form of worship and expansion of the Shakti cult, icons of the Devis and

various forms of Shakti too came into existence. The Smarta or Panchayatana system of worship

brought all these sects into a common fold and temples dedicated to several gods and goddesses

(most notably Ganesha, Siva, Visnu, Devi or Shakti and Surya) started coming to existence.

In cosmological trinity, Visnu is the name given to the cohesive or centripetal tendency also

known as the sattva quality. All that in the Universe is attracted towards a centre demanding more

concentration, more cohesion, more existence, more reality and all that tends towards truth is

the Visnu, while Siva, the centrifugal principle means dispersion, annihilation, nonexistence and

darkness. It is the centripetal tendency which holds the Universe together and is the cause of all

concentration, hence of light, matter and life. It pervades all existence and hence is known as the

Pervader.

Visnu is the inner cause, power by which things exist. He has no concern for their outward

form which comes within the realm of the creator Brahma, the Immense Being. There is no state

of existence which does not depend on destruction as well as duration. There can be no life

without death. Hence Visnu and Siva are interdependent.

Every religion includes a theology and a moral code. The first aim at defining the principles

which rule all existence, the other proposes rules of action that may prepare the transmigrant self

for its journey towards light, towards perfection and divine reality. Both are therefore concerned

exclusively with Visnu. All religion is a form of vaisnavism, while all science refers to Brahma and

all attempts at transcendental knowledge refer to Siva aspect of divinity. Visnu is known under

many names. Sankaracharya’s commentary on the Visnu-saharsa-nama explains the meanings

of a thousand names of Visnu.

While iconographic description of various forms and manifestations forms major part of

the study in this work, attributes of principal Hindu gods and subsidiary gods too need to be

described in detail. Relative commentary on these aspects of Hindu iconography follows:

Siva’s Attributes and Forms in Hindu Iconography

Siva is recognized from the following attributes in the Hindu iconography:

◆◆ Siva’s form: Siva has a trident in the right lower arm, and a crescent moon on his head. He

is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. He wears five serpents and a

garland of skulls as ornaments. Siva is usually depicted facing the south. His trident, like

almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of

three worlds that a human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the broader

overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks unite. It is often not shown but

Siva has 6 heads, of which only five (Isana, Tatpurusha, Vamadeva, Aghora, Sadyojata) are

visible while the 6th (Adhomukh) can only be seen by the enlightened.


◆◆ Third eye: (Trilochana) Siva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned

Desire (Kama) to ashes, called “Tryambakam” which occurs in many scriptural sources.

In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes “an eye”, and in the Mahabharata, Siva is

depicted as three-eyed, so his name Trymbakeswara is sometimes translated as “having

three eyes”. However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word amba or ambika means “mother”, and

this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation “three mothers”. These

three mother-goddesses are collectively called the Ambikas.

◆◆ Crescent moon: (The epithets “Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli”) Siva bears on his head

the crescent moon. The epithet Chandrasekhara, “Having the moon as his crest” (chandra

meaning “moon”; sekhara meaning “crest, crown”) refers to this feature. The placement

of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when

Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Siva. The origin of this

linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in

the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored and in later literature, Soma and

Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon. The crescent

moon is shown on the side of the Siva’s head as an ornament. The waxing and waning

phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from

the beginning to the end.

◆◆ Ashes: (The epithet “Bhasmanga Raga”) - Siva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The

ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence. Some forms of Siva, such as

Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism

that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.

These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon

of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Siva is “inhabitant of the cremation ground”

(Sanskrit: smasanavasin, also spelled shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.

◆◆ Matted hair: (The epithet “Jatajoota Dhari/Kapardina”) – Siva’s distinctive hair style is

noted in the epithets Jawin, “the one with matted hair” and Kapardin, “endowed with

matted hair” or “wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion”. A

kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair

that is shaggy or curly.

◆◆ Blue throat: (Nilakaṇtha, nila meaning “blue”, kaṇtha meaning “throat”) Since Siva drank

the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthana to eliminate its destructive

capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to

stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the Universe, supposed to

be in Siva’s stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his

neck to blue.


◆◆ Sacred Ganges: (The epithet “Gangadhara”- Bearer of Ganga) Ganges river flows from

the matted hair of Siva. The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said

to have made her abode in Siva’s hair. The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar

of immortality.

◆◆ Tiger skin: (The epithet “Krittivasana”) He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin, an

honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.

◆◆ Serpents: (The epithet “Nagendra Hara” or”’Vasuki”). Siva is often shown garlanded with

a snake.

◆◆ Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of

the mind (i.e., attained maturity and firmness in thought process). A deer jumps from one

place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.

◆◆ Trident: (Trisula): Siva’s particular weapon is the trident. His trisula that is held in his

right hand represents the three gunas viz. sattva, rajas and tamas. That is the emblem of

sovereignty. He rules the world through these three gunas.

◆◆ Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass known as a damaru. This is one of the

attributes of Siva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific

hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for “ḍamaru-hand”) is used to hold

the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kapalika sect.

◆◆ Axe: (Parasu): The parasu is the weapon of Siva who gave it to Parasurama, sixth avatara

of Visnu, whose name means “Rama with the axe” and also taught him its mastery.

◆◆ Nandi: (The epithet “Nandi Vahana”) Nandi is the name of the bull that serves as Siva’s

mount (Sanskrit: vahana). Siva’s association with cattle is reflected in his name Pasupati,

translated as “lord of cattle”. Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva

rides on the bull. This denotes that Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment of

Dharma or righteousness.

◆◆ Gana: The ganas are attendants of Siva and live in Kailasa. They are often referred to as

the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except

when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord

on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Siva, hence Ganesha’s

title Gana-pati, “lord of the ganas”.

◆◆ 5 heads: Siva is known as panchavactra means 5 heads which indicates 5 elements.

◆◆ Arms: Siva has 4 arms which signify the four Vedas.

◆◆ Mount Kailasa: Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. In Hindu

mythology, Mount Kailasa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the centre of

the Universe.


Apart from anthropomorphic images of Siva, the worship of Siva in the form of a linga, is also

important. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical

rounded column. Siva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the

Sivalinga is regarded as a “symbol of the great God of the Universe who is all-auspiciousness”.

Siva also means “one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution”. Linga also means the

same thing - a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created

Universe.

“Lingam” is one of the most misunderstood motifs of Hinduism. Merriam-Webster dictionary

defines it as a stylized phallic symbol. The expression ‘linga’ in the agama context signifies

‘symbol’ (chinha). Derived from the root ‘ligi gatyau’, it refers to movement, and words having

been movement as their etymological meaning have also connotations of knowledge (‘sarve

gatyarthah jnanarthah’). Linga therefore, means that by which the Divine is cognized or

approached (‘lingyate jnayate anena iti lingam’). Siva as Linga, his aniconic unmanifest form has

a wider presence in saivite tradition than the anthropomorphic forms.

The agama texts also bring out another valid explanation for the word ‘linga’: linga in its

primary sense is broken up into ‘ling’ (to dissolve, to get merged, to destroy) and ‘ga’ (to emerge,

to go out). Linga is so called because all phenomena are dissolved in Siva at the time of cosmic

dissolution, and it emerges from Siva once again at the time of creation (Ajitagama). Traditionally,

the linga is rather seen as a symbol of the energy and potential of Siva himself. The lingam is

often represented alongside the yoni (Sanskrit word, literally “origin” or “source” or “womb”),

a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The union of lingam and yoni

represents the ‘indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the passive space and active time

from which all life originates’.

Linga represents Cosmic Egg (‘Brahmanda’ in Sanskrit) who has neither beginning nor

end. It is believed that this changing world (Jagat in Sanskrit) merges or dissolves into the

Formless in the end. So, the Linga is the simplest sign of emergence and mergence. Siva

Lingam, therefore, symbolizes formless Siva and as such is considered most sacred by saivaite

sects of Hindus.

The Hindu scripture Siva Purana also describes in its first section, the Vidyeswar Samhita, the

origin of the lingam as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar (stambha) of fire, the cause

of all causes. Siva is pictured as emerging from the Lingam - the cosmic pillar of fire - proving his

superiority over gods Brahma and Visnu. This is known as Lingodbhava. The Linga Purana also

supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Siva.

According to Linga Purana, the lingam is a complete symbolic representation of the formless

Universe Bearer - the oval shaped stone resembling mark of the Universe and bottom base as

the Supreme Power holding the entire Universe in it. Similar interpretation is also found in the

Skanda Purana: “The endless sky (that great void which contains the entire Universe) is the


Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the entire Universe and all the gods finally merge

in the Linga itself”.

The lingas in the temples are often formed in three parts. Siva Purana, in particular, has

prescribed norms and standards for casting the Linga. The lowest part is the base square called

the Brahmabhaga or Brahma-pitha, which represents the creator Brahma. The next part in the

middle is the octagonal Visnubhaga or Visnu-pitha, which signifies Visnu, the sustainer. Both of

these parts together form the pedestal. The top cylindrical portion is the Rudrabhaga or Siva-

pitha, which is also called the Pujabhaga since this is the part that is worshipped by the devotees.

The top portion is also meant to symbolize the projecting flame of fire. This flame also represents

the destructive aspects as well as the preserving power of god.

Actual representation of three part structure of Siva Linga can be noticed in the picture

of the Linga from Pranaveswara temple at Talagunda. The temple being under restoration, the

Linga though fixed in its original spot of consecration about 2000 years ago, had been bared

of the peetham and yoni parts before being reassembled to its actual form. The circular shaft,

the part that is worshipped and is visible on top and the octagonal part of the shaft which

constitutes the Visnu Bhaga too is clearly visible in the picture, whereas the square part is

embedded in the ground and is not visible. Another picture of an abandoned Linga embedded in

ground at Chowdeswari temple in Medithambihalli shows all the three parts. While the circular

and octagonal parts of the shaft are fully visible, the square part is visible only in parts as

much of it is inside the ground. The Linga installed in the Jambulinga Temple at Pattadakal also

depicts a similar structure.

Classification of Lingas: Siva Lingas can be of various forms, sizes and made from different

materials. Different saivite sects too recommend different type of Lingas for worship in the


temples. The most elaborate commentary of classification of Lingas is given in Manasara. This

follows the tabulations below:

1. According to sectarian views: Saiva, Pasupata, Kalamukha, Mahavarta, Vama and Bhairava;

2. According to shape: Samaskara, Varadhamanaka, Sivanka and Svastika;

3. According to height: Jati, Chanda, Vikalpa, Abhasa;

4. According to breadth and width: Nagara, Dravida and Vesara;

5. According to origin: Svayambhu or Udbhuta, Daivika, Manusa, Ganapa and Arsa;

6. According to purpose: Atmartha (personal) or Parartha (public) worship;

7. According to installation: Ekalinga or Bahulinga;

8. According to substance or material: Vajra or Sauvarna, Lauha, Ratna or Sila;

9. According to time or duration: Ksanika (temporary) or Sthira (permanent).

Comparable to the Vyuhas or emanations of Visnu, is the Panchanana form of Siva. Panchanana

or the five-faced one represents the five aspects of Siva vis-a-vis the created Universe. The five

faces are respectively Hana, Tatpurusa, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata. The face Hana turned

towards the zenith represents the highest aspect and is also called Sadasiva. On the physical

plane, it represents the power that rules over ether or sky and on the spiritual plane it is the

deity that grants Moksa or liberation. Tatpurusa facing east stands for the power that rules over

air and represents the forces of darkness and obscuration on the spiritual plane. Aghora, facing

south and ruling over the element fire, stands for the power that absorbs and renovates the

Universe. Vamadeva facing north, ruling over the element water, is responsible for preservation.

Sadyojata, facing west represents the power that creates.

Iconographically, all the five aspects are shown in different ways. There are several

other aspects in which Siva is depicted or worshipped. These can be broadly divided into the

following categories: (a) Saumya or Anugrahamurti; (b) Ugra, Raudra or Samharamurtis;

(c) Nrritta or Tandavamurti; (d) Dakshinamurti; (e) Lingodbhavamurti; (f) Bhikshatanamurti;

(g) Haryardhamurti; (h) Ardhanariswaramurti.

Peaceful form of Siva as also the form showing mercy and grace belong to the first group.

The forms showing grace or granting boons to Chandesa, Nandiswara, Vighneswara belong

to this category. All terrific aspects can be classed under the second group. Kankala Bhairava

represents Siva who cut off the fifth head of Brahma for having reviled him and who had to

wander as a beggar for twelve years to get rid of that sin. Gajasuravadhamurti (also called

Gajasurasamharamurti) represents him as killing the demon Nila (an associate of Andhakasura)

who had assumed the form of an elephant. Tripurantakamurti depicts him as destroying by his

arrow, the three cities of iron, silver and gold built on the earth, in air and in heaven by the


three sons of Tarakasura who had become almost invincible because of these three impregnable

shelters. Sarabhesamurti pictures Siva as a Sarabha (an imaginary animal more ferocious than

the lion) destroying the Narasimha form of Visnu. Kalantakamurti portrays him as vanquishing

Yama, the god of death, who wanted to take away the life of Markandeya, a great devotee of Siva.

Kamantakamurti illustrates him as destroying Kama, the god of lust, by the fire emitted through

his third eye. Andhakasuravadhamurti shows him as vanquishing Andhakasura and later on, on

supplication, conferring on him the commandership of the Gal as dwarf attendants. Andhaka

became Bhringi.

Siva is a great master of dance. All the 108 modes of dancing known to the treatises on dancing

have come from him. It is said that he dances every evening in order to relieve the sufferings

of creatures and entertain the gods who gather in Kailasa in full strength. (Hence he is called

Sabhapati, the lord of the congregation.) Only nine modes of dancing are described of which the

Nataraja aspect is the most well-known. The Nataraja icon shows him with four hands and two

legs, in the posture of dancing. There is the damaru (drum) in the upper right hand and fire in the

left. The lower right hand is in abhaya mudra (pose of protection) and the left is pointing towards

the uplifted left foot. The left foot is resting on the demon Apasmarapurusa. The whole image

may or may not be surrounded by a circle of blazing fire.

Siva’s dance indicates a continuous process of creation, preservation and destruction. The

damaru represents the principle of sabda (sound) and hence akasa (ether), which proceeds

immediately from the Atman and is responsible for further creation or evolution. Fire represents

Pralayagni, the fire that destroys the world at the time of dissolution of the world, and hence

symbolises the process of destruction. Thus damaru and fire represent the continuous cycle of

creation, preservation and destruction. The other two hands indicate that he who takes refuge

at the feet of Siva will have nothing to fear. The Apasmarapurusa symbolises ignorance which

makes us lose our balance and consciousness. He is trampled upon by Siva for the good of the

devotees who take refuge.

The Cosmic Dance of Siva has recently become a subject of discussion among various

theoretical physicists. Fritjof Capra in his book ‘The Tao of Physics’, draws parallels between

the eastern mysticism and quantum physics. Siva’s Nataraja form has been equated with the

continuous churning of nature in the nature of the energy dance of sub-atomic particles. The

CERN at Geneva had unveiled a two metre tall statue of Nataraja in 2004.

Several other dancing postures of Siva like Anandatandavamurti, Umatandavamurti,

Tripuratandavamurti, and Urdhvatandavamurti are also mentioned in the agamas.

Siva is as great a master of Yoga and spiritual sciences as he is of music, dancing and other

arts. As a universal teacher he is called Dakshinamurti. Since Siva was seated facing south when

he taught the sages in a secluded spot on the Himalayas, he is called Dakshinamurti. He has

three eyes and four arms and one of the legs is trampling upon the Apasmarapurusa. Two of the


arms (the front right and the front left) are in jnanamudra and varadamudra poses (showing the

imparting of knowledge and bestowing of gifts). The back hands hold the Aksamala (rosary) and,

either fire or serpent. He is the very model of the perfect Guru. He is surrounded by several rishis

eager to learn Atmavidya (self-knowledge) from him.

Siva is said to have appeared as a blazing pillar of fire, of immeasurable size, to destroy the

pride of Brahma and Visnu. Lingodbhavamurti depicts him as manifesting in the heart of the

Linga. The image has four arms. Brahma and Visnu stand on either side adoring him.

The Bhikshatanamurti shows Siva as a naked Bhairava, begging his food in the skull cup.

It is almost the same as the Kankalamurti. The Haryardhamurti, also called as Harihara and

Sankaranarayana, has Siva on the right half and Visnu on the left. A fusion of these two aspects

into one god is an obvious attempt at a happy reconciliation of the warring cults of Siva and Visnu.

The Ardhanariswara (half man and half woman) form with Parvati as the left half represents

the bipolar nature of the created world and hence the need to look upon woman as equal and

complementary to man.

Detailed description of the iconography of most of the above stated murtis of Siva is given

here. Siva can be worshipped in 64 forms. However, not all the forms are sculptured and placed

in the temples. The discussion should therefore be restricted to the forms and images commonly

seen in the temples of Karnataka. Mythical lore from the puranas and agamas show Siva in his

various forms, including his depiction of 81 of the 108 karanas (poses) of the Bharatanatyam

dance form. Some of the 64 forms of Siva have been enumerated below.

Siva Nataraja: Siva as the Lord of Dance has great importance in the temples of Karnataka right

from the Badami Chalukyan times. Apart from Siva’s 81 karana reliefs, the god is also depicted in

a beautiful sculpture in the classical pose. The cosmic dancer has his left leg raised and his right

foot placed upon the demon of ignorance called Muyalaka. Of his four arms, the upper left holds

fire signifying destruction; the lower left is aligned with and points towards the demon; the upper

right arm holds a drum, indicating the rhythm of time and the lower right is poised in the abhaya

or fearlessness mudra. Much has been written about the iconography of Nataraja, especially by

famed 19th century art historian and philosopher, Ananda K Coomaraswamy. Nataraja sculpture

is also sometimes accompanied by a small Devi murti on the lower right of the panel and has a

benevolent expression. Details of Siva’s Nrrittamurtis are given separately.

Gangadhara: Siva as Gangadhara depicts the mythological story of the god who uses his tresses

to absorb the mighty impact of Ganga. The river descends on earth to purify it upon the invocation

of sage Bhagiratha. The sculpture rightfully depicts Siva with a huge jatamukuta (crown of hair)

with Ganga perched upon it. Gangadhara Siva has a calm countenance proving his powers as a

Yogi. A beautiful rendering of the Gangadhara murti is found in the Ravanaphadi Cave at Aihole.


Chandrashekhara: Chandrashekhara implies the form of Siva who holds the crescent moon on

his head. Usually, the Chandrashekahara murti is accompanied by his consort, Uma, who either

stands by his side or is embracing him (Plate 13). It is, therefore, also known as the Alinganamurti.

However, the Chandrashekhara statue in one of the wall niches of temples sometimes depicts

Siva standing by himself. The graceful image stands on a lotus and has four hands. This image

generally has some ornate drapery and jewellery details too.

Kiratarjuna/ Pasupatastramurti: This image is generally carved as a panel depicting an episode

from the epic, Mahabharata. The Pandava prince Arjuna goes to the forest for performing

austerities and to please the god Siva. Siva pleased by his penance, decides to grace Arjuna with

his divine presence. But he and Parvati appear before him in disguise in order to test him. Siva

assumes the form of a kirata or a mountain hunter. In an archery challenge between Arjuna and

Kirata, the latter wins and reveals his true form to a humbled Arjuna. He blesses Arjuna and gives

him the Pasupatastra (weapon) which would make him invincible and victorious in war. Apart

from the principal characters of Arjuna, Siva-Parvati, as Kirata, the panel features many ganas,

animals and divine beings.

Dakshinamurti: The Dakshinamurti form of Siva underlines his role as the universal teacher. He

is said to have taught the sages all forms of knowledge facing the south or dakshina direction.

Iconographically, Dakshinamurti Siva is depicted as seated alone under a tree. He usually sits on

a deer throne with his left leg resting on his right knee and the right leg placed upon apasmara,

the demon of ignorance. Such Dakshinamurti statues were common to all saiva temples of the

medieval period (Plate 14).

Bhikshatana: In his Bhikshatana form, Siva is a wandering mendicant. Naked but for a few

ornaments, this four-handed form is a beggar-god, a heretic who roams the world begging for alms

in a kapala (skull) bowl. The myth suggests this as Siva’s atonement for severing the fifth head of

Brahma for his incestuous intents. The form is said to be a gentler form or an amalgamation of

Siva’s fiercer aspect, Bhairava. The sculpture of Bhikshatana, according to saiva iconography, is

depicted naked, with wooden slippers on and four hands (Plate 15). A dog, considered an impure

animal, is shown eating out of his hand to symbolise that Bhikshatana, like Rudra, is a fringe

character and not a mainstream God.

Another form of Bhikshatana is the Kankalamurti. This represents the extreme emaciated

form of Bhairava. Siva after having cut-off Brahma’s fifth head, found it stuck to his palm as a

skull which he used as his begging bowl. As he wandered begging for his livelihood in expiation

of his sin, he wandered into Visnu’s abode for alms. Visnu’s door-keeper, Visvaksena failed to

recognise the naked beggar and Siva impaled him with his trident. On leaving Visnu’s abode,

he carried Visvaksena’s corpse with him stuck on his trident in a dark fury. Holding the skull


of Brahma in one hand and Visvaksena’s corpse slung on his shoulder, Bhairava went towards

Varanasi begging, dancing in mad elation himself emaciated to the bones.

Virabhadra: The mythical story of Virabhadra comes from the Linga Purana. The episode is that

of the Daksa’s sacrifice, where Sati has immolated herself unable to bear the insults of her father

towards her husband Siva. Upon hearing of Sati’s death, an enraged Siva tears off a fistful of his

hair and throws it on the ground. From one half of this half emerges the fearsome Virabhadra,

and from the other, Mahakali.

As Kramrisch quotes from the Rig Veda equating Virabhadra to the Purusha, she says that

Virabhadra was “ … of great strength and splendour, with a huge body, of great being. ...he had

a thousand heads, eyes, feet, but also terrible tusks projecting from his mouth and numberless

weapons.” Virabhadra was given the charge of destroying Daksa by Siva. After wreaking havoc

in the sacrificial arena along with thousands of Siva’s ganas, Virabhadra rips off Daksa’s head

and throws it in the sacrificial fire. Having completed his task, he returns to Siva in the Kailasa.

This fierce form of Siva is one of the images kept in a store room at the Rameswara Temple at

Narasamangala. While the icon does not have the many attributes of Virabhadra as described in

the myth, his form can be identified by his fierce expression, his warrior-like moustache, and his

pointed, protruding teeth (Plate 16).

Anugraha murtis: The kings from various dynasties in Karnataka commissioned many

anugraha murtis (statues depicting the Siva’s favour) to be carved on the walls of temples. The

Chandesanugrahamurti, the Ravananugrahamurti and the Markendeyanugrahamurti are some of

the examples.

Chandesanugraha murti: The Chandesanugraha murti depicts the legend of the Nayanar saint,

Chandeswara or Chandesa. Legend has it that the young cowherd was a devout bhakta (devotee)

of Siva and would bathe the sand lingams he created in milk. Hearing of his son’s wasteful

activities, his father Datta came to reprimand him. Immersed in deep meditation, Chandesa did

not notice his father. When his father angrily kicked the lingam and broke it, Chandesa struck

the intruder with his staff. The staff magically became Siva’s axe, felling Datta. Thereupon, Siva

appeared before Chandesa, blessing and acknowledging him as one of his greatest devotees. He

also restored Datta’s legs. The boy was then counted among the highest Nayanar saints.

Ravananugraha murti: depicts the mythological story of Ravana from the epic Ramayana. In

brief, the story says how Ravana tried to shake the Kailasa mountain – the abode of Siva and

Parvati – when his Pushpak Vimana couldn’t fly over it. To teach the arrogant Ravana a lesson,

Siva pressed down the mountain with his toe thereby trapping Ravana beneath it. Ravana then


underwent penance and chanted Siva’s name for thousands of years. Finally, pleased with the

asura king, Siva not only freed him but also gave him divine weapons.

Ardhanariswara: The fascinating androgynous form of half-Siva and half-Parvati is found in

many temple sculptures, but the one in the Badami Cave No. 1 is known for its striking beauty.

There are many variations of the Ardhanariswara myth that are listed in the different Saiva

Puranas, but the central idea is that Siva and Shakti are but one. As the statue shows, this popular

icon is split vertically in the middle, with the right half usually depicting Siva and the left half,

Parvati. The differences in the gender of the two halves are discernible through Parvati’s breast,

dress, jewellery, hairstyle and other lanchanas or marks.

The iconographic 16th century work Silparatna, the Matsya Purana and agamic texts like

Amshumadbhedagama, Kamikagama, Supredagama and Karanagama (most of them of South

Indian origin) describe the iconography of Ardhanariswara. The right superior side of the body

usually is the male Siva and the left is the female Parvati; in rare depictions belonging to the

Shaktism school, the feminine holds the dominant right side. The icon usually is prescribed to

have four, three or two arms, but rarely is depicted with eight arms. In the case of three arms, the

Parvati side has only one arm, suggesting a lesser role in the icon.

The male half wears a jata-mukuta (a headdress formed of piled, matted hair) on his

head, adorned with a crescent moon. Sometimes the jata-mukuta is adorned with serpents

and the river goddess Ganga flowing through the hair. The right ear wears a makra-kundala,

sarpa-kundala (serpent-earring) or ordinary kundala (earring).

In the four-armed form, a right hand holds a parasu (axe) and another makes an abhaya

mudra (gesture of reassurance), or one of the right arms is slightly bent and rests on the head

of Siva’s bull mount, Nandi, while the other is held in the abhaya mudra gesture. In the Badami

relief, the four-armed Ardhanariswara plays a veena (lute), using a left and a right arm, while

other male arm holds a parasu and the female one a lotus.

The female half has karanda-mukuta (a basket-shaped crown) on her head or well-combed

knotted hair or both. The left ear wears a valika-kundala (a type of earring). A tilaka or bindu (a

round red dot) adorns her forehead, matching Shiva’s third eye. The left eye is painted with black

eyeliner. While the male neck is sometimes adorned with a jewelled hooded serpent, the female

neck has a blue lotus matching it.

In the four-armed form, one of the left arms rests on Nandi’s head, while the other is bent in

kataka pose and holds a nilotpala (blue lotus) or hangs loosely at her side. In the three-armed

representation, the left hand holds a flower, a mirror or a parrot. In the case of two-armed icons,

the left hand rests on Nandi’s head, hangs loose or holds a flower, a mirror or a parrot. The parrot

may be also perched on Parvati’s wrist. Her hand(s) is/are adorned with ornaments like a keyura

(anklet) or kankana (bangles).


The image of Ardhanariswara in Badami museum stands gracefully in tribhanga posture and

similar images are there in the Mahakuta temples too.

Kamantaka: The Kamantaka sculpture depicts the story involving Siva and Kama, the god of

desire. Following Sati’s death, Siva lost all interest in the world and started practising severe

austerities. Afraid that the world would burn in the fire of his tapasya (penance), the gods

contrived to disturb him. Brahma asked Kama to do the needful. Kama, accompanied by his

wife Rati, went to the designated spot whence he shot five floral arrows at Siva. Disturbed and

enraged, Siva opened his third eye and burned Kama to ashes. The god of desire is later revived

on Rati’s pleas, but the story goes to display the wrath of Siva. The most notable feature of this

sculpture is Siva’s open third eye. Since he is depicted in a sitting position in this form, it suggests

that he was in meditation before Kama’s intrusion.

Tripurantaka: The Tripurantaka form of Siva plays the role of a warrior who destroys a triad of

asuras. The demon Tarakasura has three sons, Tarasksha, Kamalaksha and Vidyunmali. These

siblings, having pleased Brahma, obtain the boon of having three invincible floating cities. They

terrorize the three worlds and the gods seek Siva’s help to destroy the triad. According to the

conditions of Brahma’s boon, Siva awaits the moment when the three cities or Tripura would align

perfectly and targets them. Brahma himself drives Siva’s chariot while Visnu himself becomes the

flaming arrow which proves fatal for the demon siblings. The destroyer of Tripura thus becomes

Tripurantaka (Plate 17).

Vinadhara Dakshinamurti: Dakshinamurti Siva is usually understood to be a teacher figure

and the Vinadhara Dakshinamurti is especially a teacher of music. He is characterized by four

arms and a vina or lute. This form of Siva is especially venerated in the Indian performing arts

traditions. The references to this icon are found in the Kamika, the Amshumatbheda and the

Karanagamas.

Lingodbhava: The Lingodbhava or Lingotbhavamurti is perhaps one of the most defining saiva

icons of the south Indian temples and is found in most of these temples. The mythological story

behind this form of Siva involves a quarrel between Brahma and Visnu for supremacy. Siva makes

an appearance at the scene as a pillar of fire and challenges them to find its source. Both the

gods fail and accept Siva as the supreme lord. This motif is popular in south Indian temples. The

iconography includes Siva emerging from a pillar with four arms, the feet not showing (Plate 18).

Gajasamahara: also known as Gajasurasamhara, Gajantaka, Gajaha or Matangari is that form

of Siva where he defeats the elephant demon, Gajasura, who was terrorizing devas and the

rishis. The iconography depicts him with multiple arms carrying various weapons, and dancing


vigorously on the skin of the flayed elephant. Uma and a terrified young Skanda are sometimes

shown as onlookers.

Kalantaka or Yamantaka Siva is the conqueror of time or death. The mythological story is that

of the ardent Saiva devotee, King Markandeya or Shweta. The story occurs in the Bhagavata and

other Puranas and the Kedara Khanda. Once when the righteous King was immersed deep in

meditation praying to the linga, Yama or the god of death came to take him away. Siva emerged

from the linga and in protecting his devotee burnt Yama to ashes. When the King came out of his

meditation he was amazed at the turn of events. Despite his deep gratitude, he requested Siva to

bring Yama back to life since he was responsible for maintaining the law of time. Siva obliged, and

Yama then told his dutas to never bring Siva’s true bhaktas to his loka.

Vrisavahana: It is another popular aspect of Siva and is held in high veneration. Here Siva is

seated upon the bull generally in the Sukhasana pose. Such images of Siva can be found in Aihole,

many of the Hoysala temples and Bhoganandiswara Temple at Nandi.

Aghoramurti: In this form, Siva is primarily worshiped in his fierce form o Aghoramurti. When

Nandi was unable to defeat the demon Marutwasura, he sought refuge in Siva. From Siva’s eye

emerged Aghoramurti. This fearsome form is also called Dashabhuja Aghoramurti and has “ten

arms, possessing three eyes and terrific countenance. The colour of his body is blue and that of

the garments, red. There are to be snake ornaments all over the body. In his ten hands he should

carry parasu, damaru, khadga, khetaka, bana, dhanush, sula, and kapala, and the remaining

hands should be held in the varada and abhaya poses.” When the demon Marutwasura beheld

this terrible form, he collapsed and died. This myth appears in the Svetaranyamahatmya.

Bhairava: Bhairava according to the Sivapurana is the purna-rupa of Siva. He is so called because

he protects the Universe (Bharana) and is terrific (bhisma). He is also called Kalabhairava for

even Kala, the god of death trembles before him. Bhairava image should have a flabby belly, round

yellow eyes, side tusks and wide nostrils and should be wearing a garland of skulls as described

in some of the puranas. Other characteristics are that he should be adorned with snakes and be

clad in elephant skin with his arms carrying his usual weapons. Bhairava may have sixty four

different forms. Bhairava images can be seen in many temples of Karnataka irrespective of the

period to which they belong and the dynasty that built the temple. More prominently they can be

noticed in the Badami Chalukya and Hoysala temples.

The Nine Nrrittamurtis of Siva: According to Hindu traditions, Siva is a great master in the art

of dancing. Each dance movement of Siva is described in the Natyasastra. He is the Acharya and

the actor both. Bharatamuni’s Natyasastra mentions one hundred and eight modes of dancing


(karanas) and Siva dances in all these modes. Thus Nrritamurtis of Siva have a special significance

in Hindu iconography. Accordingly, true mastery in the art of making sculptures is unattainable

without the knowledge of the art of dancing and music as described in the Natysastra. Artists

from Karnataka were renowned to be knowledgeable of both the canons of iconography and

performing arts, looking at the perfection dancing sculptures in the state depict.

All the modes of dances are not represented in either Siva’s iconography as contained in

the agamas or in the silpasastras or in the icons found in sculpture. Only nine of the modes are

generally described and these represent such dances as Nadanta or Tandava, Lalita, Lalatatilaka,

Katisama, Talasamphotita etc. The different Nrritamurtis described in the agamas and silpa

texts depict the following distinct features.

1. The first murti measures Uttama dasatala as the iconometric system with the front left

hand in gajahasta mudra, the back left hand with Agni, the front right hand in abhaya pose,

on the forearm is the sarpavyala, the right leg slightly bent and placed upon the back of

Apasmarapurusa, the left leg lifted up, turned towards the right and kept across it. The head

of the image is adorned with jatamukuta and flower-garlands, snake-jewelled ornaments, a

grinning human skull and crescent moon, the body shown with a yajnopavita and smeared

with ashes, rings on all fingers except the middle one, on all toes except the middle ones

and anklets on the ankles. Parvati standing next on the left makes it the Natarajamurti.

2. Murtis 2 to 4 varieties are not very different from the first. In the second Ganga is shown

standing on the jata flowing on the right of Siva with hand held in anjali pose. In the third,

the left foot is on the Apasmara and the right foot is lifted up. In the fourth, a jatabhara or

jatamandala in the form of a circular disc is required to be shown.

3. In the fifth mode, Siva is eight armed with characteristic weapons and poses having right

leg lifted straight up to the crown of the head and left somewhat bent and placed on

Apasmara.

4. In the sixth mode of dance, Siva is sixteen armed with manifold emblems and poses with

legs as in the fifth mode. Figures of Parvati and Skanda are shown on the left.

5. In the seventh mode, Siva is eight armed, three eyed with outspreading jatamandala and

with Devi on the left.

6. In the eighth mode, there should be six arms.

7. The ninth form should have four arms with the usual emblems. The left foot is rested upon

a pitha instead of Apasmara. The great toe of the right one is also to rest upon a pitha.

Aihole and Badami have among the earliest dancing Siva murtis collection of Karnataka.

Ravanaphadi Cave at Aihole was excavated around 550 CE shortly after the Badami Chalukyas

came to power. Numerous sculptures fill the corners, much of the walls and ceiling of the central


hall of the cave. One of the most important of these compositions is that of the dancing Siva as

Siva-Nataraja located to the left of the main hall. Siva-Nataraja here is accompanied by larger

than human size representations of the Saptamatrikas, three to the left and four to the right of

Siva (Plate 19). Saptamatrikas either seated or standing is common but Saptamatrikas dancing

in Siva’s company is a rare representation as seen in the Ravanaphadi sculptures. Probably this

scene specifically depicts the dancing Siva performed after the defeat of the demon Andhakasura

because it is at this that the Saptamatrikas came to the aid of Siva. The ten armed dancing Siva

has his head angled sharply to the torso while in his rear hands he is holding up a sinuous cobra.

Some of the attending matrikas pose in the dance modes called karanas. The matrikas present

the dancing modes such as Brahmi in Samotsarita Mattali with crossed hands holding attributes

and Maheswari is in Samapada mode. Vaisnavi is posing in Suchipada in a relaxed way while

Parvati appears to be imitating Siva in movement with her left hand in Kapittha Hasta and right

hand placed on the knee with Ksipta knee and slanted head. Ganapati and Skanda are found in

the sculpture in diminutive form.

The second Nrittamurti meriting special attention is from the Cave No. 1 of Badami (Plate 20).

The sixteen armed dancing Siva is depicted in the atibhanga pose of a peculiar dance mode bears

the stamp of extreme exaggeration in the matter of its numerous arms flung on all sides and hands

holding various weapons and objects but the facial expression does not lose its serenity of deep

concentration. The multiple hands with various attributes and holding the snake represent Vira

Rasa. The multiple hands signify more than one karana. The hand crossed across the chest is not

turned upwards but downward. The right hand is held in Kapittha instead of Catura. This image

also represents Ardhamattali Karana where a hand is resting on the thigh and right hand swaying

above in rechita with feet in position. The sculptor appears to have been very well versed in dance

and adopted a free style to display his interest in Natyaveda, symbolically indicating that Siva

indeed is the preceptor of Natyagama. A rudra vina in Siva’s hand also indicates his excellence in

music. Only three attendants are shown in the lower part of the relief with the bull Nandi standing

calmly on the left. The right is occupied by Ganesha and a seated figure playing on two drums.

There is no wriggling Apasamarapurusa beneath Siva’s feet in both the above sculptures.

Another remarkable dancing sculpture of twelve armed Siva can be found among the wall

sculptures of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebid. Here Siva is dancing in terrible mood with

eyes wide open in conformity with the multiple hands and powerful attributes. He is performing

on a lotus platform (padmasana). Only Nrrita Hastas are alapallava held high and Lata Hasta

in right side expressing great joy. He is accompanied by two drummers holding a panava and

mridanga. The flutist, the cymbal player and the skeletal gana are excited while playing on their

instruments (Plate 21).

Minor Deities associated with Siva: There can be no Siva temple without Nandi, the recumbent

bull placed in front of the shrine. Nandi or Nandikeswara may be depicted exactly like Siva with


three eyes and two hands holding the parasu (battle axe) and mriga (the antelope). But the other

two hands are joined together in the anjali pose (obeisance). More commonly he is shown as a

bull-faced human being or just as a bull.

The puranas describe him as born out of the right side of Visnu resembling Siva exactly and

given as a son to the sage Salankayana who had practised severe austerities. Other versions

describe him as the son of the sage Silada who got him by the grace of Siva. Nandikdvara, also

known as Adhikaranandi, is the head of the ganas of Siva and also his vahana (carrier vehicle).

Symbolically, the bull represents the animal instincts, especially the sex, and Siva’s riding on it

reflects his absolute mastery over it.

Then comes Bhringi, the sage, who was singularly devoted to Siva, and was elevated to the

retinue of Siva’s abode. The sage was so fanatical in his devotion to Siva that he did not care even

for Parvati, his consort! When Parvati merged herself into the body of Siva and Siva thus became

Ardhanariswara, Bhringi was still so bigoted that he became a bhrnga (bee) and bored through

the centre of the Ardhanariswara form to complete his circumambulation! Hence he was given

the name Bhringi. Siva, of course, made him realise his mistake (Plate 22).

Next comes Chandeswara, a human devotee raised to the status of a deity, by Siva because

of his intense devotion. He is a fierce deity holding weapons of war and destruction like the

bow, arrow, trident, chisel, noose and so on. Though independent shrines dedicated to him are

not uncommon, he is usually installed in every Siva temple in the north-eastern comer, facing

south. Devotees believe that he can act as a messenger and mediator interceding with the Lord

on behalf of the devotees. Hence supplication before him is a duty of every devotee visiting the

Siva temples (Plate 23).

Other attendants of Siva are the ganas, also known as pramathaganas or bhutaganas

(demigods or malignant spirits). If they are not propitiated, they can do harm.

Visnu’s Attributes, Forms and Iconography

In Hinduism, Visnu is the Supreme God, Svayam Bhagavan of Vaishnavism (one of the three

principal denominations) and one of the three supreme deities (Trimurti). As one of the five

primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition, he is conceived as “the Preserver or the Protector”

within the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the divinity (Brahma-Visnu-Maheswara).

In Hindu sacred texts, Visnu is usually described as having dark complexion of water-filled

clouds and having four arms. He is depicted as a pale blue being, as are his incarnations Rama and

Krishna He holds a padma (lotus flower) in his lower left hand, the Kaumodaki gada (mace) in his

lower right hand, the Panchajanya sankha (conch) in his upper left hand and the discus weapon

considered to be the most powerful weapon according to Hindu Religion, Sudarshana Chakra in

his upper right hand.


The traditional explanation of the name Visnu involves the root vis, meaning “to settle”, or

also (in the Rigveda) “to enter into, to pervade”, glossing the name as “the All-Pervading One”.

Adi Shankara in his commentary on the Sahasranama states derivation from vis, with a meaning

“presence everywhere”.

In the Yajur Veda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana Suktam, Narayana is mentioned as the

Supreme Being. The first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words “paramam padam”,

which literally mean “highest position” and may be understood as the “supreme abode for all

souls”. This special status is not given to any deity in the Vedas apart from Visnu/Narayana.

Narayana is one of the thousand names of Visnu as mentioned in the Visnu Sahasranama. It

describes Visnu as the All-Pervading essence of all beings, the master of-and beyond-the past,

present and future, one who supports, sustains and governs the Universe and originates and

develops all elements within. This illustrates the omnipresent characteristic of Visnu. Visnu

governs the aspect of preservation and sustenance of the universe, so he is called “Preserver of

the Universe”.

Visnu’s supremacy is attested by his victories over very powerful entities. It is further attested

by the accepted iconography and sculptures of Visnu in reclining position as producing Brahma

emerging from his navel. Brahma, the Creator is thus created in turn by Visnu out of his own

person. Instead Visnu reincarnates in various avatars to slay or defeat those demons.

To keep pace with the evolution of the puranic literature, several forms of Visnu were

conceived and images appropriate to the forms conceived in the puranic legends were provided

by the artists and the patrons.

Accordingly, the images of Visnu can be classified into two categories, viz. (1) Incarnation images

and (2) Non-incarnation images. Ordinarily in non-incarnation images, Visnu is represented either

with four hands or more than four hands. Non-incarnation images can be further subdivided into

General images of Visnu i.e, images with four hands and, Special images of Visnu with more than

four hands. The general images of Visnu can be further classified on the basis of articles in hands

or on the basis of the order in which his traiditional articles like chakra, padma, gada and sankha

(disc, lotus, mace, and conch) are placed in hands.

The images of Visnu found in the Karnataka region are described hereafter in the following

sequence.

1. Incarnation images, and

2. Non-Incarnation Images

◆◆ General Images

◆◆ Special Images


(I) Incarnation Images (Dasavataras)

The Sanskrit word ‘Avataris’ composed of two words ‘ava’ and ‘tar’ where ava means ‘below’

and tar, denotes the process of coming down. The term Avatara is applied to the act of a divine

being assuming the form of a man or animal and continuing to live in that form on the earth.

In the Pancharatra theology, the Avataras or Manifestations belong to pure creation. Krishna,

one of the incarnations of Visnu says this in the Bhagavata Gita: ”Yada yada hi dharmasya

glanirbhavati Bharata, Abhyuthanama dharmasya taddatmanam Srjamyham.” The meaning of

this shloka is “Whenever there is a decline of righteousness, and the rise of unrighteousness,

then I embody myself.”

Whenever, the decline of integrity, honesty, goodness and virtue and dwindling of truth and

mutual understanding reaches the lowest point; equity, liberty, piety diminishes to such an extent

that cruelty, barbarism, atrocity emerge; whenever people forget their duties, lose their sense of

morality and goodness and the law of nature is undermined, Visnu incarnates himself as a saviour

and protector of Dharma. Dharma is the scheme of code of Laws which bind together human

beings in the bond of mutual rights and duties, of causes and consequences, of action arising

out of their temperamental character in relation to each other and this maintains the society.

Dharma also includes the rituals, sacrifices, acts of charity, benevolence and compassion, as

well as the natural principles of existence of the Universe. Regarding the number of incarnations,

it would be interesting to take this note of the Bhagavata Gita. Krishna says in it “Sambhavami

yuge yuge” which means that “I am born in every age.” Logically there can be no limit to the

number of incarnations or forms that the Supreme power may choose to assume from time to

time. However, Hindu tradition follows the texts on iconography like the puranas and agamas

and as such the number of incarnations (or other forms) of Visnu are restricted by the contents

of these texts.

Most of the puranas and texts on iconography describe the usual list of incarnations and

enumerate them in the following order: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama,

Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki incarnations - these ten have become popular under the name

of the Dasavatara. Vallabhacharya, however, substitued Balarama for Krishna on the ground that

the incarnations are simply the partial and temporary manifestations of the potency of Visnu and

Krishna being the supreme deity is Visnu himself. As such all the incarnation of Visnu are in fact,

the incarnations of Krishna. Description of the ten incarnations is as follows:

Matsya and Kurma Incarnations: According to the Visnudharmottara Purana, the Matsya

Purana, the Agni Purana, the Silparatna and the Rupamandana, the Matsya form of Visnu should

be represented as a realistic fish. The Visnudharmottara Purana further adds that this fish should

be equipped with a horn (Plate 24). Images of Matsya resemble an ordinary fish or half fish and

half man with upper portion of a man. The fish has four hands, two carry the conch and disc, and

two are in varada and abhaya mudras.


As for the Kurma incarnation, according to the Visnudharmottara Purana, the Matsya Purana,

the Agni Purana, the Silparatna and the Rupamandana, the Kurma incarnation of Visnu should be

portrayed as a realistic tortoise or kurma. It is also said that Visnu assumed the form of Kurma

at the time of churning of the ocean. The Satavata Samhita, however, suggests that the image of

Kurma form of Visnu should have four hands equipped with conch, disc, mace and plough (Plate

25). Sometimes, two of his four hands carry conch and disc, and two are held in the varada and

abhaya mudras i.e. gesture of conferring a boon.

Varaha Incarnation: Different images of Varaha incaranation (the deity having a human body

with head of a Boar), and Adivaraha (the deity with the entire body of a boar) are referred to in the

puranas and texts on iconography. The Visnudharmottara Purana prescribes that Varaha should

be portrayed with four hands out of which the upper left hand holds Bhudevi on the elbow while

holding conch in the hand and the remaining hands should be bestowed with lotus, disc and mace.

The Agni Purana has laid down that the deity should bear mace and disc in the right hands and

conch and lotus in the left ones with Lakshmi perched on the top of the elbow or the upper left

hand and Kshma should also be shown at the feet of the deity. The Silparatna and the Rupavatara

add some more details by saying that holding his lower right hand in kati-hasta mudra, the deity

should be looking gleefully at Bhudevi supported in her perch by his horizontally raised upper

left elbow (Plate 26). The Rupavatara and Silparatna have further recommended that one foot of

the deity should be planted on the head of a Naga. According to the Rupamandana Varaha should

be represented with two hands carrying mace and lotus and Goddess Bhudevi should be perched

on the end of his tusk.

Narasimha Incarnation: The Visnudharmottara Purana has suggested that Narasimha should

be represented in andhasana, busy tearing the chest of Hirnyakasayapu (Plate 27). Further the

same text has recommended that Narasimha should be portrayed in standing pose with hand

bestowed with conch, disc, mace and lotus. The Matsya Purana has suggested two forms of

Narasimha with eight hands. In one form he should be depicted as tearing open the chest of

Hirnyakasayapu and in another encouraged by distinguished gods and with his hands equipped

with (several) weapons, he should be engaged in worsting the tired out Hirnyakasayapu who

should carry sword and shield in his hands. The Agni Purana at one place has laid down that

Hirnyakasayapu should be laid on Narasimha’s left lap and should bear disc and mace while

engaged in tearing his opponent’s chest At another place, the Agni purana says that the four

hands of Narasimha should be equipped with disc and conch, and the remaining hands if not

occupied in tearing his opponent, should again be bestowed with disc and conch.

The Silparatna has recommended that Narasimha should be represented with eight hands, out

of which the lower two hands should be engaged in tearing Hirnyakasayapu with nails and pulling

out the entrails of the adversary. The upper hands should be equipped with sword and shield, the

middle right hands should carry disc and lotus, and the middle left ones should bear mace and


conch. Taking cues from various texts on iconography, the sculptors carved out different images

in different forms with varying attributes.

Vamana Incarnation: The popular mythology about Vamana describes that Visnu came as

a dwarf to the ego-centred King Bali, the master of Asuras and asked for a gift of land three

strides in extent. When the gift was granted the dwarf Vamana brahmin assumed cosmic form

and traversed the created world in two strides and placed his foot in the third stride on the

head of the haughty King taming him into submission. The Visnudharmottara Purana states that

Vamana should be portrayed as a student carrying staff in his hand. According to the Matsya

Purana, Vamana should either have two hands carrying staff and umbrella or four hands (Plate

28). However the articles to be held in these four hands are not mentioned. According to the

Rupamandana, Vamana should be represented with a tuft on head and a staff and an umbrella in

hands.

Trivikrama Incarnation: As said in most of the Puranas, when Bali agreed to denote three

pace length of land to Visnu distinguished as Vamana, the latter threw off his mask and appeared

in such a gigantic stature that in one step he measured up the entire earth, in second the entire

upper region, and banished the donor to the nether world (patala) for his incapacity to offer a

suitable length of land for his third pace. The form of Visnu which covered both the territorial

and select regions in just two steps and grew into the Virata form from the dwarf form is known

as Trivikrama (Plate 29).

The Matsya Purana has recommended that Trivikrama should be portrayed in a way as if he

is crossing over the Universe and his hands should be placed little above the height of his feet. In

the foreground of the image, Vamana with umbrella in his right hand and face suggesting poverty

should be replaced with Bali by his side carrying a water jug. Garuda should also be shown there

in the act of tying Bali. The Visnudhamottara Purana says that Trivikrama should have one face

(staring up with widely open eyes) and six hands - five carrying staff, noose, disc, mace and lotus,

and the remaining one holding a conch which should be placed on his lips.

Parasurama Incarnation: Visnu was born as a brahmin to annihilate the kshatriyas who had

become arrogant and had started opressing the brahmins. Parasurama, the avatara of Visnu was

born as a son of the hermit Jamadagni from the race of Bhrigu. He was called Parasurama because

he carried an axe called Parasu presented to him by Siva (Plate 30). The Visnudharmottara Purana

has laid down that Parasurama should be clad in black deer skin, have matted locks, and carry a

battle axe in one hand.

Rama Incarnation: Rama was born as the son of King Dasaratha of Ayodhya. The famous

epic of Ramayana written by rishi Valmiki describes the entire story of Rama’s life. In Ramayana,

Visnu took the form of a man Rama to kill the ten headed demon King Ravana of Lanka. The

Agni Purana has described the image of Rama with four hands carrying bow, arrow, sword, and

conch whereas Ramayana has simply referred to the image with two hands without mentioning


the articles with which those hands are to be equipped (Plate 31). The Visnudharmottara Purana

simply says that Rama should be equipped with insignia of royalty while his brothers should be

without any headgear. Images of Rama in samabhanga pose are found in some of the Hoysala

temples. Kodandarama Temple at Hiremaglur is stated to be the earliest temple dedicated to

Rama and was built during the times of the Western Gangas.

Some relief panels also depict of Rama standing in dvibhanga pose with his associates like

brother Lakshamana, wife Sita and Hanumana. Many temples carry the story of Ramayana

in narrative panels and Rama is depicted variously in acts related to the episodes from the

epic.

Krishna and Balarama Incarnations: For the sake of brevity these two avatara forms,

Krishna and Balarama are discussed together. Krishna and Balarama both figure as brothers

in the Puranas and Mahabharata. Balarama is considered as the eighth incarnation of Visnu in

some texts (Plate 32). In that case, Krishna is not being named as an incarnation of Visnu, but

as appearance of Visnu himself. One view is that the two brothers together form the eighth

incarnation, Krishna having been produced from a black hair and Balarama from a white hair of

Visnu. As Krishna and Balarama were constant companions during their stay on earth, many of

the exploits in which Balarama too featured are narrated in the texts such as Bhagavatam. Images

of Krishna appear in the temples as taken from the narratives in the various mythological texts

and Krishna Charita. Some of the images are described thus:

Venugopala Murti: No text has referred to or described this form in particular. However

several images of this form depicting Krishna, standing in tribhanga pose with flute held in

both hands are found in several temples (Plate 33). The earliest temple dedicated to Krishna in

Kanataka is the Venugopalaswami Temple at Honganur near Channapatna which was built by

the Cholas.

Govardhanadhari Murti: Govardhanadhari image of Krishna relates to the episode where

Krishna lifts the entire Govardhana mount to protect the people and cattle from the wrath of

Indra. Indra pounded the region with incessant rain thus inundating the area. People beseeched

Krishna to save their lives and the lives of their cattle. Krishna lifted the mountain and protected

the people and cattle by bringing them under its safety. This way Krishna provided protection to

all and at the same time destroyed Indra’s ego (Plate 34).

Balagopala and Navanitha Krishna Murti: The earliest Balagopal image of Krishna can be

found at the Kesavaswami Temple and Krishna Temple Ensemble at Huvinahadagali (Plate 35).

This image like the ‘Laddoo Gopal’ images of baby Krishna holding a butter ball in his hand

while crawling belongs to the Kalyani Chalukya School of art. This temple was burnt and

vandalized sometime in the 14th century and hence the image is surrounded by blackened walls.

The other important temple dedicated to Navanitha Krishna is located at Doddamalur near the

Aprameyaswami Temple and was consecrated by the Cholas.


Kaliamardana or Kalingamardama Murti: This image depicts Krishna in dancing pose over the

hoods of a cobra. The cobra named Kalia or Kalinga lived in Yamuna River. Kalia had terrorised

the local people. In order to make Kalia fall in line, Krishna went into the river ostensibly looking

for a ball which had fallen into it. As Kalia came out to attack Krishna and his playmates, Krishna

tackled Kalia’s ferocity by taming him and dancing over his hood. The image also depicts naga-

kanyas in anjali mudra with their tails interlaced with one another are given one in each cardinal

point. Kalia Naga too is depicted in anjali mudra under the feet of the deity and has a snake-

umbrella (hood) on his head (Plate 36).

Balarama: Two forms of Balarama with four hands are described in the Agni Purana, one

with pestle and disc in the right hands and plough and conch in the left ones. According to the

Visnudharmottara Purana Balarama’s hands should be equipped with conch, pestle, plough and

lotus. The Rupamandana has referred to two articles only, viz. plough and pestle. Several images

of Balarama with six hands too appear in some temples.

Buddha: Two opinions exist regarding Buddha and his inclusion in the list of the incarnations

of Visnu. The religious texts like the Visnudharmottara Purana, the Agni Purana and the Bhagavata

Purana refer to Buddha as an incarnation of Visnu, however, few others do not agree with this

view. The Brihatsamhita simply says that Buddha should be depicted in padmasana like the

patriarch of the world. According the Rupamandana, the image of Buddha should be portrayed in

padmasana and with two hands held in yoga mudra. Some rare images of Buddha in padmasana

with four hands are too are found (Plate 37). In these images the lower hands are held in yoga

mudra, and the upper hands are equipped with the mace and the disc.

Kalki: As stated in the Bhagavata Purana, Kalki is still to appear as a future incarnation, at

the end of the Kali Age (Kali Yuga). The Agni Purana has laid down that Kalki should be either

represented with bow and arrows or portrayed on a horse back with sword, conch, disc, and

mace in hands (Plate 38). The Rupamandana has suggested that Kalki should be riding on a horse

with sword in hand.

There are some general and other minor incarnations of Visnu as well depiction of which is

found on the temple walls. Most prominent among these are Hayagriva (Plate 39), Dhanavantri

(Plate 40) and Venkatesa (Plate 41). These images can be found among the wall images in the

Hoysala temples at Hosaholalu, Nuggehalli, Nagalapura and Aralaguppe.

The Agni Purana has recommended that Hayagriva should also have the face of horse and

carry conch, disc, mace and the Vedas in his hands. His left foot should rest on the Seshanaga and

the right one on a tortoise. The Visnudharmottara Purana suggests that the image of Hayagriva

should have eight hands, four equipped with conch, disc, mace and lotus and the remaining four

carrying the anthropomorphic forms of the four Vedas. According to the Rupavatara Hayagriva

should be represented with a human body and horse face and the two hands should be equipped

with aksamala and pustaka.


(II) Non-incarnataion Images of Visnu

(A) General Images including the Chaturvimshati Images: Visnu is commonly portrayed

with four hands. Those images, in which he is sculptured with four hands and included in

chaturvimshati murtis (i.e. twenty four forms of Visnu), are grouped here as General Images.

Naturally, these are non incarnation images. A detailed description of the chaturvimshati

images and their location at various temples is described below.

Several of the Hoysala vaisnava temples have all of these twenty four images of Visnu or most

of them carved among the wall sculptures besides the ten incarnations. Prominent among these

temples are Chennakesava Temple Aralaguppe, Chennakesava Temple Belur, Kesava Temple

Somanathapura, Viranarayana Temple Belavadi, Lakshminarayana Temple Hosaholalu, Kesava

Temple Hullekere, Lakshminarasimha Temple Javagal and Lakshminarasimha Temple Nuggehalli.

Kesava Temple at Hullekere and Lakshminarayana Temple at Hosaholalu have the unique

distinction of carrying all the twenty four forms of Visnu among the wall sculptures and

these are placed in their traditional sequence starting with Kesava and ending with Krishna.

Lakshminarasimha Temple at Nuggehalli too has twenty two of the 24 forms of Visnu carved among

its wall images, the two missing are the beginning (Kesava) and at the end of the order (Krishna).

In no other Hoysala vaisnava temple so strict a scheme of placement of chaturvimshati (twenty

four) forms in the traditional sequential order is followed. In the Kesava Temple at Hullekere,

twelve of the twenty four forms of Visnu are on the southern wall and the remaining twelve on

the northern wall. Sculptures relating to the twenty four forms of Visnu in the chaturvimshati

order at Hosaholalu temple are as under:

Kesava: All these sculptures are standing in samabhanga posture and the faces of a few of

the sculptures are eroded or defaced due to weather or vandalism. In some case even hands

and attributes in the hands too are broken. They are wearing kirita, karnakundala, bhujakeerti,

keyura, kankana, vakshara, yajnopavita from left shoulder to right, udarbandha, katibandha

and drapery as lower garment. Kesava is holding sankha, chakra, gada (mace) and padma in his

hands from right upper hand (UR), upper left hand (UL), front or lower left hand (LL) and front

or lower right hand (LR) respectively (Plate 42).

Narayana: The dress and decoration of the sculpture are same as of Kesava and the attributes

in the hands have changed among the hands in a clockwise order (as you look at the image) from

right upper hand to right lower hand as padma in UR, gada in UL, chakra in LL and sankha in LR

hand respectively (Plate 43).

Madhava: The dress and decoration of the sculpture are same as of Kesava. Attributes in the hands

for Madhava are chakra in UR, sankha in UL; padma in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 44).


Govinda: The dress and decorations of the sculpture are same as for above sculptures and Govinda

is holding gada in UR, padma in his UL, sankha in his LL and charka in LR hand (Plate 45).

Visnu: The dress and decorations are same as mentioned for the above sculptures but is holding

padma in UR, sankha in UL, chakra in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 46).

Madhusudana: The dress and decoration are same as mentioned for Visnu and is holding sankha

in UR, padma in UL, gada in LL and chakra in LR hand respectively (Plate 47).

Trivikrama: The dress and decoration of the sculpture are same as above but the attributes in the

hands are gada in UR, chakra in UL, sankha in LL and padma in LR hand respectively (Plate 48).

Vamana: The dress and decorations are same as mentioned for above sculptures but is holding

chakra in UR, gada in UL, padma in LL and sankha in LR hand respectively (Plate 49).

Sridhara: The dress and decoration are same as mentioned for Visnu but is holding chakra in UR,

gada in UL, sankha in LL and padma LR hand respectively (Plate 50).

Hrisikesa: The dress and decorations are same as mentioned for above sculptures but is holding

chakra in UR, padma in UL, sankha in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 51).

Padmanabha: The dress and decorations are the same as mentioned for above sculptures but is

holding padma in UR, chakra in UL, gada in LL and sankha in LR hand respectively (Plate 52).

Damodara: The dress, decorations and postures are same as mentioned for above sculptures but

is holding sankha in UR, gada in UL, chakra in LL and padma in LR hand respectively (Plate 53).

Sankarshana: The dress and decorations are same as mentioned for above sculptures but is

holding sankha in UR, padma in UL, chakra in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 54).

Vasudeva: The dress and decorations are same as mentioned above but is holding sankha in UR,

chakra in UL, padma in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 55).

Pradyumana: Pradyumana is holding sankha in UR, gada in UL, padma is LL and chakra in LR


Aniruddha: Aniruddha is holding gada in UR, sankha in UL, padma in LL and chakra in LR hand

respectively (Plate 57).


Purushottama: Purushottama is holding padma in UR, sankha in UL, gada in LL and chakra in LR


Adhoksaja: Adhoksaja his holding gada in UR, sankha in UL, chakra in LL and padma in LR hand


Narasimha: Narasimha is standing in samabhanga posture with lion face and human body and

wearing kirita, karnakundala, bhujakeerti, keyura, kankana, vaksahara, yajnopavita from left

shoulder to right, udarabandha, katibandha and drapery as lower garment. He is holding padma,

gada, sankha and chakra in his hands clockwise from UR to LR in the order UR, UL, LL and LR

(Plate 60).

Achyuta: Achyuta’s dress decorations and postures are the same as all above sculptures but he

is holding padma in UR, chakra in UL, sankha in LL and gada in LR hand respectively (Plate 61).

Janardana: Janardana is holding chakra in UR, sankha in UL, gada in LL and padma in LR hand

respectively Plate 62).

Upendra: upendra is holding gada in UR, padma in UL, chakra in LL (though the order stated

in some silpasastra texts recommends chakra in UL and padma in LL) and sankha in LR hand


Hari: Hari is holding chakra in UR, padma in UL, gada in LL and sankha in LR hand respectively.

Some texts however have this order: padma UR, chakra UL, gada LL and sankha LR (Plate 640.

Krishna: Krishna is holding gada in UR, padma in UL, chakra in LL and sankha in his LR hand


Surprisingly some of the Saiva temples of the Hoysalas too have Visnu wall-images in large

numbers. However, the unique distinction goes to the Panchlingeswara Temple at Govindanahalli

and Iswara Temple at Arasikere which have slots for all the twenty four images of Visnu from

the chaturvimshati forms. All the images are standing in the samabhanga pose on a padmasana

pedestal. All the images possess four arms, are adorned with a kirita (crown) and other usual

ornaments. The difference between any two images can be made out on the basis of the way

in which sankha, chakra, gada and padma are held in the four hands. These four articles are

distributed among the four hands in an anticlockwise circle (for the standing image) starting from

the upper right hand to the upper left hand to the lower left hand and lastly to the lower right

hand. For example, the image with sankha, chakra, gada and padma in the hands in the order


mentioned commencing from the upper right hand to the lower right hand is representative of

Kesava. All images are thus identified from the way they hold these four objects in their four

hands in the manner described above for the Hosaholau Temple.

The Panchalingeswara Temple at Govindanahalli is dedicated to the god Siva. On its eastern

wall are the twenty four images of the chaturvimshati murtis of Visnu with labels besides the

ten incarnations. The twenty four forms are depicted from north to south on the eastern wall. Of

the twenty four images only twenty one can be seen in existence in sculptural form whereas the

spaces to hold the remaining three exist without the image. Obviously then the intention of the

temple builders was to include all the twenty four images. However, the wall sculptures on the

outer walls of the principal shrine at Arasikere have all the twenty four images well preserved but

for a few broken pieces among them.

Sculptures depicted starting from south to north on the walls of Govindanahalli temple are

Kesava, Narayana, Madhava, Govinda, Visnu, Madhusudana, Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara,

Hrisikesa, Padmanabha, Damodara, Sankarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumana, Aniruddha,

Prurushottama, Adhoksaja, Narasimha while there are three vacant spots with pedestals where

the images are missing. These missing images are Achyuta, Janardna and Upendra. Immediately

after the vacant spots are the images of Hari and Krishna thus completing all the twenty four

forms of Visnu.

The ten avataras (incarnations) of Visnu are in the central part near the eastern door. These

are in this order: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Halayudha,

seated Buddha and Kalki on horseback. Dasavatara images can also be seen at Somanathapura,

Belur and Hosaholalu among the wall images.

(B) Special images: Visnu is ordinarily represented with four hands and therefore those images,

in which he is sculptured as one of the chaturvimshati murtis, are grouped separately as

general Images. Other than these images in which the god is portrayed with two or more

than two hands and these images are given specific names, are grouped in as special Images.

Lokapala Visnu: Visnu represented with two hands has been designated ‘Lokapala Visnu’ in the

Vishnudharmottara Purana. Further, it is stated in the same text, this form has the posture of

Santi (peaceful pose) and bears mace and disc in the two hands. The Brihatsamhita differs from

this description of two armed form of Visnu and according to it, the deity should hold the right

hand in abhaya mudra and conch in the left hand.

Seshanarayana: Narayana is the popular name ascribed to Visnu, The Mahabharata referred

Narayana as the Lord of waters, hence the association of Narayana with the great serpent Sesha.

The Visnudharmottara Purana does not find any difference between Ananta and Sesha. According


to the Mahabharata, Ananta or Sesha is a form of Visnu. The same text considered Balarama as

an incarnation of Sesha. The Seshanarayana form of Visnu has been described by the texts on

Iconography and mythology like the Visnudharmottara Purana, Agni Purana, Aparajitapriccha,

Rupamandana and Rupavatara. However all these authorities differ with one another on several

details of the image. On the basis of all these authorities, this special form of four-handed Visnu is

described thus. Narayana is recumbent, lying on the Anantasayana, the serpent couch, floating

on the ocean of milk. Lakshmi is seated at Visnu’s feet and seen massaging his leg, lotus sprouts

from his navel bearing Brahma. He is encircled by tongues of fire and many weapons. His four

arms are carrying the conch, disc, mace and lotus. He is attended by Garuda, showing distinctive

marks like wings (Plate 66).

Vaikuntha: The Vaikuntha form of Visnu is known from the Jayakhya Samhita, a Pancharatra text,

Mahabharata, Brahmanas, Upanishads and Puranas too. He is a special form of Visnu shown

with four faces however the number of hands varied from time to time and text to text. This

form, due to the deep symbolism of its four faces, which includes the face of Narasimha and

Varaha, has acquired remarkable importance in the development of the iconography of Visnu.

It is nothing but, an attempt at synthesizing principal forms of Visnu, some of his incarnations.

The Rupamandana has given specific names for the forms with various hands and attributes. The

image with eight hands and four faces is called the ‘Vaikuntha murti’ (Plate 67), that with 12 hands

is called the Anantamurti, that with 16 hands is called the ‘Trailokyamohana murti’ and that with

twenty hands is called the ’Visvarupa murti’.

Visnu with Sixteen Hands-Trailokyamohanamurti: The sixteen handed variety of Visnu is

designated as Trailokyamohana by some of the Silpasastras. This form, of Visnu as described in

the Aparajitapriccha, Rupamandana and Rupavatara, should have four faces (human male, lion,

boar, and Kapila) and carry the articles in sixteen hands. A sixteen-handed visnu image is found

among the wall images at the Chennakesava Temple at Belur (Plate 68).

Visnu with Twenty Hands-Visvarupamurti: The Visvarupa is a multiform of Visnu. This interesting

form of Visnu reminds us of the Visvarupa Darsana given by Krishna to Arjuna at the time of the

famous Mahabharata War. This form is the cosmic aspect of Hari or Visnu. The Visvarupa form

of Visnu is remarkable for its omnipercipient iconographic peculiarity and its rarity in Indian

sculpture. Aparajitapriccha, Rupamandana, and Rupavatara recommend this form with four

faces (human male, lion, human female and boar) and twenty hands. The Agni Purana has added

one additional point in the description of this form. According to it, this form of Visnu should be

accompanied by Lakshmi and Saraswati, one on either side. Visvarupa form of Visnu is found

among the panels in the epic frieze in various Hoysala temples where Bhagavata story depicts

Krishna’s exploits or in the Mahabharata stories where Krishna acts as Arjuna’s advisor.


Visnu’s mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Visnu is commonly depicted as riding on his

shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which the Lord Visnu travels. Garuda is a

sacred bird in Vaishnavam. In Gajendra Moksham, Garuda carries Lord Visnu to save the Elephant

Gajendra.

Adherents of Hinduism believe Visnu’s eternal and supreme abode beyond the material

Universe is called Vaikuntha, which is also known as Paramdhama, the realm of eternal bliss and

happiness and the final or highest place for liberated souls who have attained moksha. Vaikuntha

is situated beyond the material Universe and hence, cannot be perceived or measured by material

science or logic. Vishnu’s other abode within the material universe is Kshira Sagara (the ocean

of milk), where he reclines and rests on Ananta Sesha, (the king of the serpent deities, commonly

shown with a thousand heads).

Anantasayi Visnu, also known as Anantasayana Visnu (both literally “sleeping on the serpent

Sesha”), is the Hindu god Visnu in a reclining position (Anantasayana in Sanskrit, literally sleeping

on the serpent Ananta). He has four arms, holding a chakra in the upper right hand, a sankha in

his upper left hand, a gada and a symbolic lotus on his lower left hand. The hoods of the serpent

Sesha (Ananta) cover the head of Visnu. The Visnu image has a sharp chin, distinctive nose and

wears a crown on its head, called kiritamukuta (a tall conical crown, typically worn by Vishnu).

A lotus design shown sprouting from his navel has the creator god Brahma, sitting in meditation.

Brahma’s Form and Iconography

According to the Brahma Purana, he is the father of Manu, and from Manu all human beings are

descended. In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, he is often referred to as the progenitor or

great grandsire of all human beings. He is not to be confused with the Supreme Cosmic Spirit in

Hindu Vedanta philosophy known as Brahman, which is genderless. Brahma is often identified with

Prajapati, a Vedic deity. Brahma’s consort is Saraswati. Being the husband of Saraswati or Vaac Devi

(the Goddess of Speech), Brahma is also known as “Vaagish”, meaning “Lord of Speech and Sound”.

He is clad in red clothes. Brahma is traditionally depicted with four heads, four faces, and four

arms. With each head, he continually recites one of the four Vedas. He is often depicted with a

white beard (especially in North India), indicating the nearly eternal nature of his existence. Unlike

most other Hindu gods, Brahma holds no weapons. One of his hands holds a scepter. Another of

his hands holds a book. Brahma also holds a string of prayer beads called the ‘akṣamala’ (literally

“garland of eyes”), which he uses to keep track of the Universe’s time. He is also shown holding

the Vedas (Plate 69).

Temples dedicated to Brahma are fewer in number in Karnataka. However, images of Brahma

can be found in several temples. A Chaturmukha Brahma image (four-faced Brahma) is kept in

front of the door to the garbhgriha of the Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi. Images of Brahma can be

found among the wall images in several Hoysala temples.


Brahma’s Attributes

The Four Faces – The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva).

The Four Hands – Brahma’s four arms represent the four cardinal directions: east, south, west,

and north. The back right hand represents mind, the back left hand represents intellect, the front

right hand is ego, and the front left hand is self-confidence.

The Prayer beads – Symbolize the substances used in the process of creation.

The Book – The book symbolizes knowledge.

The Gold – Gold symbolizes activity; the golden face of Brahma indicates that he is actively

involved in the process of creating the Universe.

The Swan – The swan is the symbol of grace and discernment. Brahma uses the swan as his

vahana, or his carrier or vehicle.

The Crown – Brahma’s crown indicates his supreme authority.

The Lotus – The lotus symbolizes nature and the living essence of all things and beings in the

Universe.

The Beard – Brahma’s black or white beard denotes wisdom and the eternal process of creation.

Shakti or the Divine Power of the Goddess, Forms, Incarnations and Images

Shakti or Devi, the goddess has been known in several popular forms - Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati,

Bhagavati, Kali, Chamundi, Uma, Kamakshi, Amba and countless more names. Thousands of

temples dot the Indian landscape. “Shakti” denotes energy and is derived from the word Sak which

means ‘the ability to act’. It also refers to the cosmic energy that permeates through everything.

The power is believed to preside over creation, preservation and destruction. The ‘Devi Sukta’

in Rig Veda, refers to Shakti as something that has no beginning and no end, something that is

constant and forever.

In Karnataka, Shakti cult can be traced back to the sixth century going by the epigraphical

records though worship of Shakti in one form or the other had been in vogue much earlier.

Bhuvaneswari, considered the State’s guardian spirit, has her shrines in Hampi’s Virupaksha

temple and in Bhuvanagiri (Uttara Kannada). The Bhadrakarnika at Gokarna is considered as one

of the 108 Shakti Peethas in the Devi Bhagavata Purana.


Durga’s Mahishasuramardini form is found in places like Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal,

vouching for her superior status in the art’s world during the reign of Chalukyas of Badami.

Kings and dynasties who saw her as the goddess of war, started the practice of worshipping the

weapons on the Vijayadashami day. Durga Parameshwari temples are also seen widely in coastal

Karnataka at Katilu, Bappanadu (Mulki), and Mandarthi; the Mahishasuramardini temple at

Kadiyali, Mahishasuramardini temple at Neelavar, Rajarajeshwari temple at Polali and Kali shrine

at Ambalapadi in Udupi are also among the important Shakti temples in the region. Western

Gangas held Kiltabel Eretti Bhatari i.e ‘Bhatari’ or ‘Kali’ as their family deity and worshipped

her during wars. A large sized image of her is kept in the compound of the Arkeswara temple at

Alur near Chamarajanagar. Cholas considered Pidari or Pattalki or Bhattarki as their family deity.

Kolaramma temple in Kolar was built in honour of Pidari.

Chamundi, another incarnation of Shakti emerged as a result of slaying the demons Chanda

and Munda, has been the tutelary deity of the Wodeyars. The history of Abhiseka Lakshmi or

Gajalakshmi has been in existence in the State for 2,000 years and has been inscribed as a symbol

in the lintels over the sanctum sanctorum of several temples. The Lakshmi temple at Sulebhavi

(Belagavi) is well-known for her powers to grant wishes. Goddess Saraswati became popular in

the State from 11 century CE, and has been mentioned in Kavirajamarga (8th century CE).

The ‘Temple of Saraswati’ at Gadag has richly carved images of this goddess. Hoysala temples

with images of Saraswati in numerous forms, nonetheless reinforce her popularity from ancient

times. Invocation of Saraswati during Navaratri is thought to have originated in the State during

the 14th century. Renuka, the goddess of chastity has been worshiped as Yellamma from 2nd

century in places like Saundatti and Chandragutti, with the rituals of a cult.

Sirsi’s Marikamba and Huligamma at Kapala, portray a unique hybridisation of folk and vedic

tradition, while Hasanamba of Hassan district is an ant-hill open to worship for a week during the

Navarathri festival. Amruteswari temple at Kota may be smaller, but it is yet another evidence of

people’s strong faith in the goddess.

Sharadamba at Sringeri, Mookambika at Kolluru, Mangalamba at Mangaluru, Rajarajeshvari at

Polali, Banashankari at Badami and Bengaluru, Annapurneswari at Horanadu, Mahalasa Narayani

at Kumta and Kamakshi at Hebbur are some of the well-known Shakti temples of the State.

As the legend goes, Sala, the progenitor of the Hoysalas, was walking through a forest with

his Jain Guru, Yogendra Sudatta, to worship goddess Vasantika Devi when a tiger came their way.

Taking an iron rod, the teacher handed it over to Sala saying, “Poy, Sala” (Strike, Sala). Sala killed

the tiger. This story is narrated in several records with a few differences in detail.

While the Hoysala crest in many temples depicts Sala killing a tiger, the seal on copper plates

and coins shows a dead tiger and a rod. Sala was perhaps the first ruler of the dynasty. Not much

is known about him but the fact that Hoysalas did worship Shakti is well established. Vasantha

Parameshwari temple still stands tall in Angadi from where the Hoysalas originated.


Chandrala Parameshwari temple at Sannati has its own history. Though the temple is over

800 years old, it has a close association with Sannati and Kanganahalli stupas which were nearly

2000 years old. The stone slab on which King Ashoka’s edict is written was used as the foundation

on which the idol of the goddess was installed. The slab was recovered during excavations by

ASI when the roof of a part of the temple gave way and fell on the idol. While extricating the idol,

Ashoka’s edict was discovered.

Cult of Shakti also influenced the performing arts of Karnataka, more notably the dance

forms. The community dance, Mari Kunitha which is wide spread in Mysore and Mandya

districts, display an insular flexibility in the presentation and narration. Originally belonging to

the Shakti cult, these dances consist of performers standing either in rows or forming a big circle

and dancing to the tune of ‘Chakravaddya’, an indigenous flat percussion instrument. The dance

begins at a slow pace, gathers momentum, reaches a frenzied pitch as the tempo of the beat

increases and continues till the rhythm fades away. The songs are sung intermittently at each

pause and hence could be heard by the audience clearly. In the dances like Kombat and Billat,

which is similar to the Mari Kunitha, the artistes attired in customary ‘Kodava’ costume (consist

of black robe, a silk waist belt and a ‘Zari’ bordered white turban) perform carrying deer-horns to

the accompaniment of a drum and the dudi-a small drum.

The Universe that we see and experience is a bundle of energy, both packed and unpacked. This

is the discovery of modem science, which incidentally, has demolished the distinction between

matter and energy. According to it, there is one basic energy behind all forms of matter and energy.

However, the world still seems to be far from discovering the relationship between matter on the one

hand and mind and life on the other. Are they also though apparently poles apart, manifestations of

the same basic energy? Modem science or the modem scientists, devoting most of their attention

to the manifest material universe may not even be prepared to look into such possibilities. Hindu

philosophy, based on the Vedanta and a group of works based on the Vedanta and more commonly

known as the Tantras postulates exactly this. The source and sustenance of all creation whether at

the level of matter or life or mind, is one and one only. It is Shakti (energy). Brahman (the Absolute)

of the Vedanta and Shakti or Devi of the Tantras is identical in the philosophical realm.

In the Hindu mythological literature as also in the Tantras, this energy is always pictured as a

female deity, the Devi, as the consort of its counterpart male deity. Each member of the Trinity

(viz. Brahma, Visnu and Siva) has his Shakti or Devi as his consort: Saraswati of Brahma (Plate

70), Lakshmi of Visnu (Plate 71) and Parvati of Siva (Plate 72). However, the mother-cult that

has evolved over the last few centuries is predominantly centred round Parvati, the consort of

Siva. Mother-worship and mother-cult are not alien to the Vedic religion as some suggest. The

concept of Aditi the mother of gods, personification of nature and the Ambhranisukta as also the

Ratrisukta of the Rigveda clearly contain the origins of mother-worship.


Saraswati: Saraswati is the Shakti, the power and the consort of Brahma the creator. Hence she

is the procreatrix, the mother of the entire creation. Literally Saraswati means ‘the flowing one’.

In the Rigveda she represents a river and the deity presiding over it. Hence she is connected

with fertility and purification. There are several names used to describe her: Sharada (giver

of essence), Vagesvari (mistress of speech), Brahmi (wife of Brahma), Mahavidya (knowledge

supreme) and so on. It is obvious that the concept of Saraswati developed by the later mythological

literature gives her a distinct but definite role in the Hindu mythological world. The ‘flowing on’

can represent speech also if taken in an allegorical sense. Hence Saraswati represents power and

intelligence from which organized creation proceeds. She is considered as the personification

of all knowledge, arts, sciences, crafts, and skills. Knowledge is the antithesis of the darkness

of ignorance. Hence she is depicted as pure white in colour. Since she is the representation of

all sciences, arts, crafts and skills she has to be extraordinarily beautiful and graceful. Clad in

spotless white apparel and seated on a lotus seat in paintings of her, she holds in her four hands

a vina (lute), aksamala (rosary) and pustaka (book). Though these are most common, there are

several variations (Plate 73). Some of the other objects shown are: pasha (noose), ankusha (goad),

padma (lotus), trisula (trident), sankha (conch), chakra (discus) and so on. Occasionally she is

shown with five faces or with eight hands. Even three eyes or blue neck are not uncommon.

In this case she is the Mahasaraswati aspect of Durga or Parvati. Though no separate carrier

vehicle is mentioned, Hamsa or swan, the vehicle of Brahma is usually associated with her also.

In popular mythological literature and pictures, a peacock is also shown as her carrier vehicle.

Coming to the symbology, being the consort of Brahma, she represents his power and

intelligence without which organized creation is impossible. To show that this intelligent power

is stupendous and absolutely pure, she is pictured as white and dazzling. As usual, the four

arms show her unimpeded power in all directions or her all-pervasiveness. Being the goddess

of learning, it is but proper that Saraswati is shown holding a book in her left hand. The book

represents all areas of secular sciences and very often the book in her hands is also described

to be the representation of the four Vedas. Mere intellectual learning without a heart tempered

by higher feelings, sentiments and emotions, is as dry as saw-dust. So she holds vina (lute) on

which she actually plays to show the need for cultivation of fine-arts. Then there is the aksamala

(rosary) held in the right hand. This symbolises all spiritual sciences or yoga including tapas

(austerities), meditation and japa (repetition of the divine name). By holding the book in the left

hand and the rosary in the right hand she is obviously teaching us that spiritual sciences are more

important than secular sciences.

Lakshmi: Being the power and consort of Visnu, the Preserver, she is represented as the power

of multiplicity and the goddess of fortune both of which are equally necessary in the process of

preservation. ‘Sri’ or ‘Lakshmi’, as depicted in the Vedas, is the goddess of wealth and fortune,


power and beauty. Though there is scope for the supposition that Sri and Lakshmi are two

separate deities, the descriptions of them are so identical that it is safe to conclude that they

represent one and the same deity. Some scholars opine that ‘Sri’ was a pre-Vedic deity connected

with fertility, water and agriculture. She was later fused with Lakshmi, the Vedic goddess of

beauty.

In her first incarnation, according to the puranas, she was the daughter of the sage Bhrigu

and his wife Khyati. She was later born out of the ocean of milk at the time of its churning. She

being the consort of Visnu, is born as his spouse whenever he incarnates. When he appeared as

Vamana, Parasurama, Rama and Krishna, she appeared as Padma (or Kamala), Dharani, Sita and

Rukmini. She is as inseparable from Visnu as speech from meaning or knowledge from intellect or

good deeds from righteousness. He represents all that is masculine and she, all that is feminine.

Lakshmi is usually described as enchantingly beautiful and standing on a lotus, and holding

lotuses in each of her two hands. It is because of this perhaps that she is named as Padma or

Kamala. She is also adorned with a lotus garland. Very often elephants are shown on either side

emptying pitchers of water over her, the pitchers being presented by celestial maidens. Her colour

is variously described as dark, pink, golden yellow or white. While in the company of Visnu, she is

shown with two hands only. When worshipped in a temple-separate temples dedicated to Lakshmi

are rather rare-she is shown seated on a lotus throne, with four hands holding padma, sankha,

amrtakalasa (pot of ambrosia) and bilva fruit. When shown with eight hands bow and arrow, mace

and discus are added (Plate 74). This is actually the Mahalakshmi, an aspect of Durga.

Her four hands signify her power to grant the four purusarthas (ends of human life) viz.

dharma (righteousness), artha (wealth), kama (pleasures of the flesh) and worlds and beings in

various stages of evolution. The fruit stands for the fruits of our labours. Amrtakalasa signifies

that she can give her worshipper the bliss of immortality. In some of the sculptural depictions of

Lakshmi, the owl is shown as her carrier-vehicle (vahana).

Samudramanathana (Churning of the Ocean): It may be interesting and even instructive to

digress a little and deal with the story of Samudramathana (churning of the ocean of milk). Indra,

the king of gods, lost his all to the demons due to the disrespect shown out of pride to a great

sage Durvasas. Visnu advised him to make up with his enemies (the demons) and with their help

to churn the ocean of milk out of which Amrta (ambrosia) could be got. By drinking it the gods

could become immortal and regain their lost sovereignty. Accordingly, the gods and the demons

started churning the ocean, making the Mandara mountain as the churning rod and Vasuki, the

great serpent as the rope (Plate 75). Visnu took the form of a gigantic tortoise (Kurma) to support

the mount Mandara from sinking. The first product of this joint venture and adventure was

Halahala, the most deadly poison. Siva the auspicious one swallowed this thus saving the worlds

from sure destruction. Later extracts from this churning were Kamadhenu (the wish-yielding


cow), Uchaisravas (the white horse), Airavata (the elephant), Kaustubhamani (the matchless

jewel), Kalpavriksha (the wish-fulfilling tree), Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune), Sura or Varuni

(the goddess of wine) and Dhanavantari (the physician of the gods) bearing the vessel of Amrta

(the ambrosia) in his hands. The rishis took away the cow Kamadhenu, Bali (the king of demons)

cast his eye on the horse Uchaisravas, Indra (the king of gods) accepted the elephant Airavata

and got the tree Kalpavriksha (also identified with parijata tree according to Harivansh Purana)

planted in his garden in heaven. According to some texts, there are five kalpavrikhas in Indra’s

garden identified as Mandana, Snatana, Parijata, Kalpavriksha and Harichandana. Visnu chose

to wear the jewel Kaustubha on his chest whereas Lakshmi chose Visnu’s chest as her dwelling.

The gods chose Sura who had been, strangely enough, rejected by the demons. Contravening

the original agreement that the Amrta should be shared by both the groups equally, the demons

forcibly snatched away the pot from Dhanavantari’s hands to appropriate the entire quantity for

themselves. Selfishness and greed, however, led to disagreement, discontent and conflict. Taking

this opportunity Visnu took the form of Mohini, the enchantress, lured the vessel of ambrosia

into his hands and cleverly managed to distribute its contents among the gods only. Then the

inevitable happened. Being intoxicated by the new strength gained thus, the gods fell upon the

demons and vanquished them and regained their lost sovereignty.

Various aspects of Lakshmi: Eight forms of Lakshmi, known as Ashtamahalakshmi, are recognized

in iconographical works. Out of these, Gajalakshmi is the most popular. She is usually figured on

the lintels of door frames of temples, palaces and residences. She is seated on an eight petalled

lotus, has four hands and is carrying a lotus, a pot of nectar, a bilva fruit and a conch. Behind her

two elephants are shown pouring water over her from pots held in their trunks. When the same

goddess has two hands, she is called Samanyalakshmi, or Indralakshmi. If she is depicted with

two lotuses in two hands, and the other two hands display the abhaya and varada mudras, she

is designated as Varalakshmi.

The protecting power of Visnu has eight aspects and each of these is pictured as a goddess.

Sridevi is the goddess of wealth and fortune. Bhudevi represents the earth and often with Sridevi

as the junior consort of Visnu, stands for sovereignty over the earth. Saraswati signifies learning.

Priti is love personified. Kirti and Shanti give fame and peace whereas Tusti and Pusti grant

pleasure and strength.

Alakshmi is the opposite number of Lakshmi. She is misfortune personified. She was also

born during the churning of the ocean. Since she appeared earlier than Lakshmi and hence elder,

she is also called Jyestha (the elder one). A sage, Dussaha by name, married her. According to

another version, it was the sage Kapila. Adharma (unrighteousness) is her son. She is pictured as

an old hag riding an ass. She has a broom in her hand. A crow adorns her banner. Her image finds

a place in some temples. When propitiated, she can dispel evil and grant prosperity.


Parvati: Parvati is the power and consort of Siva, the god of disintegration and destruction. An

overwhelming majority of the goddesses of Hinduism are aspects and variations of Parvati. The

names by which she is known or worshipped are too numerous to mention. If some of the names

like Parvati, Hemavati, Girija and Daksayani indicate her origin from the Himalayas or Daksa (one

of the forefathers of mankind), other names like Siva, Rudrani and Sarvani stress her aspect as

the spouse of Siva. Still other like Aparna and Uma have specific references to certain stories in

the puranic literature.

One of the earliest references to this deity is found in the Kenopanishad where she is

mentioned as ‘Uma Hemavati’ enlightening Indra, the king of gods about Brahman, the Absolute

or God. This reference is enough to conclude that the worship of this goddess is very ancient.

According to the puranic accounts, in her ‘first’ incarnation, she was Daksayani, the daughter

of Daksa and Prasuti, and married to Siva. Unable to understand Siva’s greatness, Daksa once

reviled him and started harbouring hatred towards him. When he undertook the performance

of a great sacrifice, the notable exception among the dignitaries invited was Siva himself. Much

against the advice of her spouse, Daksayani went to the sacrifice uninvited and being slighted

ended her life by igniting herself through the fire of yajna.

She was next reborn as Parvan, the daughter of Himavan and Mena. After performing intense

austerities she succeeded in pleasing Siva and making him accept her again as his consort.

During the performance of these severe austerities, she refused to eat even dry leaves to sustain

herself and hence got the appellation Aparna. Her mother Mena unable to see her dear daughter

languishing by austerities tried to dissuade her by the words, ‘Uma’ (my dear, don’t do like this!)

which became her other name (Uma). Being the daughter of the Himalayas (the abode of snow)

she has to be Gauri (the white one). As the mother of the Universe she is Amba and Ambika, both

the words meaning ‘mother’.

Like her consort Siva, she also has two aspects: the mild and the terrible. As Parvati or Uma

she represents the mild aspect. In this aspect she is usually shown with Siva. In this aspect she

has only two hands, the right one holding a blue lotus and the left hanging loosely by the side. The

image is richly decorated. When represented independently she is shown with four hands, two

hands holding red and blue lotuses and the other two exhibiting the varada and abhaya mudras.

It is interesting to note that the vaisnava symbols sankha and chakra are often shown in her

hands also. Though the puranas describe her as the sister of Visnu, it is possible that Visnu is

considered as the active power of Siva and hence these symbols in the hands of the Devi. This

surmise is strengthened by the fact that in the Harihara form of Siva, the left half is Visnu and

in the Ardhanariswara form, Devi forms the left half. Sculptures of Parvati mostly are seen in

the form of her being the consort of Siva and hence in Siva’s company. Independent sculptures

of the goddess as Parvati though less visible can be found among the wall sculptures of Hoysala

temples (Plate 76).


Saptamatrikas: According to the Durgasaptasati, one of the basic texts on the Mother-cult,

when Kausiki Durga was fighting the demon Raktabija-whose blood, if spilled could produce

demons similar to him-she manifested out of herself seven emanations. These are usually called

the Saptamatrikas or the ‘Seven Little Mothers’. They are Brahmi (or Brahmani) Maheswari,

Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Varahi, Narasimhi and Aindri (or Indani). As their very names indicate, they

are the Shaktis of Brahma, Iswara, Kumara (Skanda), Visnu, Varaha, Narasimha and Indra. Hence

they have the same forms, weapons and vehicles as their lords. Since the Devi, according to

the same work, was formed out of the combined energies of all the gods, this aspect of the

Saptamatrikas becomes intelligible.

These deities are generally represented as red in colour and with two hands, holding a skull

and a lotus. However, since they are Shaktis of the above-mentioned gods, they are shown more

often as female replicas of the male deities. Sometimes each deity is assigned a tree as specially

sacred to it. For instance: Udumbara (fig tree) for Kaumari, Asvattha (peepal tree) for Vaisnavi.

They are usually grouped together with Ganesha and Virabhadra flanking on either side and

shown on panels in the Siva temples (Plate 77). Occasionally they have a separate shrine built for

them. The order or arrangement varies according to the effect desired. If the safety of the village

is desired Brahmi is installed in the centre. If increase in the population is the goal, Chamunda

occupies the central place.

Dasamahavidyas: Ten aspects of Shakti are sometimes described in tantric works. They are

termed Dasamahavidyas. These are the representations of transcendent knowledge and

power, the sources of all that is to be known. The first is Kali, the goddess of time that destroys

everything. Tara, the second, is the power of the golden embryo (Hiranyayagarbha) from which

the Universe evolves. She also stands for void or the boundless space. The third is Sodasi. The

word literally means ‘one who is sixteen years old’. She is the personification of fullness and

of perfection. Bhuvaneswari, the fourth Vidya, represents the forces of the material world,

whereas Bhairavi, the fifth stands for desires and temptations leading to destruction and

death. Next follows Chinnamasta, the naked deity holding her own severed head in hand and

drinking her own blood. She simply represents the continued state of self-sustenance of the

created world in which is seen the continuous self destruction and self-renewal in a cyclic

order. Dhumavati, the seventh mahavidya, personifies the destruction of the world by fire

when only smoke (dhuma) from its ashes remains. She is sometimes identified with Alaksmi or

Jyesthadevi. The eighth Vidya, Bagala, is a crane-headed goddess and represents the ugly side

of living creatures like jealously, hatred and cruelty. Matangi, the ninth, is the embodiment of

the power of domination. The tenth and the last, Kamala, is the pure consciousness of the self

bestowing boons and allaying the fears of the supplicants. She is identified with Lakshmi, the

goddess of fortune.


Durga: Durga is perhaps, the most widely worshipped aspect of Shakti. An entire purana,

the Devibhagavatam, has been dedicated to her. Another work, more well known than

the Devibhagavatam but containing practically the same material in a concise form is the

Devimahatmyam. It is also known as the Durgasaptasati or Chandi and occupies a large part of

another well known purana, the Markandeyapurana. This work is so highly venerated that every

verse of it is considered to be a Mantra (sacred formula) of the Devi and its repetition is believed

to confer whatever boons the votary prays for. Literally ‘Durga’ means one who is difficult to

approach or difficult to know. Being the personification of the totality of the powers of the gods,

she is naturally difficult to approach or to know. However, being the Mother of the Universe, she

is the personification of tender love when supplicated.

Out of the several aspects of the Shakti put forward by this work, Yoganidra (meditation-

sleep) comes first. She is the power of sleep, taking recourse to which Visnu rests between two

cycles of creation. She is praised as responsible for the creation, sustenance and withdrawal of

the Universe. She is the mysterious power, the very personification of knowledge, wisdom and

memory. She is pleasant and beautiful. At the same time she is terrible also. This combination of

the opposite qualities is possible only for her. She is described as wielding several weapons like the

bow, arrow, sword, discus and trident. The next is Mahishasuramardini, the deity who took shape

as a result of the pooling together of the powers of all the gods who had been oppressed by the

demon Mahishasura (Plate 78). Visnu, Siva and Brahma were incensed by hearing the accounts of

the misdeeds of Mahishasura and the Devi was born out of their wrath, followed by the wrath of

the lesser divinities. The powers of these gods formed her limbs and the exact duplicates of their

weapons formed her arsenal. Armed with these formidable weapons and riding on a fierce lion,

she challenged Mahishasura and destroyed him along with his army. She is the personification of

all wealth, power, beauty, as also virtues. She is the embodiment of yajna (sacrifice), paravidya

(the highest knowledge concerning the spirit) as well as aparavidya (knowledge of the secular

sciences).

The gods could not enjoy their freedom for long. Very soon, they were overpowered by the

demons Sumbha and Nisumbha. So they had to run to the Himalayas and supplicate the Devi

again. In response to their prayer, she manifested herself as Kausiki Durga, emanating from

the body of Parvati who herself became Kali the dark one after this manifestation. The world-

bewitching beauty of Durga attracted the attention of Sumbha and Nisumbha who sent proposals

of marriage through a serf. Unfortunately for them, in a moment of ‘weakness and foolishness’

she had vowed to marry only him who would vanquish her in battle. All attempts at forcibly

dragging her away ended in disaster for the demons. Heads rolled though the intervention of

giants like Dhumralocana, Chanda, Munda and Rajktabija too was sought.

Chandika is another terrific aspect of Durga akin to Mahishasuramardini. Vishnudharamottara

Purana describes her handsome, youthful of golden colour (and yet of angry looks) with thin


waist, broad eyes and lovely neck. She is one-faced and twenty armed carrying characteristic

weapons. Curiously enough, she is described as fighting Mahishasura but in a more aggressive

form than Mahishasuramardini herself. Quite contrary to this fierce yet handsome representation

of the goddess, the Rupamandana describes her as the skeleton goddess of which Krsoadri is

the typical form – devoid of any flesh, with stomach emaciated, clad in tiger skin, adorned with

ornaments of serpents or bones. She has sixteen arms and represents her killing Chanda and

Munda. Krsoadri is said to be the goddess of famine and pestilence.

Kali, the fierce black goddess who emerged from the Devi’s forehead, beheaded Chanda and

Munda and thus won the name Chamunda for herself. Only the battle with Raktabija was long

drawn needing some special efforts by the Devi since he had the mysterious power to multiply

himself through the drops of blood spilled in the battle. Even the Saptamatrikas who came out

of her body to battle, seemed helpless. It was Kali who managed to spread her extensive tongue

and drink away all the blood gushing out of Raktabija, thus preventing the emergence of more

demons and enabling Durga to exterminate him. The rest was easy. Nisumbha was easily put to

death after a mockery of fight. Sumbha being exasperated by now and accused her of taking the

help of ‘others’. Laughing derisively, the Devi withdrew all her emanations and manifestations

into herself, showing that she was always the one without a second.

All arts and sciences as also womankind are her manifestations. The Saptamatrikas are really

her aspects. Kali, the terrible, with a garland of human skulls round her neck, is also another of

her aspects. The work also describes her other manifestations like Vindhyavasini (one who lives

in the Vindhyas), Raktadanta (of red teeth), Shataksi (of hundred eyes), Sakambhari (sustainer of

vegetables), Durga (slayer of demon Durgama) Bhima (the terrible) and Bhramari or Bhramaramba

(having the form of bees). The Devi as depicted in this work also has three major manifestations:

Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati. These aspects should not be confused with the

puranic deities, Parvati, Lakshmi and Saraswati. They are actually the three major manifestations

of the One Supreme Power Maheswari, according to the three gunas (tamas, rajas and sattva).

The first, Mahakali has ten faces and ten feet. She is bedecked with ornaments and wields

in her ten hands, the weapons and objects as: sword, discus, mace, arrow, bow, iron club, lance,

sling, human head and conch. Being the personification of the tamasic aspect of the Devi, she is

also the yoganidra, who has put Lord Visnu to sleep. It is to her that Brahma prayed, requesting

her to leave Visnu so that the latter could destroy the demons Madhu and Kaitabha.

Mahalakshmi, the second is the rajasic aspect of the Devi. She is described as red in colour like

the coral. She holds in her eighteen hands the rosary, battle-pot, cudgel, lance, sword, shield,

conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and the discus (Sudarsana chakra). Being born out of the

combined wraths and powers of all the gods, she is the personification not only of the powers but

also of the will to fight the evil forces. It is she who destroyed Mahishasura (Plate 79).


Mahasaraswati is the third deity representing the sattvic aspect of the Devi. She is bright like

the autumn moon and has eight hands in which she holds the bell, trident, ploughshare, conch,

pestle, discus, bow and arrow. It is she who manifests out of the physical sheath of Parvati and

hence known as Kausiki Durga. She is the very personification of physical perfection and beauty.

She is the power of work, order and organization (Plate 80).

Images of Durga can have four or eight or ten or eighteen or even twenty hands. The eyes

are usually three. The hair is dressed up as a crown (called karandamukuta). She is gorgeously

dressed with red cloth and several ornaments. Among the objects held in hand, the more common

ones are-conch, discus, trident, bow, arrow, sword, dagger, shield, rosary, wine-cup and bell. She

may be shown as standing on a lotus or on a buffalo’s head or as riding a lion.

Kali: The word ‘Kali’ comes from the word Kala, time. She is the power of time. Here is

a description of the Kali’s imagery as normally found in the scriptures, pictures and icons.

The background is a cremation ground or a burial ground or a war-field showing dead bodies

including the mutilated ones. She herself is standing in a challenging posture, on a ‘dead’ body

(preta), which is her own spouse Siva himself. She is completely naked, except for an apron of

human hands. She is wearing a garland of fifty human heads or skulls (Plate. Her luxuriant hair

is completely dishevelled. She has three eyes and four hands. In her upper hands she is holding a

freshly severed and bleeding human head as also the sword (or chopper) used in the carnage. The

two lower hands are in the abhaya and varada mudras. Her face is red and the tongue protruding.

But why is Siva Mahadeva being ’trampled’ under her feet? According to one of the mythological

accounts, Kali once destroyed all the demons in a battle and then started a terrific dance out of

the sheer joy of victory. All the worlds began to tremble and give way under its impact. At the

request of all the gods Siva himself asked her to desist from it. She was too intoxicated to listen.

Hence Siva lay like a corpse among the corpses on which she was dancing in order to absorb the

shock in his self. When she stepped upon him she suddenly realised her mistake and put out her

tongue in shame.

Lalita: Another aspect of the Devi which is more widely worshipped in south India is Lalita

Tripurasundari. Repetition of the Lalitasahasranama as also the worship of her emblem, the

‘Srichakra’ is the popular ways to propitiate her. If Durga and Kali represent the aspects of power

of the Goddess, Lalita represents the aspect of beauty. Hence her form is depicted as extremely

beautiful and her worship more refined. According to the Lalitopakhyana of the Brahmanda

Purana, Lalita Devi manifested herself in the midst of a disc of extreme brilliance that arose from

the sacrificial pit when Indra was performing a sacrifice in honour of her. At the behest of the

gods assembled there she chose to wed Kameswara (one form of Siva). She destroyed the demon

Bhandasura and annihilated his city Sonitapura. Vishwakarma, the engineer of the gods built

a gorgeous city Sripura on the mountain Meru for her sake where along with her spouse Siva

Kameswara is she residing eternally. The Srichakra actually represents the Devi in this Sripura.


Lalita is usually depicted as slightly red in colour (as that of the dawn) and extraordinarily

beautiful. In her four hands she is holding a bow of sugarcane, arrows, the goad (ankusha) and

the noose (pasha). Sometimes she is shown holding a wine cup made of diamond. One of her feet,

usually the left is shown resting on a pedestal, also of diamond. An account of Lalita cannot be

complete without a description of the Srichakra. The Srichakra is essentially a yantra. Practically

every deity of the Hindu pantheon has three modes of expression or manifestation: (a) the Murti,

the three dimensional form which can be sculptured; (b) the Yantra, a two-dimensional or geometric

pattern which can be drawn; and (c) the Mantra, the sound form or the thought form, which can

be uttered in contemplation. The murti is usually the object representation of the deity on which

the worshipper meditates (to call up the form of the deity into the mind) and is carved out of a

material as per the canons of Hindu iconography. All sculptural representations of images of deities

are murtis. The yantra and mantra are described in tantric works. The yantra is the geometrical

abode of the deity, when drawn properly (using the dot, the straight line, the triangle, the circle, the

segment and so on) and installed, gets charged as it were, binding the contemplated deity to itself.

Dattatreya

Dattatreya or Datta is a Hindu deity considered to be an avatar (incarnation) of the three Hindu

gods Brahma, Visnu, and Siva, collectively known as Trimurti. The name Dattatreya is composed of

two words - “Datta” (meaning given) and “Atreya” referring to the sage Atri, his physical father. But

Dattatreya is not really a name because Datta never had Naama Samskara (a name-giving ceremony).

He was known as the “One who gave Himself” to Atri and over eons that became his name.

Various Hindu sects worship him differently, though Dattatreya is considered a form of all

the three deities. He is especially considered an avatar of Visnu while his siblings the moon-god

Chandra and the sage Durvasa are regarded forms of Brahma and Siva respectively. However, In

the Natha tradition, Dattatreya is recognized as an avatar or incarnation of Siva and as the Adi-

Guru (First Teacher) of the Adinath Sampradaya of the Nathas. Dattatreya was at first a “Lord

of Yoga” exhibiting distinctly Tantric traits, he is approached more as a benevolent god than as

a teacher of the highest essence of the Hindu thought. However, spiritual seekers pray to this

Supreme Teacher for knowledge of the Absolute Truth. Hindu theology, credits Dattatreya as the

author of the Tripura Rahasya given to Parasurama, a treatise on Advaita Vedanta.

Dattatreya is sculptured as a human being with three heads (tri-mukha) and six arms

bearing emblems of Braham, Visnu and Siva. He is attended by dogs traditionally four in number

representing the four Vedas in his hand and accompanied by a cow. Dattatreya was; however

portrayed as ek-mukha (one faced) god too prior to 16th century CE at various temples.

Dattatreya as Hari-Hara-Pitamaha is found at Halebid on the wall of Hoysaleswara temple.

Dattatreya came to be identified with a syncretistic icon at a subsequent stage. In Badami, a

stone sculpture depicts Dattatreya in this manner. He is sculptured as Visnu in the Yoga posture


(yoga-mudra) and his triple nature is indicated by the characteristic emblems, the swan, the

Garuda and the bull of the three gods Brahma, Visnu and Siva being carved on the pedestal

which is a padmasana. The figure of Visnu may be seen to have jata-mukuta on the head, a few

of the jattas or ropes of matted hair hanging down from it. The chakra and sankha are in two

of the hands, while the other two hands rest upon the crossed legs in the yoga-mudra pose. In

the right ear Dattatreya wears a sarpa-kundala (serpent shaped earring) characteristic of Siva

and in the left ear the makara-kundala (crocodile shaped earring) characteristic of Visnu. It is a

remarkably well finished piece of sculpture. There are several temples of Dattatreya in northern

Karnataka. Dattatreya temple at Chattarki is a famous temple of the Kalyani Chalukya times. At

the Dattatreya temple at Gokak Falls, Dattatreya has three faces and six arms in sitting posture

(Plate 82). The temple at Gokak too dates back to Kalyani Chalukya times.

Ganapati or Ganesha

Ganapati or Ganesha also known as Vinayaka is perhaps, the most popular of the Hindu deities

worshipped by all sections of the Hindus. No undertaking whether sacred or secular can get started

without first honouring and worshipping him. This is understandable and highly desirable since

he is said to be the lord of obstacles (Vighneswara or Vighnaraja). Notwithstanding the fact that

the Ganapati referred to in the famous Rigvedic mantras, ‘gananam ganapatim havamahe...’and

‘visu sida ganapate...’ and the Ganapati we worship today are strangers to each other but all

unbiased scholars agree that the seeds of the Ganapati concept are already there in the Rigveda

itself. In the subsequent centuries, this concept has passed through the mills of the epics and the

puranas to produce the Ganapati as we know him today.

The Rigvedic deity ‘Ganapati-Brahmanaspati’ also called as Brihaspati and Vachaspati,

manifests himself through a vast mass of light. He is golden-red in colour. The battle axe is an

important weapon of his. Without his grace no religious rite can succeed. He is always in the

company of a group of singers and dancers. Another class of Rigvedic deities known as the

Maruts or Marutgana, described as the children of Rudra, also have similar characteristics. In

addition, they can be malevolent towards those who antagonise them and can cause destruction

like the wild elephants. They can put obstacles in the path of men if displeased and remove them

when pleased. They are independent not subject to anyone’s sovereignty (Vinayaka). Ganapati

thus enjoys a Rigvedic origin.

It will be extremely interesting to bring together in brief, all the stories about the origin of this

wondrous deity:

1. At the request of the gods who wanted a deity capable of removing all obstacles from their

path of action and fulfilment, Siva himself was born of the womb of Parvati as Gajanana.

2. Once Parvati prepared an image of a child with an elephant’s head, out of the unguents

smeared over her body and threw it into the river Ganga. It came to life. Both Ganga, the


guardian deity of the river and Parvati addressed the boy as their child. Hence he is known

as Dvaimatra - one who has two mothers.

3. Parvati prepared the image of a child out of the scurf from her body, endowed him with

life and ordered him to stand guard before her house. When Siva wanted to enter the

house he was rudely prevented by this new gatekeeper. Siva became ‘Rudra’ and got him

beheaded. Seeing that Parvati was inconsolable owing to this tragedy that befell her son

and not finding the head of the body anywhere, Siva got an elephant’s head and grafted

it on to the body of the boy and gave him life. To make amends for his mistake, Siva

appointed this new-found son as the head of all his retinues, who thus became ‘Ganapati’.

4. He sprang from Siva’s countenance which represents the principle of ether (Akasatattva).

His captivating splendour made Parvati react angrily and curse him, resulting in his

uncouth form.

5. Ganesha was originally Krishna himself in the human form. When Sani, the malevolent

planet spirit gazed at him, his head got separated and flew to Goloka, the world of Krishna.

The head of an elephant was subsequently grafted on the body of the child.

Equally interesting are the other myths about his adventures. He lost one of his tusks in a fight

with Parasurama which he successfully used as a stylus to write the epic Mahabharata dictated

by the sage Vyasa. He tactfully won the race against his brother Skanda by circumambulating his

parents and declaring that it was equivalent to going round the worlds. He thus won the hands of

two damsels Riddhi and Siddhi. He cursed the moon to wax and wane since the latter derisively

laughed at him when he was trying to refill his burst belly with the sweets that had spilled out. He

vanquished the demon Vighnasura and successfully brought him under his subjugation.

The most commonly accepted form of Ganapati depicts him as red in colour and in a human

body with an elephant’s head. Out of the two tusks one is broken. He has four arms. Two of

the arms hold the pasha (noose) and ankusha (goad). The other two are held in the abhaya

and varada mudras. The belly is of generous proportions and is decorated with a snake-belt.

There is also a yajnopavita (sacred thread), either of thread or of serpent. He may be seated in

padmasana (lotus-posture). When the belly does not permit this, the right leg may be shown

bent and resting on the seat. Apart from beautiful robes and ornaments, he wears a lovely carved

crown. The trunk may be turned to the left or to the right. He is normally seen helping himself to

liberal quantities of modaka (a kind of sweet). A mouse, of ridiculously small proportions, is seen

near him, nibbling at his share of the sweets, hoping perhaps, to gain enough strength to carry

his master (Plate 83).

A third eye may sometimes be added on the forehead in the centre of the eyebrows. The

number of heads may be raised to five. The arms may vary from two to ten. Lotus, pomegranate,

water-vessel, battle-axe, lute, broken tusk, sugarcane, ears of paddy, bow and arrow, thunderbolt,


rosary, book are some of the other objects shown in the hands. His Shakti is often shown with

him as sitting on his lap. Sometimes two Shaktis, Riddhi and Siddhi, are also shown.

Icons of Ganapati: There are several varieties of Ganapati icons that can be seen in temples and

archaeological museums. It is generally believed that Ganapati has 32 forms. Names of the thirty

two forms are: Bala Ganapati, Taruna Ganapati, Bhakti Ganapati, Vira Ganapati, Shakti Ganapati,

Dvija Ganapati, Siddhi Ganapati, Ucchista Ganapati, Vighna Ganapati, Kshipra Ganapati, Heramba

Ganapati, Lakshmi Ganapati, Maha Ganapati, Vijaya Ganapati, Nrritta Ganapati, Urdhva Ganapati,

Ekakshara Ganapati, Vara Ganapati, Tryakshara Ganapati, Kshirpra Prasada Ganapati, Haridara

Ganapati, Ekdanta Ganapati, Srishti Ganapati, Uddanda Ganapati, Rinmochana Ganapati,

Dhundhi Ganapati, Dvimukha Ganapati, Trimukha Ganapati, Simha Ganapati, Yoga Ganapati,

Durga Ganapati, and Sankatahara Ganapati.

The thirty two forms of Ganapati are mentioned in Mudgala Purana. All the thirty two forms

of Ganapati can be seen at the Srikanteswara Temple at Nanjangud near Mysuru. Detailed

description of these 32 forms is included in Shivanidhi portion of a 19th century Kannada text,

Sritattvanidhi. Only a few of the thirty two forms are dealt with in this work.

‘Bala Ganapati’ and ‘Taruna Ganapati’ images depict him as a child and a young man

respectively. Vinayaka is shown with four arms holding the broken tusk, goad, noose and rosary.

He holds the sweet modaka in his trunk. He may be standing or seated. Heramba Ganapati has

five heads, ten hands, three eyes in each face and rides on a lion. Vighna Ganapati exhibits the

martial spirit with several weapons held in his ten hands. Shakti Ganapati several varieties of

which are described in the Tantras, is shown with his Shakti variously called as Lakshmi, Riddhi,

Siddhi, Pusti and so on.

Skanda

Skanda (also known as Subramanya, Murugan, Kartikeya and Kumaraswamy) being Devasenapati

(war general of gods) received the attention of many dynasties and a few temples were dedicated

to him in Karnataka. Skanda seated on a peacock as Mayuravahana appears on the ceiling of

the porch in the Hucchimalli-gudi temple of the Chalukyas of Badami in Aihole as the earliest

image in Karnataka. Generally a bird carrying a snake in its beak accompanies Skanda. Images of

Skanda abound in the outer walls sculpture of many Hoysala temples (Plate 84).

Historically speaking, Subramanya or Kumara or Skanda (as he is variously called) is a much

older deity, being mentioned in stone inscriptions and shown on coins dating as far back as

1st century CE and was well known in North India. The sixth day of a lunar month (sasthi) is

considered sacred to him. He is said to have been married to a forest maid Valli-amma. The

peacock is his carrier mount. His temples are usually found on hilltops. All these factors may

indicate that he was a sylvan deity connected with serpent worship and tree worship.


He is said to have been born of Siva from Parvati to destroy the demon Tarakasura. He is

stated to have been born in a forest of arrow-like grass (hence the name Saravanabhava) and

reared by the six divine mothers of the constellation, Krittika (Pleiades). Hence he also got the

names ‘Karttikeya’ and ‘Sanmatra’. It seems he assumed six faces to suckle the milk of the six

mothers and so got the appellation ‘Sanmukha or Sadanana’. He was appointed the commander-

in-chief of the gods and thus became ‘Devasenapati’. Being very young and virile he is ‘Kumara’

or ‘Sanatkumara’. A forceful attacker in war, he is known as Skanda. Skanda also means one who

has accumulated the power of chastity.

In icons, he is shown as a boy either with one head and two arms or with six heads and

twelve arms. His lance and his peacock are also prominently displayed. A fowl adorns his banner.

Subramanya has two consorts, Valli and Devasena. The former is the daughter of a humble

chieftain of a race given to agriculture and woodcraft. The latter is the daughter of Indra, the

king of gods. The peacock is his mount. It is shown as belabouring a snake with one of its legs.

As Skanda, he is the very personification of the powers of chastity and hence is shown as riding

on the peacock.

Skanda symbols are based on the weapons-Vel, the Divine Spear or Lance that he carries

and his mount the peacock. He is sometimes depicted with many weapons including: a sword, a

javelin, a mace, a discus and a bow although more usually he is depicted wielding a sakti or spear.

This symbolizes his purification of human ills. His javelin is used to symbolize his far reaching

protection, his discus symbolizes his knowledge of the truth, his mace represents his strength

and his bow shows his ability to defeat all ills. His peacock mount symbolizes his destruction of

the ego. His six heads represent the six siddhis bestowed upon yogis over the course of their

spiritual development. This corresponds to his role as the bestower of siddhis.

Surya

Surya is the principal god of the Saura sect. Illustrated with seven horses, two devis generally

in diminutive form stand close to his legs. Iconography of Surya had occupied a very important

position in India. Surya has been worshipped in India from the early times. The Vedas refer to

Surya and his various aspects namely Savitri, Pusan, Bhaga, Vivasvat, Mitra, Aryaman and Visnu.

Most of these deities along with a few others formed the class of gods called Adityas. The various

aspects of Surya have been numbered as twelve. The worship of twelve Adityas along with the

Navagrahas came to occupy an important place in the religious life of the people.

Surya is portrayed riding a seven horse chariot driven by Aruna. Aruna (a charioteer devoid

of legs) is said to be the son of Kasyapa and Vinata and brother of Garuda. Surya is portrayed

with two lotuses held in both his hand, and is occasionally shown with the hood of the mythical

serpent Adi Sesha spread over his head. At the base of his image are shown his gatekeepers

Pingala (Agni) and Danda (Skanda).


Usha is the foremost of Surya’s consorts and is referred to in the Rig Veda. Usha is the queen

of the night, and is described as dressed in gold clothing adorned with numerous stars. The

second of his consorts is Padmini or the lotus. (The lotus blooms when the sun rises in the east).

The third of Surya’s consorts is Chaya.

Naga and Nagini

The Nagas were considerable population in ancient India who adorned and had for their totem

the Naga (cobra). Even now Naga worship and ritual offering at anthills which inhabit snakes is

practiced in various parts of Karnataka. For Siva and Ganapati, the Naga is an ornament while

for Visnu his seat and couch. The earliest Naga image in any temple in Karnataka belongs to

the times of the Chutus, sometime in the 2nd century CE. The Nagapratima of this time with an

inscription is now kept in the Madhukeswara temple at Banavasi.

Finding numerous Naga and Naginis separately or entwined together in images near Siva

temples is a common sight. Entwined cobras are symbolic of fertility.

Navagrahas

For thousands of years people all over the world have believed in the influence of the planets on

human life and history. Logically speaking, the creation of the planets precedes that of the living

beings. Hence, it is presumed that some sort of cause and effect relation must subsist between

these two and this seems to be the basis for this belief.

The Navagrahas or the nine planets are regarded by the Hindus as of the greatest astrological

significance and are believed to influence the life of the individual as also the course of history.

As per the traditional list, the nine planets are Ravi or Surya (sun), Soma or Chandra (moon),

Mangala, Kuja or Angaraka (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Brihaspati or Guru (Jupiter), Sukra (Venus),

Sani (Saturn), Rahu and Ketu. The seven days of the week have derived their names from the

first seven planets. Rahu and Ketu are not planets but ascending and descending nodes of the

moon. Sometimes Ketu is depicted as the personification of comets and meteors. Sani, Rahu and

Ketu are considered inauspicious, even positively maleficent. Hence they need to be propitiated.

The nine planets are invariably found in every saiva temple in south India. In many north Indian

temples they are depicted on the lintels of doors to protect the temple and all those who enter

it. They may also be housed in a separate mandapa (a small pavilion) or at least a platform

where the images of these nine grahas are installed in such a way that no two of them will face

each other. It is sometimes stated that the images of the planets are set up in the temples in the

order in which they are in zodiacal circle at the time of construction of the temple. The image

of Surya must always be placed in the centre of the planets facing east, with the other grahas

fixed round him, each in a specified direction. All the grahas have their own iconography and

attributes (Plate 85).


Surya has two hands and holds a lotus in each. His chariot has one wheel and is drawn by

seven horses and has Aruna (deity of the dawn) as the charioteer. Soma or Chandra has only one

face and two hands but no body. He is shown holding white lotuses (or lilies) in his two hands. He

rides on a two or three wheeled chariot drawn by ten horses. Mangala or Kuja has four hands,

carrying the weapons mace and javelin in two and showing the varada and abhaya mudras with

the other two. He rides on a ram. Budha also has four hands with three of them wielding the

weapons sword, shield and mace. The last hand shows the varada mudra. He rides on a lion or a

chariot drawn by four horses.

Brihaspati being the Guru is shown holding a book and a rosary in his two hands. His chariot

is golden and is driven by eight horses. Sukra is also seated in a golden chariot drawn by eight

horses or in a silver one drawn by ten horses. He has two hands holding a nidhi (treasure) and a

book. Sometimes he is shown with four hands holding staff, rosary and water-pot and the fourth

exhibiting the varada mudra. Sani rides in an iron chariot drawn by eight horses. He is more

often shown riding on a vulture. A buffalo may be his mount. He holds the arrow, bow and javelin

in three of his hands with the last hand being in the varada mudra. Rahu is usually described

as having only a face and Ketu is depicted like a serpent’s tail. Iconographical works, however,

describe them differently.

All the grahas have crowns and ear-rings. The eight grahas round the Sun always face him.

The planets are sometimes described as having connection with the incarnation of Lord Visnu.

Subsidiary Gods and Celestial Figures in Hindu Temples

Kubera

Kubera is the god of wealth and the god-king of the semi-divine Yakshas in Hindu mythology.

He is regarded as the regent of the North (dikpala), and a protector of the world (lokapala). His

many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the

treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and

carrying a money-pot and a club.

Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic-era texts, Kubera acquired the status

of a Deva (god) only in the puranas and the Hindu epics. The scriptures describe that Kubera

once ruled Lanka, but was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, later settling in the city

of Alaka in the Himalayas. Descriptions of the glory and splendours of Kubera’s city are found in

many scriptures.

Kubera is often depicted as a dwarf, with fair complexion and a big belly. He is described

as having three legs, only eight teeth, one eye, and being adorned with jewels. He is sometimes

depicted riding a man. The description of deformities like the broken teeth, three legs, three

heads and four arms appear only in the later puranic texts. Kubera holds a mace, a pomegranate

or a money bag in his hand. He may also carry a sheaf of jewels or a mongoose with him. In


Tibet, the mongoose is considered a symbol of Kubera’s victory over Nagas—the guardians of

treasures. Kubera is usually depicted with a mongoose in Buddhist iconography.

In the Atharvaveda, where he first appears and the Shatapatha Brahmana, Kubera is the chief

of evil spirits or spirits of darkness, and son of Vaishravana. The Shatapatha Brahmana calls

him the Lord of thieves and criminals. In the Manusmriti, he becomes a respectable Lokapala

(world protector) and the patron of merchants. In the epic Mahabharata, Kubera is described as

the son of Prajapati Pulastya and his wife Idavida and the brother of sage Vishrava. Kubera is

described as born from a cow. However, from the puranas, he is described as the grandson of

Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his wife Ilavida (or Ilivila or Devavarnini), daughter of the

sage Bharadvaja or Trinabindu.

In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Kubera is described as the embodiment of both Artha

(wealth, prosperity, glory) and Arthasastras, the treatises related to it and his iconography

mirrors it. Kubera’s complexion is described as that of lotus leaves. He rides a man, the state

personified, adorned in golden clothes and ornaments, symbolizing his wealth. His left eye is

yellow. He wears armour and a necklace down to his large belly. The Vishnudharmottara Purana

further describes his face to be inclined to the left, sporting a beard and moustache and with

two small tusks protruding from the ends of his mouth, representing his powers to punish

and to bestow favours. His wife Riddhi, representing the journey of life, is seated on his left

lap, with her left hand on the back of Kubera and the right holding a ratna-patra (jewel-pot).

Kubera should be four-armed, holding a gada (mace: symbol of dandaniti—administration of

justice) and a shakti (power) in his left pair, and standards bearing a lion representing artha

and a shibika (a club, the weapon of Kubera). The nidhi treasures Padma and Shankha stand

beside him in human form, with their heads emerging from a lotus and a conch respectively. A

sculpture of Kubera is noticed at the bottom of the picture in Plate 68 where he has his wife

Riddhi seated on his left lap.

The Agni Purana states that Kubera should be installed in temples as seated on a goat, and

with a club in his hand. Kubera’s image is prescribed to be that of gold, with multi-coloured

attributes.

Yaksha and Yakshini

Yaksha is the name of a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of

the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist

texts. The feminine form of the word is yaksi or yakshini.

In Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist texts, the yaksha has a dual personality. On the one hand, a

yaksha may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is

also a darker version of the yaksha, which is a kind of ghost (bhuta) that haunts the wilderness

and waylays and devours travellers, similar to the rakshasas. The yakshas may have originally


been the tutelary gods of forests and villages, and were later viewed as the steward deities of the

earth and the wealth buried beneath.

In Indian art, male yakshas are portrayed either as fearsome warriors or as portly, stout and

dwarf-like. Yakshinis are often depicted as beautiful and voluptuous, with wide hips, narrow

waists, broad shoulders, and exaggerated, spherical breasts. In Uddamareshvara Tantra, thirty-

six Yakshinis are described, including their mantras and ritual prescriptions. A similar list of

Yakshas and Yakshinis is given in the Tantraraja Tantra, where it says that these beings are givers

of whatever is desired. Although Yakshinis are usually benevolent, there are also yakshinis with

malevolent characteristics in Indian folklore.

Kinnaras

In the Sanskrit language, the name Kinnara contains a question mark i.e. is this man? In Hindu

mythology, Kinnara is described as half man, half-horse, and half-bird. The Vishnudharmottara

Purana describes Kinnara as half-man and half-horse, but the correct nature of Kinnara as

Buddhists understood is half-man and half-bird.

The Kinnaras can sing, play the flute and dance with soft movements of the body. Kalidasa in

his Kumara Sambhava describes them as dwelling in the Himalayas. Kinnaras lived also over the

hills of Pandaraka, Trikutaka, Mallangiri, Candapabbata, and Gandhamandana. They were looked

upon as queer animals and were hunted, captured and presented to the kings as entertainment.

Flowers formed their dress. Their food was flower pollen and their cosmetics were of flower

perfumes.

The depiction of Kinnara in early Indian art is an oft-repeated theme. The ancient sculptures

of Sanchi, Barhut, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Mathura, and the paintings of Ajanta depict

Kinnaras invariably. Frequently, they are seen in the sculptures flanking the stupas. The import

of Kinnaras into Hindu sculpture was due to the influence of Buddhist iconography. They are

often said to be the minstrels of Kubera’s palace in Alaka at mount Kailasa, also the abode of Siva,

hence the depiction of Kinnaras among the celestials in Siva temples.

The epic Mahabharata, mentions Kinnaras, not as horse-headed beings but as beings

who were half-man and half-horse (similar to the Centaur from Greek Mythology). The epic

Mahabharata and the puranas describe regions north of the Himalayas as the abode of Kinnaras.

This region was also the abode of a tribe of people called Kambojas. They were fierce warriors

skilled in horse riding and horse warfare. Some of them were robber-tribes who invaded village-

settlements, by raiding them using their skilled cavalry-forces. The myth of Kinnaras probably

came from these horsemen. Another reference in the epic considers them as a sub-group of the

Gandharvas. Kinnaras were mentioned along with other exotic tribes like the Nagas, Uragas,

Pannagas, Suparnas, Vidyadharas, Siddhas, Charanas, Valikhilyas, Pisachas, Gandharvas,

Apsaras, Kimpurushas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Vanaras etc. at various places.


Yama

Yama or Yamaraja, also called Imra, is the god of death, the south direction and the underworld

belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities. In Sanskrit, his name can be interpreted

to mean “twin”. According to the Visnu Purana, his parents are the sun-god Surya and Sanjna,

the daughter of Vishvakarman. Yama is the brother of Sraddhadeva Manu and of his older sister

Yami, which many scholars believe that it indicates to mean the Yamuna. According to Harivamsa

Purana her name is Daya. In the Vedas, Yama is said to have been the first mortal who died. By

virtue of precedence, he became the ruler of the departed and is called “Lord of the Pitrs”.

In Hinduism, Yama is one of the dikapalas (guardian of the directions) and guards the south

and is the son of Brahma. Three hymns in the 10th book of the Rig Veda are addressed to him. He

has two dogs with four eyes and wide nostrils guarding the road to his abode (hellhound). They

are said to wander about among people as his messengers. He wields a leash with which he seizes

the lives of people who are about to die. He is also depicted as riding a buffalo.

Kamadeva or Kama

Kamadeva is the Hindu god of human love or desire. Kamadeva is the son of the Hindu goddess

Sri. Pradyumna, Krishna’s son, is considered to be an incarnation of Kamadeva.

The name Kamadeva can be translated as ‘god of love’. Deva means heavenly or divine. Kama

means “desire” or “longing”, especially as in sensual or sexual love. The name is used in Rig Veda.

Kamadeva is a name of Visnu in Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana and of Krishna as well as

of Siva. The other name used to refer Kamadeva is Abhipura, which is also the other name of

both Siva and Visnu. Other names for him include Manmatha/Manmathudu, Atanu (one without

a body), Ragavrinta (stalk of passion), Ananga (incorporeal), Kandarpa (inflamer even of a god),

Manasija (he who is born of mind), Madana (intoxicating), Ratikanta (lord of Rati), Pushpavan,

Pushpadhanva, Kusumashara (one with arrow of flowers) or just Kama (longing).

Kamadeva is represented as a young, handsome winged man with green skin who wields a

bow and arrows. His bow is made of sugarcane with a string of honeybees, and his arrows are

decorated with five kinds of fragrant flowers. The five flowers are Ashoka tree flowers, white

and blue lotus flowers, Mallika plant (Jasmine) and Mango tree flowers. A fine sculpture of Rati

and Manmatha is an exquisite representation of Kamadeva in many Hoysala temples (Plate 86).

Pretas

Preta is the Sanskrit name for a type of supernatural being described in some Indian religions as

undergoing suffering greater than that of humans, particularly an extreme level of hunger and

thirst. Preta is often translated into English as “hungry ghost” from the Chinese adaptation.

Pretas are believed to have been false, corrupted, compulsive, deceitful, jealous or greedy

people in a previous life. As a result of their karma, they are afflicted with an insatiable hunger


for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating,

such as cadavers, though in more recent stories, it can be anything, however bizarre.

In Hinduism Pretas are very real beings. They are a form, a body consisting only of air and

Akasha (Sky or Dark matter or space), two of the five elements which constitutes a body on earth

or any other planet viz. Air, Water, Dark Matter (Space), Fire and Earth. There are other forms as

per the ‘karma’ or ‘actions’ of previous lives where a soul takes birth in bodies resembling human

forms or forms of the main intelligent entity in a planet, but with a unique difference that is

absence of one to three elements. In Hinduism, Atma or Soul is bound to take rebirth after death

in a body composed of five or more elements. Chamunda and Kali are very often shown standing

over a preta.

Gandharvas

Gandharva is a name used for distinct heavenly beings in Hinduism and Buddhism; it is also a

term for skilled singers in Indian classical music.

In Hinduism, the Gandharvas are male nature spirits, husbands of the Apsaras. Some are

part animal, usually a bird or horse. They have superb musical skills. They guarded the Soma

and made beautiful music for the gods in their palaces. Gandharvas are frequently depicted as

singers in the court of gods. Gandharvas act as messengers between the gods and humans (Plate

87). In Hindu law, a gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual consent and without formal

rituals.

Gandharvas are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata as being exclusively associated with

the devas (as dancers and singers) and with the yakshas, as formidable warriors. They are

mentioned as being spread across various territories. Various forms of parentage is given for the

Gandharvas. They are called the creatures of Prajapati, of Brahma, of Kasyapa, of the Munis, of

Arishta, or of Vac (another description for goddess Saraswati as taken from the Rig Veda).

Yalli

Yalli (also known as Vyala or Vidala in Sanskrit) is a mythical creature seen in many Hindu

temples, often sculpted onto the pillars. It may be portrayed as part lion, part elephant and part

horse, and in similar shapes. Also, it has been sometimes described as a leogryph (part lion and

part griffin), with some bird-like features.

Yalli is a motif in Indian art and it has been widely used in south Indian sculpture. Descriptions

of and references to yallis are very old, but they became prominent in south Indian sculpture in

the 6th century. Yallis are believed to be more powerful than the lion/Tiger or the elephant.

In its iconography and image the yalli has a catlike graceful body, but the head of a lion with

tusks of an elephant (gaja) and tail of a serpent. Sometimes they have been shown standing

on the back of a makara, another mythical creature. Some images look like three-dimensional


representation of yallis. Images or icons have been found on the entrance walls of the temples,

and the graceful mythical lion is believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading

to the temple. They usually have the stylized body of a lion and the head of some other beast,

most often an elephant (gaja vyala). Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha vyala),

horse (ashwa vyala), human (nir vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana vyala) ones.

Images of yalli are quite common in temple of Karnataka. The most prominent are visible in

Hoysala temples, Kalyani Chalukya temples and Vijayanagara temples. Vijayanarayana temple

at Gundulupet (Hoysala temple) has yalli pillars at its entrance. These beautifully carved pillars

are quite striking as these are visible just when you reach the temple entrance. The other yalli

sculpture in Karnataka can be seen on the balustrades of the Tripurakanteswara temple in

Balligavi, front pillars projecting outside of the sabhamandapa at Someswara temple in Kolar,

yalli balustrades at the Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti, pillars at the entrance of agramandapa

of Bhoganandiswara Temple at Nandi (Plate 88) and Hoysala emblem at the Chennakesava

temple Belur. Yalli friezes too can be seen on the adhisthana of many Hoysala temples among

the makara, hamsa and gaja friezes.

Dvarapalas

Dvarapala or dvarapalaka is a door or gate guardian often portrayed as warrior or fearsome

asura giant, usually armed with a weapon, the most common being gada (mace). The statue

of dvarapala is a widespread architectural element in most of the Hindu temples (Plate 89).

Dvarapalas as an architectural feature have their origin in tutelary deities, like Yaksha and

warrior figures of the local popular religion.

According to puranic legends and agamas, Siva and Visnu temples have their typical

dvarapalas. Dvarapalas of Visnu temples are generally called Bhadra-Subhadra, Chanda-

Prachanda, Dhatru-Vidhatru and Jaya-Vijaya in pairs. The first named is sculpted on the right

hand side of the door and the other to the left side.

Dvarapalas of Siva temples are called Nandi and Mahakala, who are stationed at the eastern

gate, Heramba and Bhringi stationed at the southern gate, Durmukha and Pandura stationed at

the western gate and Sita and Asita stationed at the northern gate.

According to Hindu iconometry, the dvarapala images are usually scaled to sapta-tala (seven

palm lengths) or nava-tala (nine palm lengths).

Dikpalas

The Dikpalas are the Guardians of the Directions being the deities who rule the specific directions

of space according to Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. As a group of eight deities, they are

called Ashtadikpala literally meaning guardians of eight directions. They are often augmented

with two extra deities for the ten directions (the two extra directions being zenith and nadir),


when they are known as the Dasadikpala. In Hinduism it is traditional to represent their images

on the walls and ceilings of Hindu temples. The ashtadikpalas are: Kubera, Yama, Indra, Varuna,

Isana, Agni, Vayu and Nirrti or Rakshasa and the directions they guard respectively are: North,

South, East, West, Northeast, Southeast, Northwest and Southwest. Two additional directions

viz. Zenith and Nadir are guarded by Brahma and Visnu respectively.

Ashtadikpalas can be seen in the sculpture on the ceilings of temples as the guardians

surrounding the central deity in the navaranga. Among the most beautiful examples one can

see the ceiling of the closed sabhamandapa of the Kalleswara temple in Aralaguppe. There are

numerous other examples too but the Kalleswara temple ceiling occupies a special place among

all the navaranga carvings (Plate 90). In Cave 3 at Badami, the ceiling of the central hall has a

padma carved in the middle on its floor. Directly above the padma is the ceiling sculpture of

Brahma. The eight panels surrounding Brahma in the central panel, house all the Ashtadikpalas.

Daksa

Daksa was the father of Shakti and Prajapati. He was punished by Siva’s manifestation, Virabhadra

by cutting the head. This was because he conducted the sacrifice without receiving Siva. Later

he was fitted with the head of a goat. Images of Daksa are found at various temples in Karnataka

with a goat-head. A prominent image of Daksa is found at the Rameswara temple, Narasamangala

of the Western Gangas (Plate 91).

Ganas

The word gana in Sanskrit and Pali means “flock, troop, multitude, number, tribe, series, class

etc.”. It can also be used to refer to a “body of attendants” and can refer to “a company, any

assemblage or association of men formed for the attainment of the same aims”. The word gana

can also refer to councils or assemblies convened to discuss matters of religion or other topics.

In Hinduism, the ganas are attendants of Siva and live on Mount Kailasa. Ganesha was chosen

as their leader by Siva hence Ganesha’s title is Gaṇapati meaning “lord of the ganas”.

Ganas can also be seen on temple walls or basements as group of musicians and dancers

(Plate 92). Most striking example of sculpture of ganas in Karnataka is in the running friezes of

ganas in Badami caves.

Garuda

The Garuda is a large mythical bird-like creature, or humanoid bird that appears in both Hinduism

and Buddhism. Garuda is the mount (vahana) of the Visnu. Garuda is the Hindu name for the

constellation Aquila. Garuda is depicted as having the golden body of a strong man with a white

face, red wings, and an eagle’s beak and with a crown on his head. This ancient deity was said to

be massive, large enough to block out the sun.


Garuda is known as the eternal sworn enemy of the Naga serpent race and known for feeding

exclusively on snakes, such behavior may have referred to the actual short-toed eagle of India.

Garudi Vidya is the mantra against snake poison to remove all kinds of evil.

Images of Garuda can be seen on the Garuda Stambha in front of nearly all Visnu temples,

the most imposing ones being in front of the Saumyakesava temple (Hoysalas) at Nagamangala

and Lakshminarasimha temple (Cholas) at Marehalli. Images of Garuda also figure in among the

sculpture on the outer walls of many Hoysala temples (Plate 93).

Apsaras

An Apsara is a female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist mythology. They

generally adorn the walls and ceilings of many Hindu temples as celestial entertainers. Apsaras

are beautiful, supernatural female beings. They are youthful and elegant, and superb in the art of

dancing. They are often wives of the Gandharvas, the court musicians of Indra. They dance to

the music made by the Gandharvas, usually in the palaces of the gods, entertain and sometimes

seduce gods and men. As ethereal beings who inhabit the skies, and are often depicted taking

flight, or at service of a god, they may be compared to angels.

Apsaras are said to be able to change their shape at will, and rule over the fortunes of gaming

and gambling. Urvasi, Menaka, Rambha, Tilottama and Ghritachi are the most famous among them.

Apsaras are sometimes compared to the muses of ancient Greece, with each of the 26 Apsaras

at Indra’s court representing a distinct aspect of the performing arts. They are associated with

fertility rites. Gandharvas and Apsaras find frequent mention in the ancient Hindu scriptures

including the Epics (Plate 94).

Salabhanjikas or Madanikas

Salabhanjika or Madanika refers to the sculpture of a woman, displaying stylized feminine

features, standing near a tree and grasping a branch. The name of these figures comes from the

Sanskrit salabhanjika meaning ‘breaking a branch of a sala tree’.

The salabhanjika is a standard decorative element of Indian sculpture, a graceful stone

sculpture representing a young female under a stylized tree in various poses, such as dancing,

grooming herself or playing a musical instrument. The salabhanjika’s female features, like breasts

and hips, are often exaggerated. Frequently these sculpted figures display complex hairdos and

an abundance of jewelry.

The salabhanjika concept stems from ancient symbolism linking a chaste maiden with

the sala tree or the asoka tree through the ritual called dohada, or the fertilisation of plants

through contact with a young woman. The symbolism changed over the course of time and the

salabhanjika became figures used as ornamental carvings, usually located in the area where


worshipers engage in circumambulation near the garbhagriha of many Hindu temples. Placed at

an angle, salabhanjika figures also were used in temple architecture as a bracket figures.

Some of the most renowned salabhanjika sculptures are to be found in the 12th century CE

Hoysala temples of Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura, in Karnataka. Another less known

location famous for its outstanding salabhanjikas is a Kalyani Chalukya period temple in Jalsingvi,

Humnabad Taluk on the Gulbarga-Bidar state highway. Its well-endowed Madanika figures in

seductive tribhanga poses are “...moon breasted, swan-waisted and elephant-hipped”, according

to the Indian artistic canons. These older feminine sculptures were the source of inspiration for

the later Hoysala bracket-figures.

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