north american ethanol bioenergy policies and their nafta policy implications glenn fox and kenneth...
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OverviewBackground and ContextEthanol Policies and Policy Rumblings
Range of Policy InstrumentsRationales for Government ActionEmerging Criticisms
Assessment of the prospects for trade and trade disputes
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ThesisFuel Ethanol has not been, is not, and, in our
assessment, is unlikely to be treated as a freely traded international commodity with production locations determined by comparative advantage or production levels determined by relative cost.
Policy measures to support ethanol are based on various forms of government intervention in the marketplace – regulations, subsidies, and trade restrictions, among others
There are plenty of grounds for trade disputes regarding ethanol, but no one would seem to have a clear motivation to initiate a complaint
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Policy Measures Used to Promote Ethanol Production fuel excise tax exemptions production and blending requirements government-procurement preferences local tax breaks on property taxes or and state/provincial taxes accelerated write-off schedules biofuels-related capital tax exempt bonds subsidized loans or loan guarantees capital gains exemptions regulatory exemptions producer credits state/provincial/federal subsidies environmental legislation mandating certain specific types of fuel additives
(typically for fuel oxygen ation) government purchases of surplus agricultural stocks for conversion to bio-
ethanol agricultural farm supports
government supported R&D.
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Ethanol Production Global production ~ 45 billion litres per year
Brazil ~ 16 billion litresUnited States ~ 16 billion litresCanada~ 230 million litresMexico ~ 50 million litres
Gasoline ConsumptionUnited States ~ 550 billion litres per yearCanada ~ 45 billion litres per year
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Global Policy Context
USA:•Mandatory biofuel use of 7.5 billion gallons by 2012; primarily ethanol•Biodiesel potential huge due to only 1% diesel car penetration•Soybean oil - canola upcoming
Brazil:•B2 (2008) and B5 (2013) targets introduced•Aim: rural support (palm, castor oils)•Reality: primarily soybean oil; large-scale projects
The EU:•Largest producer; strong ambitions•Huge capacity; largest plants in the world•Rapeseed-based, but increasingly multi-feedstock
China: •Mandatory blend targets expected in 2007•Massive potential, but not realised
Australia: •Non-mandatory target by 2010•Canola, waste oils, animal fats
Argentina: •Legislation passed in 2006•Focus on soybean oil
Canada: •5% renewable energy target by 2010•Canola, waste oils
South Korea, Japan, Thailand, Philippines:•Various targets and initiatives•Small industries or imports
India: •Infant industry; policies under preparation•Jatropha-based
Malaysia & Indonesia: •Aim to set-aside 40% of palm oil production for biodiesel (aimed for exports – specifically to EU)•MAL: 5% blend (voluntary) of palm and diesel•IND: B2 mandatory target by 2008
Source: Susan Hansen, Rabobank
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Rationales for Ethanol Policy1. Balance of Payments and Import Substitution
(Brazil and Mexico) 2. Anti-terrorism (United States)3. Reduce oil imports/consumption (Brazil and
United States)1. Reduce air pollution (United States and Canada)2. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions (United States
and Canada)4. Increase farm and rural incomes (United States,
Mexico and Canada)5. Infant Industry Argument (Canada)
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Emerging (?) CriticismsNet Energy Balance
Reduction in Oil UseGHG reduction Anti-terrorism
Food vs FuelDistributional Effects and Efficiency of
Income TransfersAir Pollution Claims
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Reduce dependence on foreign oil – borders on national security arguments (U.S.) Improve trade balance reducing imports of secondary petroleum products (Mexico)
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•Net energy calculations suggest small gains at best•High cost way of reducing GHG emissions•Other emission results are mixed
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Figure 1: Price of Crude Oil in Constant (2007) $US 1913-2007
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1913 1919 1925 1931 1937 1943 1949 1955 1961 1967 1973 1979 1985 1991 1997 2003
Year
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May 8, 2007
2006 Average
Jan - Apr 2007 Average
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Figure 2: US CPI Adjusted Gasoline Prices, 1970-2007 (2007 cents/gallon)
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1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
Year
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May 7, 2007
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Jan - Mar 2007 Average
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Source: US Biofuel Outlook, Credit Suisse, May 9, 2007
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Figure 3: Toronto CPI Adjusted Gasoline Prices, 1979-2007 (2007 cents/litre)
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1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
Year
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May 7, 2007
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Jan - Mar 2007 Average
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Figure 4: Constant (Jul, 2006) Peso Mexican Gasoline Price Converted to $US, Jan 1996 - Jul 2006
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Year and Month
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Premium
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Figure 8: Supply and Demand for Gasoline and Ethanol - Increasing Marginal Cost of Gasoline
Quantity
Pri
ce
Notes:
MCeP = Marginal cost of ethanol (pessimistic view); MCe
O = Marginal cost of ethanol (optimistic view)MCg = Marginal cost of gasoline; MCg+t = Marginal cost of gasoline plus tax; D = Demand for gasoline/ethanol
MCeP
MCeO
MCg+t
MCg
D
Q*
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Figure 10: Supply and Demand for Gasoline, Ethanol and Ethanol Blends (Blends Only Exempt From Tax on Ethanol Proportion)
Quantity
Pri
ce
Notes:
MCeO = Marginal cost of ethanol (optimistic view); S-50% Blend = Supply of 50% blend ethanol; S-20% Blend = Supply of 20% blend ethanol; S-10% Blend = Supply of 10% blend
ethanol; S-5% Blend = Supply of 5% blend ethanol; MCg = Marginal cost of gasoline; MCg+t = Marginal cost of gasoline plus tax; D = Demand for gasoline/ethanol
S-20% Blend
MCg
MCg+t
S-5% Blend
S-10% BlendS-50% Blend
MCeO
P0
P10
P20
P5
D
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Figure 11: Supply and Demand for Gasoline, Ethanol and Brazil-Produced Ethanol
Quantity
Pri
ce
Notes:
MCeO = Marginal cost of ethanol (optimistic view); MCe
B = Marginal cost of Brazil-produced ethanol; MCeB+tarrif = Marginal cost of Brazil-produced
ethanol plus tarrif; MCg = Marginal cost of gasoline; MCg+t = Marginal cost of gasoline plus tax; D = Demand for gasoline/ethanol
MCeO
MCeB+tarrif
MCeB
MCg+t
MCg
D
P*
Q*
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•Benefit to grain farmers is a cost to livestock producers•Capitalization of gains into land prices•Food vs fuel tradeoffs globally•Subsidy cost per “job created” is high•Competition among jurisdictions for facilities dissipates net benefits•Movement toward consolidation of ownership of ethanol plants
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Source: CNA ith data from producer based organizations
* Essentially corn and sorghum** 60% average increase in price of feed grains
ProductsGrains as % of
tfeed costsFeed costs as % of
total costsGrains as % of
total costsImpacto of higher
grain costs
A B C=(A*B)D=(C* % of increase of
grain costs**)
Milk 40% 65% 26% 15.6%
Broilers 65% 62% 40% 24.2%
Eggs 60% 55% 33% 19.8%
Beef 65% 60% 39% 23.4%
Hogs 72% 56% 40% 24.2%
Impact of grain in livestock production: the Mexican case
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Because corn is the major feedstock for ethanol, in North America less is becoming available for the animal industry and for export
Use and production of corn in the U.S.: % and million of bu.
2007 – estimación 2008 - proyecciónFuente: Rabobank con datos del USDA- ERS,
p
Use and production of corn in the U.S.: % of total use
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Do we need to talk about this rationale to this audience?
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Potential Trade Irritants?Differential levels of support and divergent
Policy Goals
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Divergent Policy Goals
Drivers EU - 27 USSoutheast
Asia Rest of AsiaEnergy Security Medium - High High Low Medium - HighEnvironmental Concern High Low - Medium Low LowAgriculture Revenues Medium High High Low - Medium
Source: Rabobank
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Table 2 Comparison of Ethanol Support Policies in Canada, Mexico and the United States
Canada Mexico United States Category of Support
Federal Provincial Federal Federal State
Import Duties $US 0.09/litre
Not Applicable $US 0.20/litre $US 0.142/litre Not Applicable
Excise Tax Exemptions and Income Tax Credits
$US 0.09/litre
Alberta $US 0.081/litre British Columbia $US 0.13/litre Manitoba $US 0.30/litre Ontario $US 0.132/litre Quebec $US 0.18/litre Saskatchewan $US 0.135/litre
Not contemplated in Bioenergy Law
$US 0.134/litre Illinois $US 0.079/litre Iowa $US 0.003/litre California $US 0.079/litre Indiana $US 0.03/litre
Capital Grants or Concessional Loans
Ethanol Expansion Program up to $US 0.03/litre
Ontario Ethanol Growth Fund up to $US 0.09 per litre of capacity
Ad hoc support from Federal Agricultural Infrastructure Fund
Operating Grants
2007 Budget $US 0.09/litre
Alberta $US 0.126/litre Ontario up to $US 0.099/litre
Minnesota $US 0.053/litre Texas $US 0.053/litre Wisconsin $US 0.053/litre
Blending Requirements
5% by 2010
Alberta British Columbia Manitoba 8.5 % in 2005 Ontario 5% in 2007, rising to 10% by 2010 Quebec Saskatchewan
No target given, but government will make effort to use blended fuel
Minnesota 10%
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Potential Trade Irritants?Differential levels of support and divergent
Policy GoalsAmbiguous status of fuel ethanol
Agricultural good?Industrial good?Environmental good?Tariff categoryBlue, amber, green or black box?
Biotechnology Food vs Fuel
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Figure 5: Index of Consumer Level Tortilla Prices and the Overall CPI in Mexico: Jan 2006 = 100
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
Jan-06 Feb-06 Mar-06 Apr-06 May-06 Jun-06 Jul-06 Aug-06 Sep-06 Oct-06 Nov-06 Dec-06 Jan-07
Year and Month
Pri
ce In
dex
Tortilla Price Index
Overall CPI
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Food vs Fuel Higher grain prices from
ethanol demand has continental and event global consequences
Runge and Senauer project that the accompanying price increases from the use of food products to produce biofuels will “exacerbate world hunger
They project an increase in the number of chronically hungry in the world of 600 million
Percentage of total household food expenditure on corn and corn products: I = 10% poorest, X = 10% richest households
Source: Rabobank with data from INEGI
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Policy response
• Quasi price controls on tortillas (Mexico)
• Promotion of corn production (Mexico)
• Export prohibition
• Argentina
• Ukraine
• China
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Potential Trade Irritants?Differential levels of support and divergent Policy
GoalsAmbiguous status of fuel ethanol
Agricultural good?Industrial good?Environmental good?Tariff categoryBlue, amber, green or black box?
BiotechnologyFood vs FuelWho would mount a trade challenge?
OPEC countries?South and southeast Asian countries who might be
future exporters?
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