note : this is the author’s version of a work that was ......emotions are regarded as intense,...
TRANSCRIPT
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Note: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in Behavioural
Brain Research. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing,
corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected
in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for
publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in Behavioural Brain
Research 239, 104-114.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432812007024
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.052
Prefrontal Cortex Activity, Sympatho-Vagal Reaction and Behaviour Distinguish between
Situations of Feed Reward and Frustration in Dwarf Goats
Lorenz Gygaxa, Nadine Reefmannb, Martin Wolfc, Jan Langbeind*
Affiliations: a Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Veterinary Office, Agroscope
Reckenholz-Tänikon Research Station ART, Tänikon, 8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland,
[email protected] b Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Environment and
Health, Box 7068, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden, [email protected] c Division of Neonatology, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, University Hospital
Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland, [email protected] d Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Research Unit Behavioural Physiology, 18196
Dummerstorf, Germany, [email protected]
*Corresponding Author:
Jan Langbein, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Research Unit Behavioural
Physiology, D-18196 Dummerstorf, Germany, [email protected], Tel.: +49
(0)38208 68814, fax: + 49 (0)38208 68602
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Abstract
Recent concepts relating to animal welfare accept that animals experience affective states.
These are notoriously difficult to measure in non-verbal species, but it is generally agreed
that emotional reactions consist of well-coordinated reactions in behaviour, autonomic and
brain activation. The aim of the study was to evaluate whether each or a combination of these
aspects can differentiate between situations presumed to differ in emotional content. To this
end, we repeatedly confronted dwarf goats at short intervals with a covered and an uncovered
feed bowl (i.e. presumably frustrating and rewarding situations respectively) whilst
simultaneously observing their behaviour, measuring heart-rate and heart-rate variability and
haemodynamic changes in the prefrontal cortex using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.
When faced with a covered feed bowl, goats occupied themselves at locations away from the
bowl and showed increases locomotion, while there was a general increase in prefrontal
cortical activity. There was little indication of autonomic changes. In contrast, when feed was
accessible, the goats reduced locomotion, focused their behaviour on the feed bowl, showed
signs of sympathetically mediated arousal reflecting anticipation and, if any cortical activity
at all was present, it was concentrated to the left hemisphere. We thus observed patterns in
behaviour, sympathetic reaction and brain activity that distinguished between a situation of
frustration and one of reward in dwarf goats. These patterns consisted of a well-coordinated
set of reactions appropriate in respect of the emotional content of the stimuli used.
Keywords: dwarf goat, emotion, haemodynamic brain changes, fNIRS, heart rate variability,
behavior
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1. Introduction
The belief that animal welfare does not simply mean physical welfare but also comprises
psychological welfare is nowadays commonly accepted as far as public opinion, the scientific
community and legislation are concerned. Farm animals in Europe have a unique legal status
as ‘sentient beings’, suggesting that they possess complex cognitive abilities and are able to
experience emotions such as fear and anxiety and potentially further emotions such as anger,
frustration, sadness, grief, empathy, curiosity, happiness [7, 14, 18, 20, 29, 42].
Emotions are regarded as intense, short-lived affective responses to stimuli or events
accompanied by a behavioural component (e.g. movements or bodily expressions), an
autonomic component (neurophysiological activation) and a cortical/subjective component
(what a subject feels [3, 13]). The behavioural component is the most direct and easy to
measure feedback of an animal in reaction to a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus. However,
recording behaviour only does not allow for an unequivocal evaluation of the underlying
emotion. The accompanying peripheral somatic and autonomic activation are central to
emotions in that they are important when it comes to optimizing the body state for different
types of action. The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) and sympathetic adrenal
medullary (SAM) systems are widely known to be involved in emotional responses like fear
and anxiety [7, 37, 52]. In recent years, analysing cardiovascular measurements has come to
be regarded as a suitable approach for determining the activity of the autonomic nervous
system in the study of emotion [16, 24, 59, 80] and cardiac vagal tone has been suggested as
a psychophysiological marker of emotion regulation and of certain aspects of psychological
adjustment in humans and animals [2, 40, 57, 75]. A number of brain centres like the
prefrontal cortex, the cingulate cortex and the amygdala have been shown to be involved in
both processing of affective states and autonomic control [71, 70]. What we need is a deeper
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understanding of the link between the activity of these centres with respect to negative and
positive affective states, peripheral neurophysiological changes and behaviour [4].
It has been shown in humans, monkeys and rats that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is a
trigger site in the processing of the emotional valence of external stimuli and is connected to
control centres of emotional expression, including amygdala, hypothalamic and brain stem
autonomic areas [1, 39, 62, 64]. Based on lesion studies in humans, the valence theory of
frontal lateralization [8, 9] postulated that the right brain hemisphere is linked to avoidance
behaviour and predominantly processes negative emotions, whereas the left hemisphere is
linked to approach responses and the processing of positive emotions. There is some evidence
from behavioural studies in animals in support of this hypothesis [5, 15, 35, 67].
Neuroimaging methods have made fundamental progress in neuroscience possible as far as
research into human brain function and emotions is concerned [19, 48, 54]. However, some
of these methods, such as positron emission tomography (PET) or functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), are unsuitable for use in conscious or even freely moving
animals, since the study subject has to be exposed to a physically constrained environment
for longer time intervals per se in order to induce negative emotional states. In addition, these
technologies are vulnerable to motion artefacts. Against this background, functional near-
infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as an alternative technique for the study of the
cortical component of emotions in animals due to various reasons: (1) higher tolerance of
movement artefacts, (2) mobile equipment allows subjects to move about freely, (3)
measurements can be conducted in a familiar environment, (4) points (1) - (3) allow for the
application of more complex emotionally challenging tasks than the simple presentation of
visual or acoustical stimuli as is possible in a PET or fMRI environment [30, 34, 44]. fNIRS
is a non-invasive technique that evaluates haemodynamic changes in specific brain areas. It
measures the temporal changes in the concentrations of oxy-haemoglobin [O2Hb] and deoxy-
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haemoglobin [HHb] relative to a baseline [32]. Although fNIRS has much higher temporal
resolution than fMRI, its spatial resolution is lower. Since the near-infrared light emitted will
achieve a head penetration depth of approximately 2 cm to 3 cm, only cortical areas can be
measured [26].
The present study was aimed at evaluating whether each or a combination of the three aspects
of an emotional reaction, i.e. behaviour, autonomic reaction and, specifically, brain activation
can differentiate between situations presumed to differ in emotional content. We alternately
presented dwarf goats with a plastic bowl containing feed that was either not covered or
covered with a wire mesh. In so doing, we attempted to elicit a negative (frustration-like)
emotion by preventing animals from feeding and a positive emotion by providing a feed
reward.
2. Material and Methods
2.1 Subjects and housing
The study was conducted at the Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN),
Dummerstorf, Germany. Eight female dwarf goats, aged between 12 and 18 months, were
used as subjects in the study. All the goats were born and raised at the experimental goat unit
of the FBN. When not participating in the experiment, they were housed in two age-related
groups of ten goats in pens measuring 12 m2. The pens featured straw bedding and were
equipped with an automatic waterer, a hayrack, a self-feeder for delivering commercial
concentrate and a wooden rack for climbing. The goats had ad lib access to hay and were fed
with a commercial concentrate at 15:00 h in the afternoon. They were previously used in
group learning experiments for testing visual discrimination learning and were accustomed to
being handled and fitted with technical equipment.
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2.2. Treatments, habituation and experimental design
The goats were tested in a test pen measuring 2 x 2 m. A plastic bowl containing concentrate
(the same as fed in the pen) was inserted into and retracted from the pen from an adjacent
aisle and was either covered with a wire mesh to prevent animals from feeding (mesh
aperture: 2 x 5 cm) or uncovered (feed accessible). The former situation was meant to be
negative and elicit a frustration-like emotional reaction, whereas the latter was intended to
represent a positive situation and elicit reward-induced reinforcement.
Over a period of ten days the goats were habituated to the test pen, the technical equipment
and the experimental design. First of all, on five consecutive days the test subjects from each
group were transferred to a waiting area (2 x 2 m) adjacent to the test pen, and separated from
it by a metal gate covered with acrylic glass. Individual goats were then moved to the test pen
and were allowed to walk around for ten minutes, during which period they had visual,
acoustic and olfactory contact to the group mates in the waiting area to minimise the negative
impact of isolation. Over the next five days, the animals were additionally equipped with the
chest belt for heart rate measurement and the fNIRS sensor (Fig. 1c) before they were
released into the test pen. On the last three of these days, the goats were given additional
training using both treatments (ten times per treatment) i.e. alternate presentation of the bowl
containing freely available concentrate or covered by a wire mesh for the periods applied as
in the trials when measurements were taken. The start and end of the stimulus presentation
was preceded in each case by counting down from 3 to 1 to coordinate the presentation and
withdrawal of the feed bowl and the tracking of stimulus onset and cessation in the fNIRS
software.
Experimental trials were carried out between 8:00 h and 14:00 h on three consecutive days.
The goats were again subjected to both treatments alternately, with half the goats starting
with the positive and the other half of the goats starting with the negative treatment. An
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amount of 500 g concentrate was put into the bowl at the beginning of each experimental trial
and some feed always remained at the end of a trial. The experimental trial started and ended
with a 45 s pre- and post-trial phase. In between, the goats were alternately faced with the
covered bowl for 15 s, followed by a post-stimulus phase of 45 s, and the uncovered bowl for
10 s and a post-stimulus phase of 50 s (each stimulus ten times). Presentation of the
accessible feed was curtailed because pilot trials had shown that goats would continue
chewing for approximately five seconds after the bowl was withdrawn. Given this time
schedule, both the periods involving eating and feed frustration were of comparable duration
(see also the results section) and were followed by a similar amount of time without bowl- or
feed-related behaviour. In the sense that the covered bowl is expected to induce frustration in
the goats and that the uncovered bowl is expected to be rewarding, the two experimental
treatments correspond to situations of negative and positive valence respectively.
In principle, all the goats should have undergone the experimental measurements once. Due
to technical problems, each goat was subjected to 2-3 measurement trials and we ended up
with complete data on at least one trial covering seven goats. For these seven goats, we used
the first trial yielding data from all measurement channels in our evaluation. In one of these
seven goats only eight instead of ten single stimuli were available.
2.3. Measurements and data processing
2.3.1. fNIRS
We applied functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) as described in Muehlemann et al.
([44], Fig. 1). We exposed our goats to external stimuli with presumed emotional content and
thus deliberately elicited neuronal activity. This activity resulted in changes in [O2Hb] and
[HHb] at the sites of the cortical area responsible for processing the stimulus [32]. [O2Hb]
and [HHb] were calculated on the basis of the raw attenuation data [25]. The instrumental
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noise of fNIRS primarily depends on the amount of photons taken into account. In general,
the instrumental noise of the fNIRS instrument is far lower than the physiological noise, i.e.
physiological fluctuations (such as heart beat, breathing, Mayer waves) and movement
artefacts. Therefore [O2Hb] and [HHb], measured in µmol/l, were rounded off to four decimal
places.
We used a mobile, purpose-built miniaturised 8-channel wireless NIRS sensor on the
unrestrained goats [43]. The layout of the sensor included two detectors and four light
sources with two wavelengths each (LED at 760 and 870 nm peak emission wavelength;
source–detector distances of 14 and 22 mm). A silicon PIN photo diode was used to detect
the intensity of the light after transmission through tissue and the signal was digitised with a
sampling rate of 100 Hz. The data was transmitted wirelessly to the host computer for storage
and later processing.
The sensor was located on the goats' front so as to cover the frontal area of the cortex (Fig.
1b). In that region of the head, a sinus is situated between the skull and the brain (Fig. 1d)
potentially interfering with the light paths. Haeussinger et al. [26] have shown that a frontal
sinus may weaken the signal but still allows for the detection of functional responses in
humans. This fact may complicate the comparison between individuals since their sinuses
vary in size. This is irrelevant for the current study because the main comparison is within
subjects, thus allowing for such individual idiosyncrasies.
Data were filtered resulting in values for [O2Hb] and [HHb] at 1 Hz during each single
stimulation for eight light paths (all possible combinations of right/left, caudal/cranial,
shallow/deep). In the interests of decreasing carryover effects from one stimulation to the
next, we included only a 10 s pre-stimulus, 15 s stimulus and 10 s post-stimulus time in our
analysis. As we were interested in relative changes in [O2Hb] and [HHb], we subtracted the
median of the pre-stimulus observations from all the values observed for each stimulation.
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Some of the fNIRS measurements failed during single stimulations, mostly due to movement
artefacts. These single stimulations that were detected visually were omitted from further
analyses. In order to increase signal-to-noise ratio, we additionally used a time triggered
median across all single stimulations, based on the ten stimulations per treatment (in the
median, range 6-10 stimulations). We used the median to make our data more stable in
respect to random variation and outliers.
2.3.2. Heart rate measurements
Continuous heart rate (RR-intervals) was measured non-invasively throughout the
experimental trials using Polar RS800CX (Polar Elektro, Oy, Finland). The heart monitor
consisted of a flexible belt with two integrated electrodes, a transmitter and a separate storage
device. The electrodes were placed behind the left humerus and across the sternum. In the
interests of better electrical conductivity, the goats were shaved and ultrasonic gel was used
(Heiland Vertriebsgesellschaft GmbH, Germany). RR-data were transmitted wirelessly to the
storage device and later imported into the corresponding software (Polar Pro Trainer 5). Error
correction of the RR-data was conducted using standard set-up of the software (the error rate
was between 0 and 5% with the exception of one animal, where it was up to 10%). HR (heart
rate in beats per minute), SDNN (standard deviation of the RR-intervals), and RMSSD
(square root of the mean squared difference of successive RR-intervals) were then
continuously extracted for each 5s interval throughout the single stimulations. Additionally,
the SDNN/RMSSD ratio was calculated. While the SDNN is thought to be related to
sympathetic activity and the RMSSD reflects parasympathetic (vagal) activity, the ratio gives
an idea of the balance between both branches of the autonomic nervous system [69, 75].
2.3.3. Behavioural data
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Behavioural data was video recorded (Panasonic HDC-SD600, Kadoma, Osaka, Japan) and
then analysed using The Observer 7.0 (Noldus Information Technology, Wageningen,
Netherlands). Behaviour was assigned to the same 5 s intervals according to heart rate
measurements and was continuously scored. The resulting classification specified the
duration of feeding (from the bowl), of being inactive (standing in place without any
movement), of being active (standing in place while moving head or legs), of locomotion
(walking around in the pen), rearing (raising both forelegs to a wall), of shaking the body,
and of shaking the head per each 5 s interval. Simultaneously, the duration of time animals
were at the bowl (contact with the bowl), near the bowl (< 0.5 m) and far from the bowl (>
0.5m) was assessed for each 5 s interval. Due to sum-to-one constraints, we restricted our
behavioural evaluations to the duration of feeding, of being inactive, of locomotion, and of
being at the trough. In addition, we evaluated whether the (rarely observed) behaviours of
rearing, scratching, shaking body and shaking the head actually occurred at all within a
specific 5 s interval.
Heart rate measurements and behaviour were evaluated in the 15 s time frame prior to onset
of the stimulus (three 5 s intervals), 15 s stimulus (three 5 s intervals) and another 15 s after
cessation of stimulus (three 5 s intervals), resulting in a total of nine 5 s intervals. The middle
15 s of the 45 s periods between stimuli were dropped to reduce carry-over effects.
For each stimulation, the median value for the three 5 s pre-stimulus intervals was calculated
and subtracted from all nine 5 s intervals of that stimulation in all heart rate measurements
and the behavioural data reflecting durations. These differences describe the absolute change
from baseline in each stimulation. The ten stimulations per treatment and per animal were
then averaged, again using the median, resulting in a median change from baseline for each
animal and treatment throughout the nine 5 s intervals (Fig. 3).
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As regards the rare behaviours (rearing, scratching, shaking body and shaking the head), we
first calculated the proportion of the ten stimulations per treatment during which the
behaviour was observed, resulting in a proportion per 5 s period and per animal. We then
again subtracted the median of the pre-stimulus intervals from all of the intervals,
culminating in values reflecting the absolute change from baseline (Fig. 3). Scratching,
shaking body and shaking the head were omitted from further analysis because of their rare
occurrence.
2.4. Statistical analysis
2.4.1. Type of model used
We used linear mixed-effects models [55, 56] in R 2.14.1 [58] to describe changes in [O2Hb]
and [HHb] as well as in heart rate and behavioural measures depending on the fixed effects
time course throughout the stimulation (continuous variable as a natural spline to allow for an
unrestricted yet smooth curve; package splines in the base distribution; see below),
experimental treatment (factor with two levels: covered and uncovered bowl) and location on
the head ([O2Hb] and [HHb] only; laterality: indicator for left versus right hemisphere,
longitudinal position: indicator for cranial location versus caudal location, measurement
depth: deep versus superficial measurement). For the dependencies in our data, we used a
hierarchically nested random effect which nested the data from the single paths ([O2Hb] and
[HHb] only) within the experimental phase (with a given treatment) which was in turn nested
in goat identity. In the 1 Hz [O2Hb] and [HHb], we additionally allowed for an auto-
regressive process of the order of 3 in the residuals to control for temporal auto-correlation.
We checked statistical assumptions, normality of errors and random effects, homoscedasticity
of errors and temporal independence of errors using a graphical analysis of residuals.
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2.4.2. Model selection
Model selection based on stepwise procedures has recently been criticised due to issues of
bias, multiple testing and negligence of model selection uncertainty. An alternative approach
based on the use of information criteria (IC) has been suggested (cp. Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology volume 65, issue 1; [61] for a summary and an application). In short, an optimal
model is sought in respect to predictive power and parsimony. Usually, the set of models to
select from is an a priori set-up and each model is assigned a so-called model weight which
can be interpreted as its probability among the models in the set. The details of this approach
have been elaborated mainly using the Akaike information criterion (AIC) which is generally
thought to yield good results where predictions are concerned because relatively large models
are chosen. The Bayes information criterion (BIC), on the contrary, chooses smaller models
and might be more appropriate for research into mechanisms, i.e. the causal understanding of
the relation between explanatory and outcome variables [46]. In addition, some former
analyses by us showed that models of [O2Hb] and [HHb] selected on the basis of the AIC
included some very detailed patterns that were unsystematic and had to be considered
random. This is why we used BIC values for comparison here. To compare models, we used
the package AICcmodavg [41] that we adapted for a comparison of BIC values.
2.4.3. fNIRS: Outcome variables
[O2Hb] and [HHb] showed an unusual distribution in that long tails occurred in the lower as
well as in the upper value range that could not be assigned to either specific animals or
treatments. This is understandable in that some changes in concentration showed an increase
and some animals and treatments showed an exceptionally large increase. The same was true
for other animals and treatments where a decrease in concentrations was involved. Therefore,
we applied a transformation that shrinks both of these tails to the centre of the distribution as
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follows: [xHb]T = sign ([xHb]) * log (104 * abs ([xHb]) + 1.5), where x stands for either O2
or H and abs for taking the absolute value. Basically, we log-transformed the absolute values
and reassigned the sign for the original value after transformation. The specifics of this
transformation were chosen such that all values were > 1 before the logarithm transformation
to ensure that there was no change in sign following that transformation. This ensured that the
complete transformation was monotonous, i.e. values that were larger before the
transformation were also larger after the transformation.
The estimated signals presented in the results were based on the back-transformation of the
model predictions following the formula (rounded off to four decimal places): [xHb] = sign
([xHb]T) * (exp (abs ([xHb]T)) - 1.5) * 1/104 with abs standing for taking the absolute value
and exp for taking the exponential to the natural base.
2.4.4. fNIRS: model selection
We started out with a full factorial model, i.e. we included all fixed effects and all possible
interactions among these fixed effects. We then performed model selection in two steps
(Table 1): first we selected the necessary degrees of freedom of the splines reflecting the
temporal change in [O2Hb] and [HHb] in that model. In this step, we compared the degrees of
freedom of the splines that we had used before ([44], [O2Hb]: 17 dfs; [HHb]: 9 dfs) with a
model with fewer ([O2Hb]: 7 dfs; [HHb]: 5 dfs) and a model with more degrees of freedom
([O2Hb]: 27 dfs; [HHb]: 19 dfs).
Secondly, we assessed whether a simplification of the fixed effects was possible. For this
purpose, we compared the full model chosen in step one with (1) a model that included all
fixed effects as main effects and all two-way and the one three-way interaction between
treatment, time-course, right-left and the same effects of treatment, time course, caudal-
cranial, (2) a model that included all fixed effects as main effects and all two way and the one
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three-way interaction between treatment, time course, right-left, (3) the main effects model
including all fixed effects, (4) a model including treatment and time course and their
interaction, (5) a model including the main effects of treatment and time course, (6) a model
including time course only, (7) a model including treatment only, and (8) a model including
the intercept only (a null model without fixed effects).
2.4.5. Heart rate and behavioural measurements: outcome variables and model selection
None of the heart rate and behavioural measurements needed to be transformed to satisfy
statistical assumptions. Similar to the [O2Hb] and [HHb] data, we proceeded in two steps.
These outcome variables were observed across nine points in time (5 s intervals) and thus the
maximum number of degrees of freedom for a spline was eight. Therefore, we first of all
compared models using splines with 8, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 degree of freedom to model the time
course that included treatment, time course and their interaction as fixed effects. Secondly,
we compared the model with the optimal number of degrees of freedom with the main effects
model, with the models including only one of the two main effects and with the model
including the intercept only (Table 2).
3. Results
3.1. fNIRS measurements
The BIC values showed that the models with fewer degrees of freedom in the splines
modelling the time course were adequate in both [O2Hb] and [HHb] and yielded model
weights of 1 with allowance for rounding (Table 1). In respect to the structure of the
explanatory variables, the most favoured model was the main effects model including
treatment and time course for [O2Hb] and the same model with the additional interaction
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between the two variables for [HHb] (Table 1). Therefore, the position on the head did not
seem to play a major role as far as the signal was concerned.
[O2Hb] showed two peaks in the course of the presentation of the covered bowl whereas, on
average, there was no change in [O2Hb] when feed was accessible (Fig. 2a). [HHb] showed
negligible changes when the covered bowl was presented but showed a decrease where feed
was available (Fig. 2b). Although reactions in all measured light paths were similar in the
treatment with the covered feed bowl, reactions were more variable in the situation where
feed was available (Fig. 2, 4).
3.2. Heart rate measurements and behaviour
High model weights enabled to choose degrees of freedom for the splines modelling the time
course and these ranged between 1 and 4 (Table 2). For rearing, the models with 2 and 1
degree of freedom attained similar model weights and we chose the one with the slightly
higher value in order not to miss any potential subtle effect. The null model, i.e. the
assumption that the measured values would randomly vary around a given mean over time,
was strongly supported by the BIC values for SDNN, RMSSD and rearing (Table 2). The
model, including interactions, was as strongly supported for SDNN/RMSSD, time spent at
the trough, and locomotion. The case was less clear when it came to heart rate and periods of
inactivity. For heart rate, the highest model probability was found for the null model, but the
main effects model, including the time course, showed a similar probability and an evidence
ratio of almost 90% in comparison to the null model. Thus it was almost as likely as the null
model. As regards periods of inactivity, the largest model probability was reached by the
model with the main effect of the time course, but the model with an interaction between
treatment and time-course still yielded a non-negligible model probability of 0.28 (with an
evidence ratio > 56 in comparison to the null model; Table 2). Since the effects of interest
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may be subtle, we decided to present the more complex models for these two outcome
variables.
Heart rate showed a weak peak, reaching its maximum at around stimulus onset (Fig. 3a).
There was no consistent and statistically detectable pattern in SDNN nor in RMSSD (Fig.
3bc), whereas SDNN/RMSSD showed a dip after the covered feed bowl had been withdrawn
and a strong peak and dip with onset of stimulus and cessation of stimulus respectively, in the
treatment where feed was provided (Fig. 3d).
Feeding took place only when feed was available and somewhat longer. Goats fed for a
median of 3.67 (range: 2.85-4.35), 5 (5-5), 5 (2.62-5) and 2.01 s (0-3.48), in the 5 s intervals
starting at 0, 5, 10, and 15 s after onset of stimulus.
Time spent at the trough was high when feed was accessible and dipped when the feed bowl
was covered (Fig. 3e). The goats were less inactive during the stimulus presentation and were
even less so when feed was available (Fig. 3f). On the other hand, locomotion increased
during stimulus presentation if the bowl was covered, but only increased after stimulus
presentation if the feed was available (Fig. 3g). Finally, the proportion of single stimulations
during which goats showed rearing behaviour did not change systematically throughout the
stimulus presentation (Fig. 3h).
4. Discussion
4.1. Technical aspects
Some technical aspects of this experiment call for brief discussion. Until recently, the advice
was against cortical fNIRS measurements if a sinus was located between skull and brain [26].
Yet recent measurements and simulations have shown that such air cavities may attenuate the
signal but do not seem to interfere with the pattern of the signal [26]. In that study,
Hauessinger et al. [26] show that the depth of penetration below a sinus remains about the
17
same (2-3 cm at an interoptode distance of 3 cm), but the volume of grey matter that is
traversed is reduced by a sinus and thus the fNIRS measurements may become less sensitive.
This is an issue mainly for studies comparing individuals who vary in the depth of their
sinuses, whereas these effects are kept constant if the main comparison is between different
treatment situations within subjects as in our study. An activation may therefore be more
difficult to detect, but if detected it can be expected to be reliable.
We have used a non-standard transformation for the outcome variables [O2Hb] and [HHb].
This was needed because we observed, in some instances, (paths and individuals) very large
absolute increases or decreases in [O2Hb] and [HHb]. It may well be the case that these
changes were all similar on a relative scale, i.e. that these major changes observed started
from high pre-stimulus concentration. Unfortunately, the approach to calculating [O2Hb] and
[HHb] changes does not allow for an estimation of absolute [O2Hb] and [HHb] [77]. For the
time being, we are thus limited to addressing the issue of statistical assumptions in our
models and the presentation of absolute rather than relative changes in concentration. We
thus need to postpone questions relating to exact (de-) activation mechanisms (absolute or
relative compared to baseline).
The modelled change in [HHb] during accessible feed appeared to be relatively slow and
delayed in comparison to the onset and cessation of the stimulus (Fig. 2b, right). This is likely
to be an artefact, though, caused by the simplicity of the chosen model that averaged across
paths and individuals and also used a spline with a relatively low degree of freedom. Given
the raw block-averaged data visible in the same figure, many of the changes in single path
[HHb] seem to be fast and consistent with at least the onset of stimulus. Given a larger
sample size, a model with a higher degree of freedom and including some of the interactions
between the localisations on the head might have been chosen. Estimated values of such a
model would follow the raw data more closely.
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Our dwarf goats were alternately subjected to the same two stimuli ten times, i.e. the
significance of the stimuli might have changed in the course of their repetition in that goats
became habituated, satiated or increasingly frustrated. The main purpose of the repetitions
was to increase signal-to-noise ratios in our fNIRS measurements by taking a triggered
median across the repetitions. For consistency and comparability reasons we dealt in an
analogous way with all our measurements. Thus our focus was on whether we could at all
detect a pattern between the two types of stimuli as reflected in the median of the ten
replicates. Obviously, the above mentioned processes did not occur to an extent as to
completely dilute the patterns that we have found. Based on the feeding behaviour, there did
not seem to be much change from one repetition to the next and goats remained motivated to
feed throughout the trials. It remains currently open how much change in behaviour there was
with each additional repetition and this question might be addressed in a future study
purposefully designed for that question.
4.2. Neuro-cardio behavioural reactions: emotions in action?
Emotions have been conceptualised as a "multi-component response to an emotionally potent
antecedent event, causing changes in subjective feeling quality, expressive behaviour, and
physiological activation" [38]. We have indeed found changes in all these aspects of
emotions in our goats if we consider changes in the activation of the cortical frontal brain as a
(non-sufficient) prerequisite for subjective feelings. In humans, it has been found that
conscious reflection of feelings specifically activates the medial prefrontal cortex [49, 76]. It
can thus be assumed that activation in this area is a necessary prerequisite for conscious
subjective feelings. While this condition is met in our goats, we can nevertheless make no
statement in as much this activation actually contributes to a conscious feeling in this species
19
as it is unknown to what extent other species than humans have the capability of conscious
subjective experiences.
4.2.1. Behaviour
Our treatments were successful in the sense that the animals fed while confronted with the
uncovered bowl and until about 5 seconds after its retrieval, thus experiencing a feed reward
of the same length as when they were confronted with the wire-mesh covered bowl in the
negative situation. Accordingly, time spent at the trough was high when the uncovered bowl
was available, but low when the bowl was covered. The time spent in locomotion increased
during the presentation of the negative stimulus, because goats moved away from the bowl
when presented covered by the mesh. Also, goats showed higher locomotion in reaction to
the withdrawal of the uncovered bowl which could be interpreted as a negative event too.
These reactions can be viewed as the result of an approach/withdrawal output of the
emotional system (e.g. [47]). These reactions may be viewed as the result of an
approach/withdrawal output of the emotional system (e.g. [47]). Increased activity has
previously been observed in response to a negative/frustrating event (e.g. [28, 74]). In
contrast to another study conducted with goats [66], rearing did not reliably reflect the
valence of the stimulus and scratching, shaking the body and shaking the head were observed
too rarely to serve as an indicator for valence in such experimental situations.
4.2.2. Physiological activation.
The role of the autonomic system and the specificity of its reactions in respect to different
emotions has been the subject of intensive discussions [21]. Though there seems to be a direct
relationship between prefrontal cortex activation and HRV [70], we did not find changes in
either SDNN or RMSSD corresponding to the changes in the brain that we have observed
20
(see below). This corresponds to some previous observations in chickens and sheep [17, 61]
with no changes in RMSSD but contrasts others [59, 60, 80] that found lower values in
RMSSD in situations of negative valence in sheep and pigs. This may be explained by the
fact that the situations of negative and positive valence in the current experiment were of
relatively weak intensity and by the fact that reactions were highly variable between
individuals.
Sympathetically mediated arousal as reflected in SDNN/RMSSD was visible in the
anticipation of the positive event, i.e. the uncovered bowl. There are many easily measurable
variables for heart-rate variability and the sympatho-vagal balance in the time domain (e.g.
Table 3 in [38]), but only a few studies have been dedicated to the changes displayed in
relation to emotional situations (Table 2 in [38]) and therefore, there is little evidence from
human research as to what specific reactions we need to expect during frustration versus
reward and vice versa [36]. However, in a study on acoustical operant conditioning in pigs,
we found a comparable increase in the sympatho-vagal balance in anticipation of an
individually announced feed reward [80]. In the present study we used the same acoustical
signal (counting down from 3 to 1) to announce both, the positive and the negative
stimulation and yet the goats only reacted to the positive situation with a change in autonomic
balance. We assume the goats were in a state of affective arousal because of reward
anticipation before positive stimulation. In contrast, the expectation of a frustrating event (the
covered bowl) did not lead to arousal as may be expected.
Some of the anticipatory reaction seen in SDNN/RMSSD was also visible in HR for both
treatments and the raw data seemed to indicate that the reaction was stronger in the positive
situation (Fig. 3a), though this difference was not statistically detectable. This contrasts with
previous research on the situation of differing valence that found higher negative correlations
between heart rate and positivity of a situation [6, 59, 60].
21
4.2.3. Cortical activation.
As regards the interpretation of the haemodynamic cortical changes, the location of
measurement is crucial. As shown in Fig. 1, the fNIRS sensor was positioned on top of the
frontal cortex; the most frontal part (orbitofrontal cortex) was covered by the ‘cranial’ paths
and a position slightly shifted to the top and back (dorsomedial/-lateral cortex) by the
‘caudal’ paths. In humans, it is known that this area plays an essential part in assessing
emotions and linking these emotions with cognitive processes and behavioural actions [10,
53, 65, 79].
If neural activation takes place, O2 consumption (the cerebral metabolic rate) increases,
reducing [O2Hb] and increasing [HHb]. At the same time, blood flow and blood volume are
increased, carrying more [O2Hb] to the active tissue and reducing [HHb] at the same time;
this results in an increase of [O2Hb] and a decrease of [HHb]. Usually, the [O2Hb] changes
are about 3-4 times stronger and the balance of the above effects are much less clear for
[HHb] than for [O2Hb] [78]. This leads us to conclude that we observed a general frontal
cortical activation when the goats were faced with the negative situation, i.e. the covered
bowl. This activation was simultaneous with the onset of stimulus; it was also of short
duration. There was a second similar activation around 10 sec after the start of the stimulus.
The most likely cause for this activation was the expectation of the bowl being withdrawn
which took place at that point in time in the other (positive) situation, i.e. at the end of the
presentation of the uncovered bowl. Such a reaction might not be elicited in the situation with
the uncovered bowl because the animals were still eating when the bowl was withdrawn.
Thus, such a general frontal activation would seem to coincide with emotions likely to elicit
frustration but also negative anticipation. This bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex in a
presumably negative situation coincides with previous observations of humans viewing
22
fearful compared to neutral pictures [23], pictures of what one dislikes [33] or during
deception [72].
Although a general frontal cortical activation in a positive situation (grooming) modulated by
mood was found in a previous study involving sheep [44], the pattern is less clear in the
positive situation of the current study. The lack of a clear reaction may be related to the
higher variability as seen in the insets of Fig. 2. This high variability in an emotionally
positive situation may be viewed as an evolutionary effect [51] that leads to little variation
between individuals as regards their reaction towards negative stimuli but allows for more
variable reactions if faced with a positive stimulus [12, 20]. This discrepancy may be caused
by the far-reaching and direct consequences as regards fitness of the negative compared to the
positive stimuli. However, individuality in terms of reactions does not seem to be the only
source of variability in our experiment. Looking at the single paths in more detail (Fig. 4),
there seemed to be a differential activation in the more cranial area: a shallow (short light
paths) right-sided activation was accompanied by a deep (long light paths) left-sided
activation and contrasted with a deep right-sided deactivation. In the caudal part of our
measurement, haemodynamic changes are less apparent. Given our sample size, this effect
was not statistically detectable in interactions between the measurement locations.
Nevertheless, the pattern fits previous observations so well that we will shortly be looking at
it in more detail: left-sided cortical activation has been related to positive emotional reactions
and right-sided activation to negative emotional reactions in humans [10, 39, 45, 50] and
animals (sheep [6], rats [68]). This asymmetry may thus be directly relevant for the
assessment of animal welfare [63]. Some recent research indicates that the asymmetric frontal
cortical activation may not, however, correspond to valence (negativity – positivity) but that
left cortical activation may coincide with approach motivation [11, 22, 27] or that the left-
right gradient may just reflect relative differences in magnitude of e.g. numerals, valence of
23
emotions [31]. All in all, the activation pattern reflected by the long paths in our current study
fits the expectation of asymmetric activation in respect to positivity of a situation or tendency
to approach, thus, indicating that our brain structures coinciding with the measurements in the
long paths (deeper in the tissue) were responsible for the emotional processing of the stimuli.
4.2.4. Anticipation.
We observed several reactions in our goats that showed that they might have anticipated
events: the second peak in the cortical activation when confronted with the covered bowl, a
peak in heart rate and SDNN/RMSSD reached slightly before the start of stimulus
presentation. We think that all other reactions that coincided with stimulus onset or end were
caused directly by the stimuli. Nevertheless, in order to completely disentangle the reactions
in respect to the stimuli themselves and anticipatory effects, the pause between stimuli
presentations should be randomly varied in future experiments [73] as well as the sequence of
stimuli of different types. Also, stimulus presentation should be automated so that the
animals’ attention is not drawn to the impending next stimulus by audible counting down for
coordinating stimulus presentation and fNIRS recording.
5. Conclusions
In this study, goats confronted with a covered feed bowl (and thus presumably in a state of
frustration) directed their behaviour away from the feed bowl and increased activity with no
autonomic arousal, but accompanied by a clear activation of the prefrontal cortex.
Contrastingly, behaviour was directed at the trough and there was a decrease in activity
accompanied by sympathetically mediated autonomic arousal and specific left hemispheric
prefrontal activation when allowed to eat and thus being faced with a rewarding situation.
Therefore, we observed patterns in behaviour, sympathetic reaction and brain activity that
24
identified a frustrating and rewarding situation in goats and consisted of a well-coordinated
set of reactions appropriate as regards the emotional content of the stimuli used.
6. Acknowledgements
We would like to thank T. Mühlemann for his on-going real-time advice in conjunction with
the fNIRS measurements. Special thanks go to D. Sehland and H. Deike for excellent
technical assistance and to K. Siebert for behavioural scoring and extracting heart rate
measurements. Further thanks go to E. Hillmann, B. Puppe and two anonymous reviewers for
commenting on earlier versions of the manuscript.
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Table 1 Model selection fNIRS Measures used in BIC based model selection of the haemodynamic changes relating to degrees of
freedom of the splines and the explanatory variables (see text for definitions of the models). aInt: all interactions, int2: several
expected interactions, itn1: some expected interactions, aM: all main effects, V*T: valence, time course and interaction, V+T: main
effects valence and time course, V: valence as a main effect only, T: time course as a main effect only.
Spline1 Choice of model complexity df wi Measures2 aInt int2 int1 aM V*T V+T V T Intercept
[O2Hb] 7 1.00 Total dfs3 135 56 41 19 23 16 9 15 8 BIC 24880.14 24284.13 24178.41 24033.88 24036.47 24010.91 24021.39 24011.62 24022.11 ∆i 869.23 273.22 167.5 22.97 25.56 0 10.47 0.70 11.20 ER0 > 116 wi 0 0 0 0 0 0.58! 0 0.41 0
[HHb] 5 1.00 Total dfs3 103 44 33 17 19 14 9 13 8 BIC 23288.77 22881.67 22798.41 22722.83 22693.64 22698.39 22705.1 22696.45 22703.04 ∆i 595.13 188.03 104.77 29.19 0 4.75 11.45 2.81 9.4 ER0 =74 wi 0 0 0 0 0.74! 0.07 0 0.18 0.01
1degrees of freedom chosen among the values 7, 17, 27 [O2Hb] and 5, 9, 19 [HHb] for the spline used for modelling the time course by the minimal BIC value and model weight of that model. 2Measures used in BIC-based model selection. BIC: BIC-value; ∆i: Differences in BIC in comparison to the optimal model (having the lowest BIC value) within the set of models; wi: Bayes weight which may be interpreted as the probability of the given model within the set presented. 3df: degrees of freedom used by respective model. !: Final model reported. ER0: Evidence ratio of the chosen model in relation to the null model (including the intercept only), i.e. the chosen model is ER0 times more likely than the null model.
34
Table 2: Measurements used in BIC based model selection of heart rate and behavioural
outcome variables in relation to degrees of freedom of the splines and the explanatory variables
valence (V) and time course (T). See text for further explanations.
Spline df1 Choice of model complexity df wi Measures2 V * T V + T V T Intercept
Total dfs fixed effects3 1+2*df 1+df 1 0+df 0
Heart rate 3 0.79 BIC 908.28 904.91 904.68 900.48 900.25 ∆i 8.03 4.67 4.43 0.24 0 ER0 = 0.89 wi 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.42! 0.47
SDNN 1 0.88 BIC 757.51 753.64 749.99 750.46 746.82 ∆i 10.69 6.82 3.18 3.64 0 wi 0 0.02 0.15 0.12 0.71!
RMSSD 1 0.99 BIC 728.86 724.08 719.32 719.7 714.94 ∆i 13.92 9.14 4.38 4.76 0 wi 0 0.01 0.09 0.08 0.82!
SDNN/RMSSD 3 0.99 BIC 64.96 72.83 71.12 69.69 67.98 ∆i 0 7.88 6.16 4.73 3.02 ER0 = 4.5 wi 0.72! 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.16
Being at trough 4 1.00 BIC 397.99 466.08 478.9 469.96 482.35 ∆i 0 68.09 80.91 71.97 84.37 ER0 > 200 wi 1.00! 0 0 0 0
Being inactive 2 0.80 BIC 399.1 396.8 412.98 395.18 411.36 ∆i 3.93 1.62 17.8 0 16.18 ER0 > 56 wi 0.09 0.28! 0 0.63 0
Locomotion 2 0.95 BIC 259.72 276.35 270.28 272.45 266.37 ∆i 0 16.63 10.55 12.72 6.64 ER0 = 32 wi 0.96! 0 0 0 0.03
Rearing 2 0.50 BIC -147.19 -149.08 -156.27 -153.91 -161.1 (1 0.44) ∆i 13.91 12.02 4.83 7.19 0 wi 0 0 0.08 0.02 0.89!
1degrees of freedom chosen among the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 for the spline used for modelling the time course by the minimal BIC value and model weight of that model. 2Measurements used in BIC-based model selection. BIC: BIC-value; ∆i: Differences in BIC in comparison to the optimal model (having the lowest BIC value) within the set of models; wi: Bayes weight which may be interpreted as the probability of the given model within the set presented. 3df: degrees of freedom used by the fixed effects in the model, depend largely on the degrees of freedom of the spline (all other estimated parameters, i.e. the intercept, the random effect of sheep, the variability of the error are included in all these models). !: Final model reported. ER0: Evidence ratio of the chosen model in relation to the null model (including the intercept only), i.e. the chosen model is ER0 times more likely than the null model.
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Figure Captions
Figure 1
Position of the fNIRS sensor on the head of a goat: a) shaved area on the forehead, b)
position of the sensor, c) attachment of the sensor, and d) saggital cross section with the
approximate position of the fNIRS device (see arrows).
Figure 2
Changes in (a) oxy- [O2Hb] and (b) deoxy- [HHb] haemoglobin concentrations over the time
course of the presentation of the covered feed bowl (negative; feed frustration) and accessible
feed (positive; feed reward) treatment. A two-peak activation is visible in [O2Hb] for the
negative situation, whereas a strong average decrease in [HHb] was found in the positive
situation (but see also Fig. 4). Stimulation periods are indicated by the grey shading. Wide
lines indicate model estimates with thin lines reflecting 95% confidence intervals. Insets:
signals from the single paths (eight paths per animal and experimental treatment).
Figure 3
Changes in heart rate measurements (a: heart rate; b: SDNN; c: RMSSD; d: SDNN/RMSSD)
and behavioural measurements (e: being close to trough; f: being inactive; g: locomotion; h:
rearing) over the time course (indicated in s) of the presentation of the covered feed bowl
(negative; feed frustration) and accessible feed (positive; feed reward) treatment. Grey area:
stimulus, thin grey lines: time course for the single individuals, thick black line: model
estimate: thin black lines 95% confidence intervals.
Figure 4
Summed signal across the stimulus phase (area under the curve, µmol/l) during accessible
feed (seconds 0-15) in relation to the spatial location of the light paths. A differential left
deep activation is visible in the cranial location specifically for [O2Hb]. Shading indicates the
proportion of animals for which the summed signal was positive (white = 0, black= 1).
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(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
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