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Astronomy Activity and Laboratory Manual Alan W. Hirshfeld 978-0-7637-6019-9

Climatology, Third Edition Robert V. Rohli & Anthony J. Vega 978-1-284-03230-7

Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology Eric H. Christiansen & W. Kenneth Hamblin 978-1-4496-5984-4

Earth’s Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth Ronald Martin 978-1-4496-4890-9

Earth’s Natural Resources John V. Walther 978-1-4496-3234-2

The Ecology of Agroecosystems John H. Vandermeer 978-0-7637-7153-9

Environmental Geology Today Robert L. McConnell & Daniel C. Abel 978-1-4496-8487-7

Environmental Oceanography: Topics and Analysis Daniel C. Abel & Robert L. McConnell 978-0-7637-6379-4

Environmental Science, Tenth Edition Daniel D. Chiras 978-1-284-05705-8

Essential Invitation to Oceanography Paul R. Pinet 978-1-4496-8643-7

Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions, Fifth Edition Michael L. McKinney, Robert M. Schoch, & Logan Yonavjak 978-1-4496-6139-7

Essentials of Geochemistry, Second Edition John V. Walther 978-0-7637-5922-3

Igneous Petrology, Third Edition Alexander McBirney 978-0-7637-3448-0

An Introduction to Marine Mammal Biology and Conservation E.C.M. Parsons 978-0-7637-8344-0

Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Tenth Edition John Morrissey & James L. Sumich 978-0-7637-8160-6

In Quest of the Solar System Theo Koupelis 978-0-7637-6629-0

In Quest of the Stars and Galaxies Theo Koupelis 978-0-7637-6630-6

In Quest of the Universe, Seventh Edition Theo Koupelis 978-1-4496-8775-5

Laboratory and Field Investigations in Marine Life, Tenth Edition Gordon H. Dudley, James L. Sumich & Virginia Dudley 978-1-4496-0501-8

Laboratory Exercises to Accompany Invitation to Oceanography Karl M. Chauffe & Mark G. Jefferies 978-1-4496-9860-7

Louisiana Weather and Climate Anthony J. Vega, John M. Grymes III & Robert V. Rohli 978-1-284-03522-3

Marine Environmental Biology and Conservation Daniel W. Beckman 978-0-7637-7350-2

Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere, Fourth Edition Steven A. Ackerman & John A. Knox 978-1-284-03080-8

Principles of Atmospheric Science John E. Frederick 978-0-7637-4089-4

Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition James E. Girard 978-1-4496-9352-7

Restoration Ecology Sigurdur Greipsson 978-0-7637-4219-5

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Invitation to

S E V E N T H E D I T I O N

P A U L R . P I N E TCOLGATE UNIVERSITY

Invitation to

S E V E N T H E D I T I O N

Oceanography























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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataPinet, Paul R. Invitation to Oceanography / Paul Pinet. — Seventh edition. pages cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-284-05707-2 (alk. paper)1. Oceanography. I. Title.

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CHAPTER 1 The Growth of Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CHAPTER 2 The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

CHAPTER 3 The Origin of Ocean Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

CHAPTER 4 Marine Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

CHAPTER 5 The Properties of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

CHAPTER 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

CHAPTER 7 Waves in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

CHAPTER 8 Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

CHAPTER 9 Marine Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

CHAPTER 10 Biological Productivity in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

CHAPTER 11 The Dynamic Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

CHAPTER 12 Coastal Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

CHAPTER 13 Ocean Habitats and Their Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

CHAPTER 14 The Ocean’s Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

CHAPTER 15 The Human Presence in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

CHAPTER 16 Global Climate Change and the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Contents in Brief























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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

CHAPTER 1 The Growth of Oceanography . . . . . 2

1-1 Oceanography: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . 4

1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography . . 5 Ocean Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Early Scientifi c Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Modern Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Features Science by the Numbers: Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The Process of Science: The Scientifi c Process . . . . . 19 Science by the Numbers: Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2-1 The Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Earth’s Interior Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Earth’s Exterior Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2-2 The Physiography of the Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Bathymetric Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2-3 Geologic Differences between Continents and Ocean Basins . . . . . . 38

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The Earth’s Topography and Bathymetry . . . 39 Mass Balance and Isostasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2-4 The Physiography of the Western North Atlantic Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Features Science by the Numbers: Powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . 42 Geology: Probing the Seafl oor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

CHAPTER 3

The Origin of Ocean Basins . . . . . . 50

3-1 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3-2 Sea� oor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 The Geomagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Spreading Ocean Ridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3-3 Global Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Subduction Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Plate-Tectonic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 The Opening and Closing of Ocean

Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A Summary of Global Plate

Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3-4 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Features The Process of Science: Seafl oor Spreading . . . . . . . 58 Geology: The San Andreas Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Geology: The Red Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Science by the Numbers: Seafl oor

Spreading Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

CHAPTER 2























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CHAPTER 4 Marine Sedimentation . . . . 84

4-1 Sediment in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Classifi cation of Marine Sediment . . . . . . . . . 86 Factors that Control Sedimentation . . . . . . . 87

4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean . . . . . . . . 91 Shelf Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Deep-Sea Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Deep-Sea Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4-3 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Features Geology: Probing the Seafl oor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Geology: Dust Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The Process of Science: Climate Variability and

Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Geology: Catastrophic Meltwater Scouring

and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Geology: The Drying Up of the

Mediterranean Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Science by the Numbers: Sedimentation

Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

CHAPTER 5 The Properties of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . 130

5-1 Basic Chemical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5-2 Basic Physical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5-3 The Water Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 The Solutes of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

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5-4 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Principle of Constant

Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Factors That Regulate the Salinity of

Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Effects of Salinity on the Properties

of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

5-5 Chemical and Physical Structure of the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

5-6 Gases in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5-7 The Ocean as a Physical Chemical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Reservoirs of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 The Global Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Features Science by the Numbers: Parts per

Thousand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chemistry: Chemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Chemistry: Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Physics: Other Physical Properties of

Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Chemistry: The Sea-Surface Microlayer . . . . . . . . . 175 Science by the Numbers: Order of

Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

CHAPTER 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . 186

6-1 Atmospheric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Coriolis Defl ection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 General Wind Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

6-2 Surface Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . 194 The Wind-Driven Currents of the

Sea Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Types of Surface Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 A Model of Geostrophic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Refi nement of the Geostrophic-Flow

Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

6-3 Deep-Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . . . 211 Water Masses and Density-Driven Water

Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 A General Model of Thermohaline

Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214























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6-4 Water Flow in Semienclosed Seaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Features Physics: Current-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . 196 Physics: Hurricanes and Typhoons . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Science by the Numbers: Volume Transport . . . . . . . 212 Physics: Underwater Weather and Waterfalls . . . . 223

CHAPTER 7 Waves in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

7-1 Properties of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . 234 Wind Generation of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

7-2 Wave Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 The Motion of Water Particles Beneath

Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Motion of the Wave Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

7-3 The Life History of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Growth of Waves in the Fetch Area . . . . . . . 241 Storm Waves Outside the Generating

Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Waves in Shallow Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Shoreline Under Storm

Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7-4 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

7-5 Other Types of Progressive Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Internal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Features Physics: Wave-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 239 Science by the Numbers: Wave Celerity

(Speed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Physics: Tiny Waves and Giant Waves . . . . . . . . . . 252 Physics: The Megatsunamis of December 26,

2004 and March 11, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

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CHAPTER 8 Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264

8-1 Tidal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

8-2 Origin of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Equilibrium Model of Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Dynamic Model of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

8-3 Tides in Small and Elongated Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

8-4 Tidal Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

8-5 Power from the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Features Physics: Currents through Tidal Inlets . . . . . . . . . . 276 Science by the Numbers: Speed of the Tide . . . . . . . 284 Biology: Tidal Rhythms in Organisms . . . . . . . . . . 286 Physics: Internal Tides Shape the Bottom

Gradients of the Continental Slope . . . . . . . . . . 288 Science by the Numbers: Depth of the Bay

of Fundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

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CHAPTER 9 Marine Ecology . . .294

9-1 Ocean Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

9-2 Classi� cation of Organisms . . . . . . . 298 Kingdom Monera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Kingdom Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Kingdom Chromista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Kingdom Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Kingdom Metazoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

9-3 Classi� cation by Life-style . . . . . . . . 303

9-4 Basic Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

9-5 Selected Adaptive Strategies . . . . . . 316 Life Cycles of Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Functional Morphology of Fishes

(Nekton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Benthic Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

Features Biology: Sampling the Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Biology: Larval Dispersal and Settlement . . . . . . . 307 Biology: Killer Whales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Biology: Ecology of the Giant Kelp

Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

CHAPTER 10 Biological Productivity in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

10-1 Food Webs and Trophic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Energy and Trophic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Plants as Primary Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Animals as Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Bacteria as Decomposers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Food Chains and Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . 351

10-2 General Marine Productivity . . . . . . 353 Primary Production in the Ocean . . . . . . . . 353 Variations in Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

10-3 Global Patterns of Productivity . . . . 362 Spatial Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Estimates of Plant and Fish

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367























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CHAPTER 12 Coastal Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

12-1 Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Origin of Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Circulation and Sedimentation

in Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Salt-Wedge Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Partially Mixed Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Well-Mixed Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 The Biology of Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

12-2 Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

12-3 Salt Marshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

12-4 Mangrove Swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

12-5 Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Biology of Corals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Ecology of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Geology of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Features Biology: Chesapeake Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Geology: Salt-Marsh Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Biology: San Francisco Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454 Biology: Global Decline of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . 459 Science by the Numbers: Residence Time . . . . . . . 469

CHAPTER 13 Ocean Habitats and Their Biota . . 474

13-1 Biology of the Continental Shelf . . . 476 Neritic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Sublittoral Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

10-4 Biological Productivity of Upwelling Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

Features Science by the Numbers: Doubling

Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 345 Biology: Large Sharks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Biology: Satellite Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Biology: Migrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Physics: What Causes El Niño and

What Is La Niña? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

CHAPTER 11 The Dynamic Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . 386

11-1 Coastal Water Movement . . . . . . . . . 388 Shoaling Waves and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . 388 Circulation in the Surf Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

11-2 Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Beach Profi les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Sand Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

11-3 Coastal Dunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

11-4 Barrier Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Barrier-Island Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Origin of Barrier Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Tidal Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Storm Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

11-5 Cliffed Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

11-6 Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

11-7 Impact of People on the Coastline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Features Geology: A Sediment Budget of Fire

Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Geology: The Oregon Coastline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Geology: The Impact of Hurricane Sandy on the

New York and New Jersey Shorelines . . . . . . . . . 403 Geology: Cape Cod, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Geology: Padre Island, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Geology: San Diego County, California . . . . . . . . 414 Science by the Numbers: Sand-Budget

Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419Geology: Ocean City and Assateague

Island, Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Geology: Katrina Drowns New Orleans . . . . . . . . 422

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xii CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 15 The Human Presence in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

15-1 Pollution: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

15-2 Hydrocarbons in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . 526

15-3 Municipal and Industrial Ef� uent . . 533 Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Artifi cial Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542

15-4 Ocean Dredging and Mining . . . . . . 544 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Ocean Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

15-5 Over� shing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

15-6 The Ocean’s Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

Features Biology: The Torrey Canyon Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Biology: Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Biology: The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Science by the Numbers: Steady State . . . . . . . . . . 543 Biology: Collapse of the New England

Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Biology: Fishing for Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Biology: Red Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Biology: The Catastrophic Deepwater Horizon

Oil Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

13-2 Biology of the Open Ocean and the Deep Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 The Oceanic Realm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 The Deep-Sea Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490


Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

Features Biology: Penguins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Biology: Feeding Strategies by Whales . . . . . . . . . . 483 Biology: Sargassum Gulfweed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Biology: Squids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

CHAPTER 14 The Ocean’s Resources . . . . . . . . . 502

14-1 Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Law of the Sea Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Exclusive Economic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

14-2 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Oil and Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Gas Hydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Manganese Nodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Cobalt-Rich Oceanic Crusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Phosphate Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

14-3 Living Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Mariculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Features Geology: Offshore Oil and Gas in the

Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Biology: Fish Farming and “Super” Fish . . . . . . . . 513 Biology: Antarctic Krill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

(b) KELP BEDS© Paul Whitted/ShutterStock, Inc.

(c) ALBATROSS© rebvt/ShutterStock, Inc.























xiiiContents

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Geology: Should the Storm Breaches of Fire Island, N.Y., Be Closed?—Yes, No, or Maybe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

Geology: The Crisis of Louisiana’sWetland Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

Biology: Polar Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Biology: The Great Barrier

Reef in the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Chemistry: Iron Fertilization

of the Ocean—Yes, No, or Maybe? . . . . . . . . . . . 604

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

I Properties of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

II Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

III Geologic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

IV Maps and Topographic Pro� les . . . . 616

V Principal Marine Organisms . . . . . . 620

VI The Coriolis De� ection . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

CHAPTER 16 Global Climate Change and the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

16-1 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

16-2 Global Climate Impact on the Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Sea-Level Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

16-3 The Impact of Global Climate Change in the Open Ocean . . . . . . . 589 The Thermohaline Conveyer Belt . . . . . . . . 590 The Arctic Ocean and Its Cover of

Sea Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Ocean Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Seawater Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

16-4 What Do We Know, What Do We Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

Features The Process of Science: The Global Rise of

Sea Level and Its Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575























PrefaceW

ave: © lalan/Shutterstock.com

, Inc.

This book deals with the workings of the ocean, the dynamic processes that affect its water, sea-fl oor, and abundant life forms. The approach used is a broad one, relying on basic concepts to explain the ocean’s many mysteries. Any-body—whether sailor, surfer, beachcomber, or student—can learn about the processes and creatures of the oceans. No background in sci-ence is required to grasp the many important ideas that are relevant to the working of the oceans. Wherever appropriate, the underlying science is fi rst explained clearly, and only then is it used to account for ocean processes. These overarching scientifi c concepts are summarized conveniently as “Key Concepts” at the end of every chapter. In order to help those unfamiliar with the practice of science, a series of “process of science” boxes provides an explanation of how scientists reason and draw conclusions about the natural world. In the glossary, important words are clearly defi ned and many are accompanied by fi gure numbers that refer you to the fi gure that illustrates the term.

The fi gures and their accompanying cap-tions do not merely illustrate but also supple-ment the written text. All the drawings have been beautifully and accurately rendered by a team of talented artists and illustrators in order to present in visual form ideas that are at times necessarily abstract. They should be studied carefully before advancing to the next section of the chapter, because they help provide con-creteness to the ideas discussed. It has been the author’s experience that those students who truly understand the “ins and outs” of the illus-trations tend to have a solid grasp of the chap-ters’ main concepts. This will take a bit of time, but it is time well invested.

■ ORGANIZATION

The seventh edition of Invitation to Oceanog-raphy incorporates new and updated material, based on the many valuable suggestions made by faculty and students who have worked with the previous editions of the book. This means

that the organization of the material, the development of the ideas, and the quality of the prose and illustrations are better than ever. We are always working to improve each succeed-ing version of the book, and so we welcome all comments and criticisms from our readers. Both faculty and students agree that the devel-opment of key oceanographic concepts fl ows logically and systematically from chapter to chapter, as well as from section to section.

The fi rst two chapters review the long his-tory of ocean exploration and research as well as the fundamental structure of the Earth’s interior and its exterior ocean basins. Chapters 3 through 10 examine the geology, chemistry, physics, and biology of the sea, highlighting the key scientifi c concepts and latest discover-ies in these subdisciplines of oceanography. In some sense, the material and concepts in these seven chapters represent the core ideas of the ocean sciences, and when comprehended and synthesized, they provide the framework for understanding ocean habitats as whole, func-tional ecosystems—the chapter topics of the remainder of the book. For example, Chapters 11 and 12 examine the intriguing intricacies of dynamic coastal environments, including beaches, dunes, barrier islands, estuaries, del-tas, salt marshes, mangrove swamps, lagoons, and coral reefs. Two chapters are devoted to coastal ecosystems, because we are most familiar and come in regular contact with the shoreline rather than the open ocean. It is likely that many of us as voting citizens will be in a position to infl uence regulatory leg-islation and management practices of these fragile habitats. Chapter 13 provides an over-view of the many fascinating and exotic eco-systems that are found far offshore, either in open water or on the deep-sea fl oor. Chapter 14 surveys the ocean’s abundant resources, both living (fi sh) and nonliving (petroleum, metals, phosphate), that are vital for the mod-ern human world. Chapter 15 presents a bal-anced appraisal of the environmental stresses brought about by human activity, showing the

Preface























xvPreface

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Examples from foreign seas are used where appropriate.

Chapter 16 examines a most timely global issue—climate change. How will warming of the atmosphere and oceans affect the processes and biodiversity of marine ecosystems? What can we do individually and collectively to miti-gate the impacts of global warming so that our children can enjoy the ocean’s beauty?

nature and alarming extent of this impact and providing examples of groups of concerned citizens who are striving hard and success-fully to reverse environmental despoilment. Throughout the book, local and regional examples are drawn from all parts of the U.S. coastline, including the Pacifi c coast as far north as Alaska, the Atlantic seaboard as well as maritime Canada, and the Gulf of Mexico.

■ THE STUDENT EXPERIENCE

Every chapter opens with a succinct list of Learning Objectives. Students should review this list prior to diving into the chapter to help guide their focus. As they progress through the chapter, they should periodically fl ip back to the Learning Objectives to ensure they are fully grasping that chapter’s key oceanographic con-cepts. This practice will encourage students to think critically about the fascinating fi eld of ocean science and its four major divisions.Written in a conversational tone, every chapter also opens with a Preview that introduces the reader to the specifi c ocean science concepts they are about to study. It is a student-friendly primer that provides a framework for thinking critically about the theme of the chapter.

Featured boxes, The Ocean Sciences, abound in all of the chapters. They consist of four types, based on the principal subfi elds of oceanography: geology, chemistry, physics, and biology. Each is identifi ed as such by a colorful and distinctive logo placed near the title of the box.

Blue waves: © Markovka /Shutterstock.com, Inc.

THE STUDENT EXPERIENCE

grasping that chapter’s key oceanographic con-cepts. This practice will encourage students to think critically about the fascinating fi eld of ocean

© Foto Factory/ShutterStock, Inc.

1CHAPTER

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PREVIEW A complete historical account of oceanographic exploration and research would be a massive under-

taking. The record stretches back over several millennia to the time when ancient mariners built boats

and ventured boldly onto the sea to explore the unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history

is needed in a book that deals with the physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes of the

ocean in a scienti� cally rigorous manner. First and foremost, this reminds us that for eons there have

been people in the � eld of “oceanography”—people with an insatiable desire to make the unknown

familiar. Knowledge that is commonplace today required painstaking investigations by numerous sea-

farers throughout centuries of exploration. Many intended to become rich by exploiting resources and

controlling sea routes for commerce. All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of the

Earth and its seas.

Today’s oceanographers (modern sea explorers) carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s curi-

osity. They owe a huge debt to the courage and vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments

replaced ignorance and myth with knowledge.

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The Growth of Oceanography

• Gain familiarity with the history of ocean

exploration and of oceanography.

• Critically evaluate the nature and power of the

scienti� c method.

• Become pro� cient at reading graphs and doing

unit conversions.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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been people in the � eld of “oceanography”—people with an insatiable desire to make the unknown

familiar. Knowledge that is commonplace today required painstaking investigations by numerous sea-

farers throughout centuries of exploration. Many intended to become rich by exploiting resources and

controlling sea routes for commerce. All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of the

Earth and its seas.

Today’s oceanographers (modern sea explorers) carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s curi-

osity. They owe a huge debt to the courage and vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments

replaced ignorance and myth with knowledge.

GEOLOGY THE OCEAN SCIENCES

The edges of most plates are underwater and are therefore studied by indirect methods of observation and sampling. An exception is a spectacular exposure of a complex fault sys-tem known as the San Andreas Fault, which slices through the countryside of western and

southern California ( Figure B2– 1a ). Aerial views of the landscape that borders the San Andreas Fault show a linear topography ( Figure B2– 2a ) underlain by fractured crustal rocks that have been forced upward into craggy mountains or downward into splintered valleys. Earthquakes

The San Andreas Fault

Rocks: © Horia Bogdan/Shutterstock.com, Inc. THE OCEAN SCIENCES GEOLOGY

70 CHAPTER 3

Courtesy NGDC

Casca

dia Tr

ench

NORTH AMERICAN

PLATE

PACIFIC PLATE

Canada

United States

NevadaCalifornia

Mexico

Location ofBaja 15 millionyears in future

San FranciscoSan Francisco

Los Angeles

Los Angeles

San Diego

Oakland

Juan de Fuca Ridge

East PacificRise

San Andreas FaultSan Andreas Fault

0 100KM

Garlock Fault

(a) PLATE BOUNDARY(b) SAN ANDREAS FAULT

Gulf of California

PA C I F I CO C E A N

PA C I F I CO C E A N

Figure B2– 1 The San Andreas Fault. (a) The Paci� c and North American plates are separated

from each other by the San Andreas Fault. (b) The San Andreas Fault is a transform fault that slices

through western California.

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9/9/14 3:30 PM ■ Geology boxes dig deep into key geologic oceanographic concepts by exploring speci� c places, such as the Red Sea, the San Andreas Fault, the Mediterranean Sea, and other global examples, including a new discussion on the impact of Hurricane Sandy on the New York and New Jersey shorelines.























xvi PREFACE

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Hurricanes in the western Atlantic, which are

called typhoons in the western Pacifi c, are one

of nature’s most powerful, regularly occurring

phenomena. Although details of their for-

mation are not understood completely, the

general weather and ocean conditions that

lead to the formation of hurricanes are clear.

They form in tropical latitudes during the late

summer and fall seasons. Hurricanes evolve

from preexisting tropical cyclones, which are

low pressure disturbances associated with

wind speeds between 54.7 and 117.5 kph

(39 and 73 mph) and with intense thunder-

storm activity. For tropical cyclones to mature

into full-fl edged hurricanes with wind speeds

greater than 119 kph (74 mph), the sea-

surface temperature down to a water depth

of about 45 meters (~147.6 feet) must be

warmer than 27°C (80°F) and the upper-level

winds must be weak (otherwise wind shear

will literally blow the developing storm system

apart). If these conditions are met, chances for

the tropical storm to intensify into a hurricane

are good. With time and under ideal conditions, a

tropical cyclone matures by gathering energy

from the warm ocean water. Basically, the air

in contact with the ocean’s surface gains heat

and moisture and rises. As the water vapor

in the rapidly ascending air condenses into

storm clouds, heat is released, which energizes

the spiraling weather system ( Figure B 2– 1 ).

Warm, moist air in contact with the ocean

is continually drawn upward to replace the

Hurricanes and Typhoons

PHYSICS THE OCEAN SCIENCES

© Photodisc

208 CHAPTER 6

Eye

EyewallEyewall

Land

Figure B 2– 1 A cross-sectional view of a hurricane showing the eye and eyewall of the storm system. Note

the convergence of winds at the land’s surface and the divergence of winds aloft.

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■ Physics boxes expand the chapter material and illuminate key concepts by diving deep into speci� c examples. For instance, hurricanes and typhoons are highlighted in the chapter covering wind and ocean circulation and the megatsunamis of 2006 and 2011 are featured in the chapter discussing waves. These boxes provide students with practical applications of key oceanographic principles.

■ Biology boxes spotlight speci� c species that depend on the oceans for survival, such as penguins and killer whales, as well as the unique marine ecology of particular regions, including an exploration of Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. These boxes also discuss recent events that have impacted the seas, including a look into the Exxon Valdez and the Deepwater Horizon oil spills.

■ Chemistry boxes review scienti� c experiments conducted by oceanographers to investigate the chemical processes of the seas, offering students a chance to explore the techniques oceanographers use in the � eld.

143The Properties of Seawater

In trying to characterize and explain the chemi-cal properties of seawater, marine chemists fi nd it critically important to collect suffi cient and appropriate seawater samples, prevent their chemical contamination, determine sampling depths, and use accurate and precise analytical procedures. ❯ SAMPLE COLLECTION

Seawater samples for chemical analysis are col-lected in metallic or plastic cylindrical bottles. The metallic bottles have interior liners com-posed of inert plastic to prevent contamination of the sample by metal ions. One such sampling device, the Niskin bottle, has valves on both ends that are opened and attached to a cable ( Figure B 2– 1 ). Typically, several open bottles

Chemical Techniques

CHEMISTRY THE OCEAN SCIENCES

are attached at predetermined positions on the cable. After the bottles are lowered, a weight, known as a messenger, is fastened to the cable and released. When the messen-ger strikes the fi rst water bottle, it causes it to close tightly, trapping a sample of seawater. A messenger attached to a clamp beneath the fi rst bottle is then released, dropping and trig-gering the next bottle below. The procedure is repeated until all the bottles on the cable have been closed. Depending on the nature of the study, chemists usually collect seawater volumes of between 1 and 3 liters (~1.06 and 3.17 quarts) with these bottle samplers. A more elaborate sample-bottle confi gu-ration is known as the rosette cluster. It con-sists of a rigid frame that holds a number of collection bottles upright, arranged in a cir-cular pattern ( Figure B2– 2 ). The bottles can be set to open and close automatically, or a

Figure B 2– 2 A rosette cluster. Water collecting bottles are arranged around a rigid, circular frame in a rosette pattern. Technicians are able to close the bottles individually as the array is lowered or raised through the water column.

Courtesy of Captain Robert A. Pawlowski, NOAA Corps/NOAA

Figure B 2– 1 Niskin bottles. Open Niskin bot-tles are attached to a cable and lowered to water depths where seawater samples are to be obtained for chemical analysis. A metal messenger “trips” each bottle on the cable individually, causing it to fi ll with water and close securely.

Courtesy of Michael Van Woert, NESDIS, ORA/NOAA

(Continued )

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■

479

Ocean Habitats and Their Biota

Most seabirds, including puf� ns, alba-

trosses, petrels, shearwaters, and penguins

( Figure B1–1 ), eat � sh as part of their diet.

Some of them, such as albatrosses and pen-

guins, prey on squid at night. Among the sea-

birds, penguins have lost their ability to � y and

have become specialized in swimming and div-

ing. They have evolved large, heavy bodies, big

bones, thick fatty deposits for insulation, greasy

feathers that repel water, and streamlined bod-

ies and stubby wings for “� ying” underwater

( Figure B1–2 ). Emperor penguins, for example,

have been clocked at speeds of over 15 kilome-

ters per hour (~9.5 mph), and have remained

submerged for up to 15 and 20 minutes at a

time, diving as deeply as 250 meters (~825 feet)

below the water surface while hunting squid.

Penguins, which range from the size of

a large seagull to a height of 1.3 meters (~4.3

feet), are native to the Southern Hemisphere

only. Of the eighteen species of penguins, the

Adélie and Emperor penguins are the only two

that have rookeries along the shoreline of Ant-

arctica. The Adélie ( Figure B1–3a ), which is as

tall as 60 centimeters (~24 inches), displays the

classic tuxedo color pattern seen so often in car-

toon characters. They gather in large rookeries to

breed during the spring and summer on land and

spend the winter at sea. The Emperor, the larg-

est penguin ( Figure B1–3b ), incubates its eggs

on land during the Antarctic winter! It survives

the incredibly cold temperatures and high winds

by huddling in tight groups in order to conserve

body heat. Periodically, the “toasty” members in

the middle of a group work their way to the out-

side. This allows the colder members at the fringe

to move toward the center of the group and

warm up. Most penguins hunt in water not far

from shore. Fishery biologists estimate that pen-

guins take almost 35 million tons of food from

the ocean each year.

Currently, global climate change is affect-

ing the population of Adélie penguins that

occupies territory on the western Antarc-

tic Peninsula. Their numbers are diminishing

alarmingly ( Figure B1–4 ) for two reasons.

The sea ice cover is less extensive, which pre-

vents Adélie penguins from reaching their

Penguins

(Continued ) Figure B1–1 Seabirds. Seabirds are important members of marine food webs. Many of them prey heavily on

� sh, squid, and shrimp. Examples of some important seabirds include (a) puf� ns, (b) petrels, and (c) albatrosses.

(a) PUFFIN

(b) PETREL

(c) ALBATROSS

(a) © Joe Gough/ShutterStock, Inc.; (b) © Graham Prentice/ShutterStock, Inc.; (c) © rebvt/ShutterStock, Inc.

BIOLOGY THE OCEAN SCIENCES

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xviiPreface

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The boxes serve several purposes. Some review common research techniques employed by oceanographers to investigate the seas. Some fl esh out a concept merely outlined in the text. Others spotlight case histories in which the oceanography of a specifi c place is presented in concrete terms from the standpoint of an idea introduced in the text. A few featured boxes

review a concept that is simply interesting and that otherwise could not be integrated easily into the main text of the chapter. They are like eating dessert after fi nishing the main course of a meal. Enjoy them! Two new boxes have been added to this edition. Check the back of the book for a complete listing of the boxes, including the chap-ter in which each appears.

Test tubes: © Alfred Bondarenko/ShutterStock, Inc. The Scienti� c Process

proposing hypotheses—creative insights about what the truthful responses to those questions might be. What really separates the scienti� c method from other ways of knowing is its reliance on the rigorous testing of each hypothesis by experimentation or by the gather-ing of additional observations; the explicit intent of the test is to determine whether the hypothesis is false or true. If the test results disagree with the prediction, then the hypothesis being evaluated is disproved, meaning that it cannot be a legitimate account of reality. Then it is either modi� ed into a new hypothesis that is compat-ible with the test � ndings or discarded altogether and replaced by other, still-to-be-tested hypotheses. Keep in mind, however, that agreement between expected and experimental test results is not proof that the hypothesis is true. Rather, it means only that the hypothesis contin-ues to be a valid version of reality for the time being. It may not survive the next test. If a hypothesis repeatedly avoids falsi� cation, then scientists regard it as a close approximation of reality. A � ow diagram of this version of the scienti� c method is presented as Figure B2– 1 . In this text, we describe the results of a long- standing interest among scientists in answering questions about the workings of the oceans. It is a current update of the facts, hypotheses, and the-ories of ocean processes. Undoubtedly, as ocean-ographers continue to conduct scienti� c work in the world’s oceans, some of these ideas will be dis-proved and replaced by other hypotheses. This is the way it must be; this is the scienti� c process.

As this chapter on the history of oceanography indicates, scientists make statements about the nat-ural world; they assume that natural processes are orderly and therefore knowable by a rational mind. Statements made by scientists are not merely random opinions about the workings of the world. Rather they are logical explanations, termed hypotheses, that are grounded solidly on a set of observations and tested rigorously in order to evaluate their credibility. Scienti� c investigations are begun typically by people who develop an interest in answering a question about the natural world. Examples of such questions in oceanography might be:• What is the geologic origin of a particular estuary? • How does the chemistry of the seawater in this estuary vary over time? • What is the water current pattern in this estuary and what controls it? • What effect does lead dissolved in the water have on a species of clam in this estuary? The questions can be general or speci� c, theoretical

or applied, abstract or concrete. Scientists interested in a question then conduct lab-

oratory, � eld, or modeling (mathematical) experiments in order to generate accurate facts (observations) that bear on an answer to the question being investigated. A legitimate answer (the hypothesis) to a scienti� c ques-tion is one that can be tested. A hypothesis is always considered to be a tentative explanation. Scientists � rst and foremost are skeptics, trying to disprove hypothe-ses in order to eliminate falsehoods from the scienti� c understanding of the natural world.

Depending on the results of tests, hypothe-ses may be veri� ed, rejected, or modi� ed. When a hypothesis is tested repeatedly in different ways and not disproved, scientists then assume that it is “correct” and the hypothesis becomes a theory, as new facts continue to support it. For example, Charles Darwin proposed his hypothesis of biologi-cal evolution by natural selection during the middle part of the nineteenth century. Today, after repeated tests and countless facts that support the idea, his hypothesis of biological evolution by natural selec-tion has been elevated to the status of a theory. In summary, scientists are not, as many believe, primarily concerned about discovering and gathering facts. Rather, researchers ask crucial questions about the natural world and then try to answer them by

The Process of Science

19

The Growth of Oceanography

Questionaboutreality

Examinationof available

data

Formulationof hypothesis

Making aprediction

Hypothesisis falsified

Conducta test

Hypothesisremains valid

Disagreementbetween expectationand observation

Agreementbetween expectationand observation

OR

Figure B2– 1 The process of science. A version of the scienti� c method is presented as a simple � ow diagram.

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■ The Process of Science presents a hypothesis regarding a global issue, such as climate variability and rising sea levels, and explores the scienti� c processes employed in gathering and analyzing information to develop a scienti� c theory. By exploring historical research from leading scientists and current scienti� c data, students are challenged to think critically about the future landscape of Earth and its seas.

and foremost are skeptics, trying to disprove hypothe-ses in order to eliminate falsehoods from the scienti� c understanding of the natural world.

ses may be veri� ed, rejected, or modi� ed. When a hypothesis is tested repeatedly in different ways and not disproved, scientists then assume that it is “correct” and the hypothesis becomes a theory, as new facts continue to support it. For example, Charles Darwin proposed his hypothesis of biologi-cal evolution by natural selection during the middle part of the nineteenth century. Today, after repeated tests and countless facts that support the idea, his hypothesis of biological evolution by natural selec-tion has been elevated to the status of a theory. In summary, scientists are not, as many believe, primarily concerned about discovering and gathering facts. Rather, researchers ask crucial questions about the natural world and then try to answer them by

Exponential growth results when populations

double in size at regular intervals. Every time diatom

cells divide, you get two daughter cells for each parent.

This doubles the population in one generation. When

the daughter cells in turn divide, each produces two

of its own daughter cells. This has doubled the pop-

ulation again. In short order, the number of diatom

cells in the surface water of the ocean has increased

dramatically, producing a diatom bloom. However,

this verbal description fails to portray adequately the

enormous potential of exponential growth. A speci� c

doubling-rate problem might do better.

Imagine a very large square piece of paper of nor-

mal thickness (~ 0.01 millimeter ). Assume you take this

piece of paper and fold it in half. What happens? Well,

you’ve doubled the thickness ( 0.02 millimeter ). Fold

the paper in half a second time. Now you’ve doubled

the thickness once again, so you have a pile of paper

in your hands that is 0.04 millimeter thick (four thick-

nesses). If you fold the pile in half a third time, you

create eight thicknesses of paper that is 0.08 milli meter

thick. Folding it in half for a fourth time creates sixteen

thicknesses of paper that is 0.16 millimeter thick.

This doubling-rate problem can be expressed

simply as a power to the base 2.

In other words, we can express the doubling

rate simply as 2 n , where n is the number of times we

fold the paper.

My question to you is this: How thick would

the last thickness of paper be if we folded the

paper 50 times (in other words, 2 50 )? Would it be

1 meter thick? Would it be as tall as a person (about

2 meters )? Could it possibly be as high as a one-

story house (about 4 to 5 meters )? Would it be

100 meters tall? This certainly seems to be getting

beyond what seems probable. But maybe not. Let’s

do the simple calculation. I will use my calculator as

an aid. First, I understand that the thickness of the orig-

inal sheet of paper is ~ 0.01 millimeter . Second, I

realize that each time I fold the paper I’m doubling

the thickness, and that this can be expressed simply

as 2 n . As I’m folding it 50 times, the expression is

simply the original thickness times 2 50 , or 0.01 × 2 50

mm. This is where I use my calculator. I discover that

2 50 = 10 15 .

Therefore, I conclude that the eventual height

of the column of paper will be

0.01 × 10 15 mm.

I don’t really have a feel for this number, so let

me convert it to meters:

= ×

= ×= × =

(0.01 1×1 1× 0 m0 mm)m)(1cmcm/1/10 m0 mm )m )(1m/10 cmcm )

[(= ×[(= ×0.01= ×0.01= × 10 )/(10)(10 )] m

0.01= ×0.01= × 10 m 0= ×m 0= ×.0= ×.0= ×1 1= ×1 1= × 0 m 10 m.

150 m150 m

2

1520 )20 )

(15 3−5 3− )

1

= ×)

1

= ×m 0)

1

m 0= ×m 0= ×)

1

= ×m 0= ×.0)

1

.0= ×.0= ×)

1

= ×.0= ×1 1)

11 1= ×1 1= ×)

1

= ×1 1= × 0 m)

10 m21=21=0 m21

0 m 102110 0

What does this number mean? It seems quite

large. Let’s convert it into kilometers:

==

==

==

=10 m (=

=

m (==

10==

10==

m )==

m )==

==

m )==

(1=

=(1

==

km=

=km

==/1

==/1

==0 m

==0 m

==

==0 m

==) 1

==) 1

== 0 km

10 km.10

10=

=10

==3

1

==3

1

==0 m3

1

0 m=

=0 m=

=31

==0 m

==) 13

1) 1

==) 1

==3

1

==) 1

== 0 k

310 k0 k0 3

0 k−0 k−0 3−0 k−

7

This is 10,000,000 kilometers ! One sheet of

paper 0.01 millimeter thick folded on itself merely

50 times creates a pile that is 10,000,000 kilometers

high. That is 6,210,000 miles! The Moon’s distance

from the Earth averages about 348,000 kilometers ,

and our pile of paper is two orders of magnitude

higher.

Wave: © Yuri Samsonov/Shutterstock.com, Inc.

SCIENCE by the Numbers

Doubling Rates

No doubling:

20 = 1 This is our one sheet of

unfolded paper, indicated by

the 0 exponent.

1st doubling:

21 = 2 This is the � rst folding in half;

we’ve gone from one to two

thicknesses.

2nd doubling:

22 = 4 This is the second folding, indi-

cated by the exponent 2; this

produces four thicknesses from

the previous two thicknesses.

3rd doubling:

23 = 8 This is the third folding indi-

cated by the exponent 3; this

produces eight thicknesses from

the previous four thicknesses.

4th doubling:

24 = 16 This is the fourth folding,

indicated by the exponent 4;

this produces sixteen thick-

nesses from the previous

eight thicknesses.

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■ To assist students in understanding the basic mathematical concepts needed to study oceanography, Science by the Numbers provides a step-by-step solution to a speci� c problem. These boxes help improve students’ math skills and provide the insights into ocean processes that only numerical calculations reveal.























xviii PREFACE

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fi rst set, the Review of Basic Concepts, is just that. The questions address the main notions developed in the chapter. The second set, the Critical-Thinking Essays, requires more thought because you must synthesize ideas, sometimes drawing from concepts developed in previous chapters. In other words, verbatim answers might not be found anywhere in the book. However, you can develop an answer by thinking deeply about the question posed and applying common sense and logic to the information provided in the book. The third set of questions, Discovering with Numbers, deals with making straightforward calcula-tions about ocean processes. The questions rely on basic mathematics, the kind that any

To ensure readers thoroughly grasp the important concepts, each chapter concludes with a detailed summary of the Key Concepts. Students can review the summary prior to div-ing into the chapter to guide their focus and can also use it as a study tool to prepare for course lectures and exams. It is important for students at this introductory level to be aware of and understand the terminology oceanographers use in their daily discourse. For this reason, a list of Key Words is also included at the end of every chapter. Furthermore, the key words in the chapter appear in bold to draw the reader’s attention.

Most chapters conclude with a series of questions arranged into three groupings. The

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1. The water molecule H 2 O has a dipole

structure ( Figures 5–3a and c ), which

produces hydrogen bonding and allows

water molecules to collect into snug

clusters ( Figures 5–3d and e ). This

dipole structure explains many of the

curious properties of water, includ-

ing its elevated melting and boiling

temperatures ( Figure 5– 3b ), high heat

capacity, unusual solvent power ( Figure

5– 4 ), and the fact that ice, the solid

form of water, is less dense than liquid

water ( Figure 5– 5 ).

2. The quantity of solutes in seawater, its

salinity, is expressed as parts per thou-

sand (‰). Average seawater has a

salinity of 35‰, meaning that a sam-

ple of seawater weighing 1,000 grams

contains 35 grams of dissolved salt,

collectively referred to as the major con-

stituents of seawater ( Table 5– 1 ). Other

solutes in the ocean include nutrients

(such as compounds of N, P, and Si)

( Table 5– 2 ), gases (such as O 2 and

CO 2 ) ( Table 5– 3 ), trace elements (such

as metals) ( Table 5– 4 ), and organic

compounds (such as fats, proteins, and

carbohydrates).

3. Salinity can be measured simply by

determining the amount of chloride

(Cl − ) in the seawater sample. This is

possible because the relative amounts

of all the major elements are � xed,

regardless of the total salt content of the

seawater—a fact expressed as the princi-

ple of constant proportion. Today, salinity

is routinely determined by such indirect

techniques as electrical conductivity.

4. The salt content of the ocean is derived

from the chemical breakdown of rocks

on land ( Table 5– 7 ) and from volcanic

outpourings along the crests of spread-

ing ocean ridges. The major elements

dissolved in seawater have a long resi-

dence time in the ocean, meaning that

they remain dissolved in seawater for

between tens of millions and hun-

dreds of millions of years before they

are removed from the system ( Table

5– 8 ). Because mixing rates are on the

order of tens to thousands of years,

elements with long residence times,

such as Na + and Cl − , are distributed in

a � xed ratio to one another through-

out the oceans.

5. The density of seawater depends largely

on water temperature and salinity.

Water temperature is regulated by solar

heating and varies directly with lati-

tude ( Figure 5– 9 ). Salinity depends on

the relative effects of evaporation and

rainfall, and like temperature, varies

with latitude ( Figure 5– 12 ). Sharp ver-

tical gradients of temperature are called

thermoclines ( Figures 5–10 and 5–11 ),

of salinity are called haloclines ( Figure

5– 13 ), and of density are called pycno-

clines ( Figure 5– 14b ).

6. Sources of gases in seawater include

diffusion from the atmosphere and

biological processes ( Figure 5– 15b and

Table 5– 9 ). Plant photosynthesis uses up

CO 2 and releases O 2 ; plant and animal

respiration consumes O 2 and releases

CO 2 . The production of O 2 is limited

to surface water where gas can diffuse

across the air-sea interface and where

plants can photosynthesize. The sink-

ing and advection (horizontal transport)

of cold, dense, well-oxygenated polar

water supply O 2 to the deep levels of

the ocean, ventilating the deepest parts

of the ocean basins ( Figure 5– 17 ).

7. The hydrologic cycle ( Figure 5– 20 )

describes the exchange of water in gas-

eous, liquid, and solid states among the

KEY CONCEPTS STUDY Guide

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179The Properties of Seawater

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various water reservoirs. Water is evap-

orated from the ocean’s surface, falls as

precipitation on land, and returns to

the oceans as river runoff and ground-

water � ow, thereby completing the

hydrologic cycle.

8. Matter is recycled throughout the oceans

( Figure 5– 22 ). Through photosynthe-

sis, plants convert inorganic CO 2 and

nutrients into food. When consumed,

this matter and energy are passed on to

animals. When marine organisms die,

they sink, and their dead tissues are

decomposed by bacteria, a process that

releases simple inorganic nutrients. The

upwelling of this nutrient-rich water

recharges the surface water with vital

elements that are once again converted

into food by plants, initiating a new

biochemical cycle.

KEY WORDS

acidic solution

adsorption advection anaerobic anion anoxic aphotic zone

atoms basic solution

berg bicarbonate

brine buffered solution

carbonic acid

cation chlorinity conservative ions

constant composition

covalent bond

deep layer density desalination dipole dissolved load

electron electron shell

evaporate evaporation

� oe

gas groundwater

halocline heat heat capacity

hexagon hydration hydrogen bond

hydrologic cycle

inert gas ion ionic bond insolation isotherm isotope kaolinite kinetic energy

major constituents

metabolic process

molecule neuston neuston layer

neutral solution

neutron nonconservative ions

nucleus nutrient orthoclase oxidation

pancake ice

parts per billion (ppb)

parts per million (ppm)

parts per thousand (ppt)

parts per trillion

pH photic zone

photochemical effects

photosynthesis

polymerspressure ridge

principle of constant

proportion

proton pycnocline pycnocline layer

residence time

respiration salinity salinometer

saturation saturation value

sink SOFAR channel

solubility solute solvent solvent power

source

180 CHAPTER 5

9781284057805_CH05_Printer.indd 180

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ple of seawater weighing 1,000 grams

contains 35 grams of dissolved salt,

collectively referred to as the major con-

of seawater ( Table 5– 1 ). Other

solutes in the ocean include nutrients

(such as compounds of N, P, and Si)

(such as O 2 and

trace elements (such

as metals) ( Table 5– 4 ), and organic

(such as fats, proteins, and

Salinity can be measured simply by

determining the amount of chloride

) in the seawater sample. This is

possible because the relative amounts

of all the major elements are � xed,

regardless of the total salt content of the

seawater—a fact expressed as the princi-seawater—a fact expressed as the princi-seawater—a fact expressed as the

ple of constant proportion. Today, salinity

is routinely determined by such indirect

electrical conductivity.

The salt content of the ocean is derived

from the chemical breakdown of rocks

on land ( Table 5– 7 ) and from volcanic

outpourings along the crests of spread-

ing ocean ridges. The major elements

rainfall, and like temperature, varies

with latitude ( Figure 5– 12 ). Sharp ver-

tical gradients of temperature are called

thermoclines ( Figures 5–10 and 5–11 ),

of salinity are called

5– 13 ), and of density are called

clines6.

anion anoxic aphotic zone

atoms basic solution

berg bicarbonate

heat capacity

hexagon hydration hydrogen bond

hydrologic cycle

inert gas ion ionic bond insolation

pH photic zone

photochemical effects

photosynthesis

polymerspressure ridge

principle of constant

proportion

proton pycnocline pycnocline layer

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questionsReview of Basic Concepts1. Describe how energy and matter flow

through an ecosystem. Which of the

two is recycled and which is not?2. What is the difference between photo-

synthesis and respiration? Be clear and

complete in your analysis.3. Why is nitrate rather than phosphate

likely to limit plant production in the

ocean?4. Why is energy transfer between trophic

levels such an inefficient process?

5. Contrast a detritus food chain with a

grazing food chain. How are they linked?

6. What critical role(s) do bacteria play in

the food cycle of the sea?7. What is chemosynthesis, and how does

it differ from photosynthesis?8. How and why does primary production

vary with distance from land, and why

is the open ocean considered to be a

biological desert?9. What is El Niño? What are the chemical

and biological consequences of a strong

El Niño occurrence offshore Peru?

10. How does El Niño differ from La Niña?Critical-Thinking Essays1. Discuss how photosynthesis, respira-

tion, nutrients, and sunlight are linked

in ecosystems.2. On a graph, plot the annual variation

of solar radiation, water temperature,

phosphate levels, plant biomass, and

fish biomass that would characterize

a. a midlatitude inner continental shelf

b. an Arctic shelfc. a tropical shelfd. the center of a large ocean3. The Peruvian anchoveta must have

survived many El Niño events in the

recent geologic past. Speculate on the

reasons that their numbers have not

recovered from the effect of recent El

Niño occurrences, notably those since

1972.4. What are the chances of discovering

large fish stocks in the center of the

Indian Ocean, an area that has not

been previously fished? Provide a solid

argument for your assessment.5. Why are seaweeds large in size and phy-

toplankton microscopic in size?6. Examine Figure B3-1 in the boxed fea-

ture “Satellite Oceanography.” Account

for the time variations in plant produc-

tivity for thea. center of the North Atlantic circula-

tion gyre (the Sargasso Sea)b. North Atlantic waters off the east

coast of Canadac. continental shelf waters off western

Africa, near the Canary Islands (hint:

see Figure 10–12a)7. Examine the food web in Figure 10–2b.

Create a food web for the kelp forests

of the Pacific coast of North America.Discovering with Numbers1. Assume a three-step food chain (dia-

toms → copepods → small fish). If the

transfer efficiency is 15 percent (0.15)

between the plants and copepods and

10 percent (0.10) between the copepods

and small fish, determine the quantity

of fish that can be supported by 1,000

grams of diatoms.2. If the diatoms in Question 1 are fixing

carbon by photosynthesis at the rate

of 50 gC/m2/day, estimate the daily

primary production over an area of

100,000 square meters (105 m2). Now

estimate the amount of carbon fixed

by the diatoms over the total area for

a year.

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questions

selected readingsAnderson, D. M. 1994. Red tides. Scientific

American 271 (2): 62–68.Ashjian, C. 2005. Life in the Arctic Ocean.

Oceanus 43 (2): 20–23.Brink, K. H. 2005. The grass is greener in the

coastal ocean. Oceanus 43 (1): 19–21.

Campbell, A., and Dawes, J. (eds.). 2005.

Encyclopedia of Underwater Life. Oxford, U.K.:

Oxford University Press.Caron, D. A. 1992. An introduction to

biological oceanography. Oceanus 35 (3):

10–17.Caviedes, C. N. 2001. El Niño in History.

Miami: University Press of Florida.

Chisholm, S. W. 1992. What limits phytoplankton growth? Oceanus 35 (3):

36–46.Comiso, J. C., and Drinkwater, M. R. 2007.

Antarctic Polynyas: ventilation, bottom

water, and high productivity for the world’s

oceans, in Our Changing Planet: The View

from Space. King, M. D., and others (eds.).

Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University

Press: 243–249.Compagno, L., et al. 2005. Sharks of the

World. Ewing, N.J.: Princeton University

Press.

Falkowski, P. G. 2002. The ocean’s invisible forest. Scientific American 287 (2):

54–61.Glantz, M. H. 2001. Currents of Change: Impacts

of El Niño and La Niña on Climate and Society.

Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Govindjee, and Coleman, W. J. 1990. How

plants make oxygen. Scientific American 262

(2): 50–58.Jumars, P. A. 1993. Concepts in Biological

Oceanography: An Interdisciplinary Primer.

New York: Oxford University Press.

King, M. D., and Herring, D. D. 2000.

Monitoring Earth’s vital signs. Scientific

American 282 (4): 92–97.Koslov, T. 2007. The Silent Deep: The Discovery,

Ecology, and Conservation of the Deep Sea.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Leetman, A. 1989. The interplay of El Niño

and La Niña. Oceanus 32 (2): 30–34.

Nadis, S. 2003. The cells that rule the seas.

Scientific American 289 (6): 52–53.

Nybakhen, J. W., and Webster, S. K. 1998. Life

in the ocean. Scientific American Presents Fall:

74–87.Oceanus. 1992. Biological oceanography.

Special issue 35 (3).

3. Given that a fishery harvests the small

fish in the three-step food chain

described in Questions 1 and 2, esti-

mate the average daily (gC/day) fish

production across the 105 m2 area. If

you need help, study Figure 10–16.

4. Assume that only 40 percent of the

annual fish production can be har-

vested in the 105 m2 area described

in Question 3 if this fishery is to be

sustainable from year to year. At what

rate in gC/yr can fish be harvested from

the region?5. Assume that during one year the fishery

in Question 4 is affected by an event like

El Niño, which reduces diatom produc-

tion to 10 gC/m2/day for that year. How

many gC of fish can be caught for that

year in order to maintain a sustainable

harvest?

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xixPreface

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for writing term papers. Also, the appendices at the end of the book provide important ancil-lary material, including conversion factors, a geologic time chart, map-reading techniques, a discussion of the Coriolis defl ection, and the classifi cation of marine organisms.

To visually assist readers in understand-ing key oceanographic processes, Jones & Bartlett Learning has developed Interactive Oceanography Animations. These engaging animations bring fascinating ocean science phenomena to life! Each interactive animation guides students through oceanographic pro-cesses and gauges students’ understanding with exercises and assessment questions.

high school graduate has mastered. In order to assist you, the Science by the Numbers boxes teach the art of computation and are included in most chapters. The trick to answering math questions is to understand conceptually what it is you are trying to solve. These math boxes will help you upgrade your math skills and develop self-assurance about reasoning with numbers.

A reading list is provided at the end of each chapter and includes both classical, but still rel-evant, references and more recent writings on the ocean’s dynamic processes and diverse hab-itats. Some are books; most are articles. They should prove valuable for delving deeper into an area of oceanography that intrigues you and

■ TEACHING TOOLS

To assist you in teaching this course and sup-plying your students with the best in teaching aids, Jones & Bartlett Learning has prepared a complete supplemental package available to all adopters. Additional information and review copies of any of the following items are avail-able through your Jones & Bartlett Learning sales representative.

An Image Bank provides the illustrations, photographs, and tables (to which Jones & Bartlett Learning holds the copyright or has permission to reproduce digitally). These images are not for sale or distribution but may be used to enhance your existing lecture slides, tests and quizzes, or other classroom material.

Blue waves: © Markovka /Shutterstock.com, Inc.























xx PREFACE

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The Lecture Outline Slides in Power-Point Format presentation package provides lecture notes, graphs, and images for each chap-ter of Invitation to Oceanography. Instructors with Microsoft PowerPoint software can customize the outlines, images, and order of presentation.

The Instructor’s Manual provided as a text fi le, includes chapter outlines, teaching tips, learning objectives, and additional con-cept and essay questions.

The Additional Test Questions are avail-able as straight text fi les and contain approx-imately 750 multiple-choice, fi ll-in-the-blank, essay, and research questions.

A basic sample syllabus is also available to assist instructors who are beginning to plan their courses.

imately 750 multiple-choice, fi ll-in-the-blank,

is also available to assist instructors who are beginning to plan























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About the Author Paul Pinet teaches geology, oceanogra-phy, and environmen-tal studies courses at Colgate Univers i ty, located in central New York state. He earned BA and MS degrees in geology from the University of New

Hampshire and the University of Massachusetts, respectively, and a PhD in oceanography from the University of Rhode Island. His research has been focused on the geology of continental margins, coastal bluff erosion,

estuarine sedimentation, and more recently, on the philosophical dimensions of deep time. At the mom ent, he is developing long-term(millennia) conservation strategies for bar-rier islands in response to rising sea level and for mitigating the ongoing extinction event in New England and its ocean. Pinet spent sum-mers during much of his adult life either climb-ing mountains around the world or cruising on his small, gaff-headed catboat ( Taillefer) off the New England coast. Though an oceanographer, Pinet admits that he fears water more than high, avalanche-prone mountains. At the moment, he is working on a book of essays entitled Shadowed by Deep Time .























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Acknowledgments Jones & Bartlett Learning is committed to producing the fi nest introductory textbook in oceanography possible. This seventh edition of Invitation to Oceanography testifi es to the staff ’s earnest commitment to that ideal. During my long association with these professionals, I was impressed by their patience, their creativi-ty, their willingness to listen carefully and crit-ically to my perspectives, and their attentive concern for visual and written aesthetics. The outcome of our collaborative effort is what you have in front of you. I am especially grateful to Matt Kane, Acquisitions Editor, Raven Heroux, Editorial Assistant, Leah Corrigan, Production Editor, and Lauren Miller, Manager of Photo Re-search, Rights & Permissions. A textbook of this ilk succeeds only if there is a dynamic balance among syntheses, coverage, and details, which was achievable because of our collaborative ef-fort. The few remaining errors and unintention-al misrepresentations in this seventh edition are my own alone. I am truly privileged to be work-ing as an author with Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Paul R. Pinet Hamilton, New York

Many colleagues at numerous institutions reviewed and constructively criticized drafts of the various editions, vastly improving their quality. Those who were particularly helpful and generous with their time and expertise over the years include:

Charles Acosta Northern Kentucky University

Vernon Asper University of Southern Mississippi

Marsha Bollinger Winthrop University

Joceline Boucher Maine Maritime Academy

Chuck Breitsprecher American River College

Kathleen M. Browne Rider University

William H. Busch University of New Orleans

Lee Cain Astoria High School

Steve Calvert University of British Columbia

Barry Cameron Acadia University

Jesse Carlucci Midwestern State University

William Chaisson University of Massachusetts–Amherst

Karl M. Chauffe St. Louis University

G. Kent Colbath Cerritos Community College

Susan Conrad State University of New York–Dutchess Community College

Ronadh Cox Williams College

Stephen C. Dexter University of Delaware

Charles M. Drake Dartmouth College

Walter C. Dudley University of Hawaii at Hilo

Brent Dugolinsky State University of New York College at Oneonta

John Ehleiter West Chester University

Dan V. Ferandez Anne Arundel Community College

Lynn Fielding El Camino College

William Frazier Columbus College

Grant Gardner Memorial University of Newfoundland

Tom Garrison Orange Coast College

Kelly Gower King’s Fork High School

Jack C. Hall University of North Carolina–Wilmington

Christopher G. A. Harrison Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami























xxiiiAcknowledgments

Wave: ©


Robert W. Hinds Slippery Rock University

Ralph Hitz Tacoma Community College

William Hoyt University of Northern Colorado

R. Grant Ingram University of British Columbia

David Kadko Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami

Dennis Kelly Orange Coast College

John A. Klasik California State Polytechnic University–Pomona

Charles E. Knowles North Carolina State University

William Kohland Middle Tennessee State University

Stephen Lebsack Linn-Benton Community College

Richard A. Laws University of North Carolina–Wilmington

Phillip Levin University of California, Santa Cruz

James Loch University of Central Missouri

Fred Lohrengel Southern Utah University

Chris Marone Pennsylvania State University

Jonathan B. Martin University of Florida

Heyward Mathews St. Petersburg Junior College

Marion McClary, Jr. Fairleigh Dickinson University

Susanne Menden-Deuer Western Washington University

James H. Meyer Winona State University

A. Lee Meyerson Kean College of New Jersey

John E. Mylroie Mississippi State University

Joseph Nadeau Rider University

Seiichi Nagihara Texas Tech University

Marlon Nance California State University–Sacramento

Peter Nielsen Keene State College

Jeffrey Niemitz Dickinson College

James Ogg Purdue University

Harold Pestana Colby College

Curt D. Peterson Portland State University

William Prothero University of California at Santa Barbara

C. Nicholas Raphael Eastern Michigan University

Howard Reith North Shore Community College

Joseph P. Richardson Savannah State University

Philip L. Richardson U.S. Coast Guard Academy

Jennifer Rivers Northeastern University

Richard Robinson Santa Monica College

Peter A. Rona Rutgers–The State University of New Jersey

Chris Sedlacek Palm Beach State College

Jean-Paul Simjouw University of New Haven

Jill Singer State University College at Buffalo

Charles R. Singler Youngstown State University

Jon Sloan California State University–Northridge

Alan TrujillPalomar Community College

Luke P. Van Roekel Northland College

Jorge F. Willemsen University of Miami

Terri Woods East Carolina University

Dawn Wright Oregon State University

Richard Yuretich University of Massachusetts–Amherst























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