212

Notes

Introduction

1 . This directorate was successively called: DG Countries and Overseas Territories, DG Overseas Development (1963), DG Development Aid (1968), DG Development (1975), DG Development and Cooperation (2010) (Niçaise, 2007).

1 ‘Grandeurs et Servitudes Européennes en Afrique’ (European Greatness and Servitude in Africa)

* By reference to Albert Sarraut (Colonial Minister from 1920 to 1924 and again from 1932 to 1933): A. Sarraut (1931), Grandeur et Servitude Coloniales (Paris: Sagittaire).

1. French West Arica; French Equatorial Africa and all other French Overseas Territories; the Belgian Congo and Rwanda; the Trust territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration; Netherland New Guinea. Algeria was offered a specific status.

2 . Indeed, for a real free trade area to exist, overseas territories, once independent, would have had to abolish trade barriers among themselves. However, the associates were left to determine their own trade relations with each other and third parties.

3 . According to Grilli, it represented no more than 10% of the total amount of aid delivered by the Member States.

4 . Within the framework of the FIDES, projects for funding were proposed by local colonial authorities with the help of consultancy ‘bureaux’, either public or private. They were assessed by the central administration in Paris, approved by a Committee chaired by the Minister of Overseas France and implemented by the local authorities with the help of French firms (Valette, 1984, pp. 222–223).

2 Brussels or the Last French Colony: French Colonial Officials’ Leadership in Designing DG8

1 . The DG8 chart before 1963: Directorate A: Affaires Générales. Directorate B: Etudes et programmes de Développement. Directorate C: Opérations finan-cières et techniques du Fonds de Développement. Directorate D: Echanges commerciaux.

2 . See on this: AEC/25/1980/1045, note from Lefebvre to Hendus, 24 November 1961, sending him a counter-project and complaining about the repartition of the competences between the two directorates.

3 . The DG8 chart after 1963: Directorate A: Affaires Générales. Directorate B: Etudes de Développement. Directorate C: Fonds de Développement. Directorate D: Echanges commerciaux.

Notes 213

4 . Ferrandi’s Directorate included the following divisions or units: programmes (run by a German lawyer, Erich Wirsing); opérations financières (from 1967 run by André Auclert, an ex-colonial official); opérations et contrôles tech-niques (run by Gaetano Sorge, an Italian civil engineer who had formerly worked in Tangier in the international administration, replaced in 1970 by Corrado Cornelli, an Italian, former architect). In 1973, Cornelli’s unit included Gunter Grüner (an agronomist who worked for the industry of Potash in Alsace in the overseas section, Africa/Asia) who dealt with agri-culture. Albert Berrens, from Luxembourg (a former engineer in the Belgian Congo) was in charge of the roads and Daniel Vincent (a French official from polytechnic) was responsible for industry and infrastructure in general.

5 . Proposals which had not been accepted by the EDF Committee were forwarded to the EEC Council of Ministers for approval, then forwarded back to the Commission for it to make a formal decision.

6 . A qualified majority meant that 67 votes (out of 100) were needed for a project to be adopted. France and Germany each had 33 votes, Luxemburg, 1 and the other three Member States, 11.

7 . To have a good example of this process of negotiations, see the report of Ferrandi’s trip in Senegal (15–22 February 1964): AJF/96/Senegal, letter from Paye, French Ambassador to Senegal to Triboulet, Minister of Cooperation, 11 March 1964.

8 . AEC/25/1980/1395, note from Hendus to Rochereau, referring to Rochereau’s visit in Washington accompanied by Ferrandi, 3 February 1970.

9 . Answer concerning questions by the IBRD about the functioning of the EDF.

3 ‘Du Bon Usage de la Tournée’: DG8’s Quest for Legitimacy

1 . He referred here to a very critical article of the Manchester Guardian. 2 . AEC/25/1980/1323, letter from Ferrandi to Hendus, 6 July 1966, referring to

a film on ‘water in Upper Volta’ played at the ECSC Congress (Luxembourg, 25–26 October 1966) where he gave a talk.

3 . AJF/96/Ivory Coast, letter from Leygues, French Ambassador to the Ivory Coast, to the MAE, 10 December 1964. It relates in depth the programme of a project inauguration where Cellerier, Frisch and Hendus received a medal from the President Houphouët-Boigny.

4 . Programmes of those visits are to be found in: AEC 25/1980/1341,1342, 1387,1389,1390,1422,1892.

5 . AEC/25/1980/1611, line 802 (expenses concerning trips) for the year 1967, 7,260,000 units of account (out of 32,250,000). By comparison, DG1 (External Relations), the other main consumer, only spent 4,000,000 units of account.

6 . AEC/25/1980/1678, note on the information campaigns in the AASM without date, without signature: this survey, realized by the Institut Français d’Opinion Publique during the year 1964 shows that in Senegal, 33% of people living in Dakar, 29% in other towns, 14% in the countryside had some knowledge of the EEC, whatever the exact definition they could give of it. This data has to be taken with caution as no indications were given as to the methodology used.

214 Notes

4 Flag Dictatorship Within the European Commission? The Construction of DG8’s Autonomy

1 . On these questions, see Checkel, 2005; Christiansen, 1997; Egeberg, 1996, 2006; Ellinas and Suleiman, 2012; Georgagakis, 2010; Hooghe, 2000, 2001, 2005; Laffan, 2004; Menon, 2003; Michelmann, 1978; Pierson, 1996a; Shore, 2005; Trondal, 2007; Weiss, 1982; Wonka, 2007.

2 . See for example AEC/25/1980/37, minute of the commission of the European Parliament in charge of the relations with the AASM, 9 February 1968.

3 . TA/312/1889, letter from Cunningham to Ashford, Treasury, 31 May 1967. It refers to Ferrandi’s interview with a German Journal Europaische Gemainschaft, April 1967. It also gives some interesting figures concerning the tenders for contracts for the 1st EDF: in French ex-states locally established firms tendered for 40% of the number of contracts offered. French firms locally non-estab-lished tendered only for 3% of the number of contracts offered.

4 . Regarding this, see AJF/96/Niger, letter from the President of this organiza-tion to Hamani Diori, 6 April 1961 (included in a letter from Colombani to the Secretary of State in charge of the relations with the states of the French Community, 11 April 1961).

5 . Interview Gérard Vernier, who, from 1973 to 1986, worked in the Finance Directorate of DG8 and was responsible for informing the enterprises of EDF procedures and calls for tenders.

6 . Share of the adjudication for the EDF public works for the 2nd EDF (situ-ation on the 31st December 1967): France (58.11%); Germany (18.28%); Italy (4.87%); Belgium (2.72%); Associated States (16.02%), (AEUD, European Commission, answer to the written question no. 308/1968, by Pedini (Italy), European Parliament).

7 . The FAC was the successor of the FIDES and the main aid instrument of the Ministry of Cooperation.

8 . For an example of practical problems related to this lack of technical assist-ance see AJF/95/1, note by Colombani, including a report by Haffner, contrô-leur technique of the EDF, 23 May 1961.

9 . See for a good example AJF/95/1, letter from Roques (Secretariat of State in charge of the relations with the states of the French Community), to the Secretary General of the Inter-ministerial Committee for questions relating to the EEC, 6 February 1961, where he refers to ‘confidential’ letters sent to him by the French Société Générale d’Exploitation Industrielle (SOGEI) and their complaints about the rules defined by the European Commission concerning the distribution of contracts.

10 . AEC/26/1969/666, answer by the Commission to a written question no. 40, by Pedini, 23 June 1966, European Parliament. Contracts concerning these preliminary studies and technical assistance were established in the name of the state concerned, signed by his representative and countersigned by the Chief Authorising Officer.

11 . The distribution of the contracts for technical assistance by nationality among consultancy firms was the following (in amount of money): 1st EDF: France (24.56%); Germany (20.56); Italy (19.62), Belgium (13.88), the Netherlands(11.39), Luxembourg (1.27); AASM (8.72). 2nd EDF (situation on the 31st December 1967): France (20.67); Germany (22); Italy (15.20); Belgium

Notes 215

(10.34), Luxembourg (0.45), AASM (25.67). Figures to be found in: AEUD, European Commission, answer to the written question no. 308/1968.

5 Fashoda Revisited: The Effects of the First EEC Enlargement on DG8

1 . In 1898, when both Britain and France were engaged in the Scramble for Africa, the two powers were in contention for the control of the strategically impor-tant town of Fashoda in East Africa. Britain’s claim eventually prevailed.

2 . He sent him several documents concerning the history and functioning of the programming system of British aid and the minute of a meeting between a delegation of the Commission (including Krohn, Westhoff, Durieux, Wirsing, Ugo, Auclert, Van der Vaeren, Rhein and Bistolfi) and a delegation of the BODA (Brussels, 16 March 1972).

3 . This Commission was created in 1950 by colonial powers in Africa (most notably France and Britain) to encourage their technical cooperation.

4 . The Organisme Saharien (1962–1965), the Organisme de Coopération Industrielle (1966), the Directoire de l’Entreprise Minière et Chimique and the Compagnie des Potasses du Congo (1970–1973).

5 . Directorate A (Affaires Générales et Produits de base): Foley; Directorate B (Echanges commerciaux et Développement): Durieux; Directorate C (Programmes et Projets du FED): Wirsing; Directorate D (Direction Technique du FED): Cornelli.

6 . In 1976 three heads of unit only (A3) were British (Mace, Russel, a former BODA official, and Barnes).

7 . Directorate A (Politique générale de Développement); Directorate B in charge of programming (Afrique, Caraïbes, Pacific): Wirsing; Directorate C (projets FED): Cornelli; Directorate D (opérations FED, in charge of food and secu-rity aid); Directorate E (finance and administration): Auclert. A third Deputy Director General in charge of Directorate A, was appointed: Durieux.

8 . Michael Laidler, Foley’s assistant from 1977 to 1982, was a former official of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. From 1970–1973, he took part in the negotiations concerning British entry into the EEC. Upon accession, he entered DG8 in the service dealing with Protocol 22. Smida was assistant to Krohn and remained after his departure as assistant to Meyer. Jean Delorme was Hauswirth’s assistant from 1979 to 1982, then Pisani’s deputy Head of Cabinet. An economist by training, he began his career in the Société d’Etudes pour le Développement Economique et Social (SEDES) where he met many former French colonial officials.

9 . Directorate A (Actions de Développement): Van Hoek; Directorate B (Afrique Occidentale et Centrale): Wirsing; Directorate C (Afrique Orientale et Australe): Livi; Directorate D (Méditerranée Sud et Est; Caraïbes et Pacifique; Aide aux PVD non associés): Cornelli; Directorate E (Finance): Auclert.

6 EEC Development Policy: A Sedimentation of Empires?

1 . AEC/25/1980/1888/1891. A detailed account of these programmes is to be found in Commission of the EEC, the Europe–South dialogue, 1988.

216 Notes

2 . AEC/25/1980/1876, report by Eude, on Cheysson’s trip to Washington and New York, 9–15 May 1974, 28 May, 1974; 25/1980/1878; programme of Cheysson’s visit to Washington, 28–31 July 1974, 2 August 1974.

7 Roads and Rural Path Dependencies

1 . From Pisani (1984). 2 . The agricultural sector represented under the 1st EDF 16% (of the total

aid committed), under Yaoundé I, 37% and Yaoundé II, 30%, ( The Courier , 32, 1975, p. 24). Under the Lomé Convention, it represented 32.7% of the EDF funding, Lomé II: 38.5%. Lomé III: 45.9% (Document interne de la Commission: ‘Evaluation sectorielle, développement rural’, 1994, p. 14). According to Ravenhill, housing, education, health and urban infrastruc-ture received little attention. He counted that over the three first EDFs, eight projects related exclusively to food production, seven to ‘polyculture’ that included both food production and commercial agriculture and 73 projects devoted exclusively to commercial agriculture.

3 . It included the minute of a meeting between Dahomey officials and technical advisers to discuss the lists of the project to present to the EDF (31 May 1963).

4 . The proportion fell to about 20% for the first three Lomé Conventions (1975–1990). It was about 25% for Lomé IV Convention (European Commission, Evaluation of the Transport Sector, 1994).

5 . A programming mission sent to Congo–Kinshasa in 1970 noted that this sector represented 68% of the money asked for by the government in the framework of the second Yaoundé Convention: AEC/25/1980/1365, report, 23 April 1970. In 2007, it still represented 44% of the sectoral repartition of funds within the country strategy papers (programming documents) of the ACP States (ADE, evaluation report, 2007, p. 11).

6 . Lugard quoted by Egunjobi, Layi (official from the Center for Urban and Regional Planning, Ibadan), The Courier , 125, 1991 p. 80). See on this: Valette, 1984, pp. 226–230.

7 . Their article was largely based on a speech made by Ferrandi, ‘la politique routière du Fonds Européen de Développement’, 5th International Congress of the International Road Federation, 18–24 September 1966.

8 . See on these roads and railways: Valette, 1984, pp. 226–230. 9 . 13% for rural agricultural production, 6% for health services over the same

period. 10 . EDF allocations to railways 1958–1978 by country: Cameroon: ECU

64.5 million on a total of 137.7 million granted to all of the AASM.

8 In the Name of Efficiency

1 . EEC aid was the destination of 10% of British aid budget in 1977, 20% in 1987, more than 45% at the beginning of the 1990s (Burnell, 1991, p. 13).

2 . In 1976 (OJ No. L25, 30/1/1976), the European Parliament, on a recommen-dation from the Council acting by a qualified majority, was granted the right to give a discharge to the Commission in respect of the implementation of the EDF.

Notes 217

3 . Lacroix had a degree in law and economics. As a professor, he wrote several studies for the EEC, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the Presidency of the Republic of Congo, most notably on the possibility of industrialization for Africa. In 1971, he was appointed in Durieux’s directo-rate, in the unit ‘Policy of Development and Studies’, where he was respon-sible for the economic analysis of EEC development policies (STABEX, Fresco) and for the preparation of EEC positions in the North–South dialogues and in the CNUCED.

4 . In 1985, the President of the Commission, Jacques Delors, confirmed his posi-tion as head of this group of advisers. In 1989, this advisory group was insti-tutionalized and renamed ‘Forward study unit’. Its aim was to monitor and evaluate European integration.

10 ‘Adieu les Artistes, Here Come the Managers

1 . Later on, EuropeAid was placed under the responsibility of a board with Patten as chairman and Nielson as executive director. With the Barroso Commission (2004), the board was abolished and EuropeAid was again placed under the responsibility of the Commissioner in charge of external relations (Ferrero Waldner).

2 . This measure has been questioned in 2011 by the transfer of the evaluation unit to the Directorate B ‘Quality and Impact’ of DG DEVCO, more recently by its incorporation in Directorate A ‘EU development policy’.

218

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Parlement Européen (1985), rapport fait au nom de la Commission du développe-ment et de la coopération sur l’importance des délégations de la Commission des CE dans les Etats ACP, et les pays du Maghreb et du Machrek et du statut des agents d’Outre-Mer de l’AEC, rapporteur: Daly, 26 septembre 1985.

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des Sciences d’Outre-mer, Paris, 22 May 1964. Box 25/1980/1324, Ferrandi, ‘l’Association des Etats africains et malgaches à la

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et les relations avec la CEE’, talk to the Wirtschaft and Social Politische Club, Bonn, April 1967.

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Etrangères), série Affaires économiques et financières, sous-série, service de la coopération économique, Paris (Ministère des Affaires Etrangères), Paris.

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AMD: Private archives of Debré (2 DE 21), FNSP Fondation, Paris. ACM: Private archives of Couve de Murville (cm7, 1960), FNSP Fondation, Paris. AJF: Archives of Foccart (Fonds General pour les affaires africaines et malgaches,

archives de la Présidence de la Republique, 5AG/FPU), CARAN, Paris. AVGD: Archives of Giscard d’Estaing (archives de la Présidence de la République),

5AG3, CARAN, Paris. AEUD: Archives of the EU delegation in Washington, USA, 448/3 (only talks are

detailed here). – Allardt ‘the tasks and aims of the EEC in Africa’, lecture given on the occasion

of the African Day at the German Industries Fair, Hanover, 30 April 1959. – Ferrandi, ‘EEC action in the associated countries. Address delivered to the

African and Malagasy economic conference’, Marseilles, 18, 19, 20 October 1962.

– Hendus, address to the meeting of ambassadors of the Congo Republic at Leopoldville on 25 January 1963.

– Rochereau, address to the symposium on Africa, organized by the Afrika Institut, the Hague, 29 October 1962.

– Rochereau, address to the parliamentary conference of the Association, 8–11 December 1964, Dakar.

237

Index

AEC, 25, 26, 27, 29, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 61, 63, 64, 65, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 87, 89, 90, 106, 108, 109, 111, 121, 126, 128, 192, 193, 194, 198, 200, 202, 203, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 234, 235

Allardt, 24, 32, 46, 51, 52, 53, 230, 236associable, 81, 82, 84, 87, 91, 101,

102, 103, 106, 107associate, 12, 16, 62, 88, 100, 103,

109, 118Association, 42, 51, 53, 61, 76, 81, 82,

101, 108, 111, 202, 228, 230, 234, 235

Association Européenne de Coopération, 76, 191

Auclert, 20, 27, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38, 47, 49, 87, 95, 97, 118, 143, 158, 166, 174, 179, 198, 203, 207, 213, 215, 229, 235

audit, 140, 146, 147, 149, 180, 181, 188, 206, 226, 227

authority, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 20, 22, 23, 35, 42, 60, 68, 72, 75, 105, 137, 149, 151, 156, 159, 165, 169, 173, 182, 183, 193, 197, 201, 222

autonomy, 4, 5, 9, 11, 14, 18, 55, 59, 60, 68, 78, 111, 144, 156, 167, 182, 184, 187, 191, 204, 206, 207, 209, 221

Belgium, 5, 12, 13, 43, 44, 52, 61, 69, 195, 214, 229

bid, 18, 62, 63, 64, 65, 233Bonacci, 39, 40, 91, 97, 182, 184, 187,

229Britain, 16, 45, 46, 47, 80, 83, 84, 85,

86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 101, 104, 106, 142, 143, 147, 149, 170, 171, 178, 215, 224, 229

bureaucracy, 1, 3, 5, 6, 22, 42, 138, 140, 181, 191, 205, 208, 220, 222, 228

Cameroon, 53, 77, 96, 128, 131, 138, 144, 165, 192, 204, 214, 216, 222, 232

Chapperon, 29, 31, 45, 46, 49, 50, 72, 75, 95

Cheysson, 22, 82, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 141, 152, 158, 164, 166, 178, 198, 200, 215, 216, 229

client, 2, 5, 7, 19, 23, 42, 74, 83, 90, 100, 113, 114, 137, 138, 141, 162, 182, 189, 210

clientelism, 42, 63, 181, 226colonial administration, 16, 18, 69,

132, 202, 224colonial government, 5, 132colonial ministry, 24, 30Colonial Office, 46, 82, 88, 235colonial official, 2, 3, 5, 8, 20, 27, 29,

30, 31, 37, 42, 45, 49, 71, 73, 77, 97, 100, 107, 117, 121, 124, 139, 165, 175, 193, 194, 209

colonies, 22Commonwealth, 7, 44, 46, 47, 81,

83, 84, 85, 89, 97, 100, 101, 103, 107, 142, 214, 215, 216, 220, 227, 231, 235

conditionality, 159, 166, 169, 189, 207, 210

consultancy, 63, 66, 67, 71, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 92, 143, 169, 192, 194, 195, 196, 207, 212, 214, 215, 217

contract, 62, 65, 76, 77, 117, 124, 138, 143, 195, 203

control, 5, 7, 13, 18, 23, 24, 28, 32, 38, 53, 60, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 84, 93, 97, 119, 124, 125, 133, 134, 141, 146, 149, 156, 162, 165, 179, 181, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 217

238 Index

contrôleur, 30, 70, 73, 76, 77, 92, 98, 136, 191, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199

corruption, 134, 160, 168, 182, 195, 227

council, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 53, 56, 58, 62, 63, 64, 69, 71, 72, 76, 105, 110, 113, 143, 146, 177, 184, 202, 204, 213, 233, 234

Court of Auditors, 136, 137, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 154, 191, 194, 196, 203, 206, 224, 234

Couve de Murville, 24, 56, 71, 72, 236criteria, 7, 8, 27, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42,

77, 78, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 93, 96, 97, 135, 139, 141, 145, 147, 154, 157, 159, 163, 165, 169, 170, 172, 173, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 189, 196, 207, 210

DAC, 26, 28, 40, 88, 152, 154, 158, 172, 214, 225, 232

De Gaulle, 14, 35, 57, 67, 68, 110Debré, 70, 72, 236Delavignette, 33, 35, 116, 118, 120,

122, 207, 220delegate, 98, 158, 191, 198, 199, 200,

201, 202, 203, 205, 207Deniau, 23, 31, 44, 47, 50, 104, 106domination, 5

EDF Committee, 26, 28, 66, 94, 180, 206, 213

EEAS, 184, 190, 204efficiency, 3, 7, 8, 36, 54, 92, 133, 140,

141, 142, 144, 149, 153, 159, 161, 176, 178, 180, 184, 187, 190, 205, 210, 225

elite, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 14, 19, 32, 35, 40, 42, 44, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 60, 81, 92, 102, 109, 111, 112, 117, 119, 126, 131, 137, 142, 165, 176, 183, 190, 191, 193, 195, 203, 207, 210

empire, 15, 77, 80, 83, 87, 92, 93, 99, 219, 224

enlargement, 6, 7, 38, 80, 81, 87, 103, 104, 106, 141, 163, 168, 178, 198, 210

esprit de corps, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 20, 31, 38, 117, 165, 166, 184, 193

EuropeAid, 9, 176, 178, 182, 183, 186, 190, 210, 217

European Assembly, 48, 61, 63, 112, 113, 197, 214

European Parliament, 18, 29, 44, 48, 61, 63, 72, 77, 100, 112, 113, 136, 137, 144, 146, 147, 149, 153, 156, 159, 169, 177, 183, 192, 196, 197, 199, 203, 205, 214, 233, 234

European Parliamentary Assembly, 18, 44, 48

evaluation, 8, 117, 146, 148, 150, 153, 155, 156, 158, 169, 177, 180, 207

failure, 8, 117, 131, 136, 139, 143, 155Faure, 14, 19Ferrandi, 7, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28,

29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 105, 106, 111, 116, 121, 126, 127, 128, 137, 140, 141, 150, 151, 156, 164, 165, 166, 175, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 205, 207, 209, 213, 214, 215, 216, 221, 229, 231, 235, 236

firms, 13, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 81, 83, 95, 137, 138, 142, 163, 165, 169, 192, 194, 195, 196, 200, 207, 212, 214, 215, 217

Foccart, 36, 68, 236France, 5, 7, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 52, 53,

55, 56, 57, 59, 62, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 78, 81, 83, 86, 97, 101, 102, 103, 105, 109, 119, 132, 137, 138, 142, 161, 162, 164, 200, 209, 213, 214, 219, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230

Frisch, 37, 39, 40, 41, 50, 87, 91, 92, 97, 141, 152, 164, 165, 166, 205, 229

Germany, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 21, 37, 44, 53, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 71, 72, 80, 83, 86, 153, 170, 171, 213, 214, 227, 229, 235

Ghana, 46, 96, 101, 108, 204

Index 239

governance, 8, 151, 159, 160, 163, 167, 172, 173, 182, 189, 219, 220, 222, 223, 225, 234

Hendus, 24, 25, 26, 32, 35, 36, 37, 42, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 57, 61, 65, 71, 74, 75, 76, 90, 111, 117, 164, 194, 212, 213, 236

House of Lords, 95, 96, 142, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 152, 156, 158, 235

human rights, 8, 100, 113, 159, 160, 162, 163, 167, 169, 172, 184, 189, 197, 218, 234

identity, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 22, 42, 44, 55, 78, 98, 112, 113, 117, 162, 165, 166, 167, 179, 190, 192, 205, 209, 224

indirect rule, 2, 22, 31, 35, 51instrument, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 40, 44, 48,

59, 82, 89, 102, 109, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 134, 141, 154, 166, 186, 189, 205, 210

Italy, 37, 50, 52, 61, 66, 73, 84, 104, 214, 219, 229

Krohn, 39, 40, 87, 90, 92, 93, 97, 105, 106, 108, 200, 215

leader, 22, 27, 42, 60, 81, 98, 145, 150, 151, 164, 165, 184, 210

leadership, 22, 23, 100, 166, 219, 220, 221, 222, 227

legitimacy, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 20, 23, 32, 35, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49, 51, 55, 60, 68, 79, 98, 105, 112, 113, 117, 137, 144, 149, 150, 151, 159, 161, 165, 176, 183, 186, 188, 190, 192, 211, 223, 227

Lemaignen, 19, 23, 24, 31, 43, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52, 111, 224, 230

Lowe, 10, 95, 171, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 224, 232

manager, 184Marin, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166,

209, 232Moutet, 120

National Assembly, 12, 14nepotism, 82, 171, 178, 181, 227

Netherlands, 21, 37, 44, 45, 53, 61, 72, 80, 83, 153, 170, 214, 227

New Public Management, 9, 176, 179, 188, 206

NGO, 94, 118, 145, 148, 151, 169, 173, 178, 207, 215

Nigeria, 46, 81, 95, 99, 101, 103, 107, 119, 232

norm, 4, 5, 6, 8, 22, 38, 45, 55, 98, 133, 145, 161, 168, 173, 181, 190, 207, 220, 221, 223

objectivity, 3, 6, 75, 161, 163, 174, 187, 210, 226

ODA, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 144, 145, 147, 151, 154, 215, 235

overseas territories, 10, 19, 30, 31, 43, 53, 120, 212

Pisani, 97, 113, 117, 119, 124, 125, 134, 152, 153, 164, 193, 226

power, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 35, 37, 39, 41, 45, 49, 55, 56, 63, 73, 76, 78, 80, 90, 92, 93, 95, 97, 125, 128, 132, 136, 138, 141, 142, 149, 153, 156, 160, 165, 166, 168, 173, 177, 183, 184, 188, 190, 191, 192, 194, 198, 206, 218, 220, 221, 224, 226

professional, 4, 23, 65, 145, 146, 174, 205

programming, 7, 36, 39, 41, 82, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 107, 108, 112, 118, 134, 135, 140, 141, 145, 152, 153, 164, 165, 169, 170, 173, 176, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 206, 210, 215, 216

Project Cycle Management, 157, 180, 210

propaganda, 30, 43, 44, 45, 55, 99, 102, 106, 109, 111

railway, 120, 128, 131, 132, 138, 216, 232

red tape, 145, 181, 205reform, 9, 164, 168, 172, 177, 179,

181, 185, 188, 189, 204, 206, 218, 223, 227, 228

regional integration, 128

240 Index

ritual, 9, 48, 50, 141, 182, 188road, 116, 120, 126, 128, 129, 130,

132, 133, 134, 139, 175, 186, 213, 216, 223, 231

Rochereau, 23, 26, 30, 32, 34, 37, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 63, 67, 213, 235, 236

rural development, 8, 117, 118, 121, 127, 179, 182, 232

Sarraut, 15, 212SCR, 176, 177, 178, 182Senegal, 15, 19, 36, 45, 52, 66, 77, 92,

93, 101, 102, 104, 107, 108, 121, 194, 213

Senghor, 15, 36, 45, 55, 66, 68, 93, 103, 106, 230

Soubestre, 38, 39, 90, 92, 106, 108, 109, 166, 179, 182, 200, 205, 229

Spain, 6, 162, 163, 164, 209, 218, 222, 228, 229

structural adjustment, 130, 161, 164, 166, 167

supervision, 2, 30, 63, 92, 97, 120, 136, 177, 178, 193, 196, 198, 218, 219, 222, 228

Sweden, 6, 163, 168, 169, 170, 172, 221

touring, 20, 45, 48, 102, 193trade, 10, 16, 25, 30, 44, 46, 50, 59,

62, 80, 89, 92, 100, 104, 106, 107, 112, 114, 131, 178, 198, 212, 231

transparency, 65, 143, 145, 147, 161, 168, 178, 191, 194, 203, 204

transport, 8, 26, 40, 98, 117, 127, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139, 179, 216, 231, 232

UK, 45, 46, 47, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 101, 104, 106, 142, 147, 149, 170, 171, 215, 224, 229

Union Française, 11, 14, 15, 222, 230USA, 8, 13, 16, 37, 64, 109, 111, 202,

236

World Bank, 6, 8, 9, 32, 33, 37, 85, 107, 111, 128, 130, 133, 147, 150, 151, 153, 155, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172, 189, 210, 218, 222, 223, 226, 232