nonwork influences on withdrawal cognitions: an empirical examination of an overlooked issue

Nonwork Influences on Withdrawal Cogn itions:

An Empirical Examination of an Overlooked

Issue

Aaron Cohen1,2

The aim of this research is to examine several dimensions of nonwork domains

such as nonwork-to-work spillover, work/nonwork conflict, coping strategies, and

organizational support for nonwork, and the ir re lationship to withdrawal

cognitions. Questionnaires were mailed to all employees of a school district in

western Canada. A total of 300 usable questionnaires were returned: a response

rate of 42% . The findings show that nonwork domain variables are significantly

related to withdrawal cognitions. This was demonstrated mainly in two strong

interaction effects between the importance of nonwork and personal coping

strategie s on the one hand, and between the importance of nonwork and

perceived organizational support for nonwork on the other. The two interactions

remain significant when two work variables, i.e., organizational commitme nt and

job satisfaction, were entered into the regression as control variables. The paper

concludes with proposed directions for future research based on the findings of

this present work.

KEY WORDS: turnover; nonwork; spillover; work/nonwork conflict.

INTRODUCTION

Increasing change s in the workforce call for more atte ntion to the

effect of nonwork domains on attitude s and behaviors at work. Over half

of all married women are employe d, many in careers. Fathe rs are partici-

pating more in childrearing and child support activitie s. Time spent with

familie s in recreational activitie s has increased. Higher divorce rates have

made many workers single pare nts. These and a host of othe r social trends

have increased the pote ntial for competition between the organization and

the family. This compe tition has increased family resistance to moving,

Hum an Relations, Vol. 50, No. 12, 1997

1511

0018-7267/97/1200-1511 $12.50/1 Ó 1997 The Tavistock Institute

1Department of Political Science, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel.2Requests for reprints should be addressed to Aaron Cohen, Department of Political Science,

Unive rsity of Haifa, Mount Carme l, Haifa 31905, Israel.

and has transfe rred family stresses to the workplace (Orthne r & Pittman,

1986) . Yet, Wile y (1987) argued that studie s measure d work/nonwork role

conflict only in terms of work interference in the family role , neglecting

the individual ’s perceptions of the inte rference of family role demands in

work role obligations. Ste ffy and Jones (1988) justified the need for evalu-

ating the effects of family and house hold variable s on various commitment

domains base d upon the premise that just as workplace factors affect ex-

tra-work life , so too do family and house hold factors influe nce organiza-

tional and career attitude s and behaviors. Lambert (1990) argue d that to

docume nt the costs and benefits of maintaining a particular balance be-

tween work and home, research must specify the relationship between dif-

ferent patte rns of work/family intersection and measure s of organizationa l

well-be ing. Lambert recommende d the use of diverse outcome measure s

to capture the full range of effects of diffe rent patte rns of work/home

inte rsection on employing organizatio ns. Turnove r, which is considered

one of the most important indicators of organizational we ll-be ing

(Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982) , is the outcome measure examined in

this study in its relationship to nonwork domains.

Employe e turnove r is one of the aspects most studied in organiza-

tional research (Cotton & Tuttle , 1986; Mitra, Jenkins, Douglas, & Gupta,

1992) . Yet there are no firm conclusions as to the turnove r process (Cotton

& Tuttle , 1986) , and there is some disappointm ent in the results dealing

with the relationship between variable s representing individualistic theo-

ries (e .g., age , sex, and job satisfaction) and turnove r (Dalton & Todor,

1993) . One factor that has received little attention in turnove r research

is nonwork influe nces on staying or leaving ( Mowday et al. 1982) . The

relationships between individual nonwork relate d variable s and turnove r

are often neglected (Moble y, 1982) . Moreove r, studie s have found that

aspects of work/nonwork inte rface are relate d to work attitude s such as

job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Kirchmeyer, 1992; Wile y,

1987; Rice , Frone , & McFarlin, 1992; Rudd & McKenry, 1986; Ste ffy &

Jones, 1988), all conside red important ante cedents of turnove r (Tett &

Meyer, 1993; Cohe n, 1993) . This indicate s that nonwork aspe cts might be

related to turnove r. In light of the above , this research examine s several

dimensions of nonwork domains such as nonwork-to-work spillove r,

work/nonwork conflict, coping strategies and organizational response to

nonwork in the ir relationship to turnove r. It will also examine the effect

of nonwork domains relative to the effect of work domain variable s. The

possibility of a more comple x effect of nonwork domains on turnove r will

be examine d too by testing inte ractions among nonwork domain variable s

in the ir relationship to turnove r.

1512 Cohen

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

Nonwork Domain s and Turnover: Early Conceptualization s

Conceptually, very little work has been done on the effect of nonwork

domains on turnove r. An early and general perspective on this relationship

was offered by Sussman and Cogswe ll (1971) . Their main argument was

that there is a direct relationship between supply and demand of workers

in any occupational system and the conside rations of non-economic factors

in job movements. The greater the demand for workers in any occupational

system the greater the consideration give n to familial concerns such as work

aspirations of spouses, special needs of children, community activitie s, links

with kin, friends, and voluntary associations, physical and social environ-

ment, and conditions in the work situation. That is, in a market of few

options or of practically no jobs, and where survival is paramount, most

individuals will go where the work is for the available pay. On the other

hand, a worker enjoying great demand for her/his services, one in which

s/he has many job options, will input into a decision those non-mone tary

conside rations relevant to her/his social situation and personality. Another

way to conceptualize the effect of nonwork domains on turnove r is by the

side-bet theory (Becker, 1960) . Becker argues that over time, certain ac-

cruing costs make it more difficult to disengage from a consistent line of

activity, namely, maintaining membership in the organization. The threat

of losing these inve stments, along with a perceived lack of compensating

alte rnative s, commits the person to the organization. Becker phrase d his

argume nt as follows “...The man who hesitates to take a new job may be

deterred by a comple x of side-bets: the financial costs connected with a

pension fund he would lose if he moved; ...the loss of ease in domestic

living conseque nt on having to move his household, and so on ...” (Becker,

1960, pp. 38-39) . Nonwork domains, then, constitute Becker’s examples of

side-bet that might affect turnove r decision.

The Nature of the Relation sh ip Between Nonwork Domains and

Turnover

There is a consensus in the lite rature regarding the way nonwork con-

siderations affect turnove r. Steers and Mowday (1981) , Price and Mueller

(1981) , and Mobley (1982) argue d that nonwork considerations do not af-

fect turnove r directly. They affect the intention to leave or to stay in the

organization, and this intention is the variable that has a direct effect on

turnove r (Steel & Ovalle , 1984). There is, however, a major diffe rence be-

tween Price and Mueller (1981) on the one hand and Moble y (1982) and

Steers and Mowday (1981) on the other. Price and Mueller expected and

Influences on Withdrawal Cogn itions 1513

found a direct relationship of kinship responsibilitie s, which was the ir in-

dicator of nonwork domains, on the intention to stay in the organization.

Mobley and Steers and Mowday, however, hypothe sized that nonwork con-

siderations moderate the relationship between affective responses to the

job and inte ntion to stay or leave the organization. However, Lee and

Mowday (1987) , who examine d Steers and Mowday’s (1981) model, found

no support for an interaction between affective response s and nonwork in-

fluences. Their results suggest a direct relationship between affective re-

sponses and intention to stay or leave with no effect of nonwork influences.

Nevertheless, they argued that it would be inappropriate to recommend

deleting nonwork influences from the model on the basis of a single study.

A relate d issue regarding the relationship between nonwork domains

and turnove r is the nature and the scope of variable s defined as nonwork

domains. Most work has focused on what is generally labe led “family re-

sponsibility ” (Blegen, Mueller, & Price, 1988; Mobley, 1982; Sussman &

Cogswell, 1971; Muchinsky & Tuttle , 1979; Porter & Steers, 1973; Good,

Sisle r, & Gentry, 1988; Price & Mue lle r, 1981) . What is missing in the

lite rature is an empirical examination of othe r aspects of nonwork domains

regarding the ir relationship to turnove r. Mowday, Porte r, and Steers (1982)

argue d that the study of turnove r was just beginning to recognize a number

of nonwork factors that influe nce turnove r decisions, and that a constella-

tion of nonwork influe nces is often ignored in determining desire or intent

to leave . Many circumstances can be identified in which one may not like

a particular job but still does not seek termination. These include situations

where a spouse is limited geographically to a certain region and alte rnative

employment is scarce, or situations where the employe e’s central life in-

terest lie s outside of work. Mobley (1982) suggested that nonwork value s,

such as le isure or location preferences, can contribute to turnove r. Family

responsibilitie s, dual career familie s, and conflict between work and non-

work role s can also have an impact. The organization ’s analysis of turnove r

should include a diagnosis of nonwork value s and roles and the ir relation

to job behavior.

Recent research on nonwork domains has emphasized the perceptions

and reactions of individuals to work/nonwork interface and the ir effects on

the quality of life of the se individuals. Important conce pts such as

work/nonwork conflict (Frone, Russe ll, & Coope r, 1992; Williams & Alliger,

1994) , positive and negative nonwork to work spillove r (Croute r, 1984;

Kirchmeyer, 1992) , coping strategie s (Beute ll & Greenhaus, 1983; Paras-

uraman & Hansen, 1987) , and organizational support to employe es’ non-

work needs (Orthne r & Pittman, 1986) were not examined as possible

determinants of turnove r although they were found to be related to atti-

1514 Cohen

tudes which are turnove r antecedents, such as commitment and satisfaction

(Kirchmeyer, 1992; Steffy & Jones, 1988) .

In short, very little research has been performed on the relationship be-

tween nonwork domains and turnover. While the influence of nonwork fac-

tors on employe e turnove r remains perhaps one of the richest areas for

future work, fe w studie s have syste matically examined this relationship

(Mowday et al., 1982; Porte r & Steers, 1973) . As a result, many aspects of

this relationship have not been explored. For example , most of the above

research applie d a limited definition of nonwork, mainly its family responsi-

bility aspects. Few studie s have developed conceptual arguments regarding

the process by which different aspects of nonwork domains might be related

to turnove r. Also, little research has compared the effect of nonwork domains

with work variable s in their relationship to turnove r. This research attempts

to explore some of these issues. The following section suggests several hy-

potheses regarding the possible effect of nonwork domains on turnove r and

the process whereby they are expected to be relate d to turnover.

Research Hypotheses

Work/Nonwork Spillover

Croute r (1984) defined psychologica l spillove r as a transitory phe-

nomenon which include s the ways in which family life affects an individual ’senergy leve l, attention span, and mood, which in turn are brought into the

work setting by the worker. Kirchmeyer (1992) described how family and

other nonwork domains can affect attitude s and behaviors at work. She

argue d that by active participation in nonwork domains, such as family (e.g.,

pare nting), community (e .g., political partie s, charitie s) , and recreation

(e.g., social clubs, hobby associations) , the employe d individual can increase

the numbe r of privile ges which he or she can enjoy beyond work-re lated

one s, buffe r the failure s and strains of work, gain contacts and information

valuable for work, and develop skills and perspectives useful there. Such

resource enrichme nts involve not only the individual ’s capacity to meet

work demands and his or her value to the employing organization, but also

the sense of personal competence . Through such enhance ments, nonwork

participation could favorably influence attitude s and behaviors toward the

organization and the job.

This research anticipate s that a positive nonwork-to-work spillove r will

be related to withdrawal cognitions. Of all the propose d ante cedents of turn-

over, those concerning the work experience itself have demonstrated the

strongest relationships with turnover (Mowday et al., 1982; Lee & Mowday,

1987). The more positive the expe rience at work, the stronge r the intention


to remain in the organization tends to be. Similarly, the more nonwork par-

ticipation enhance s the work e xperience , the stronger the intention to remain

in the organization should be . Through its effect on the work expe rience,

nonwork participation may be related to withdrawal cognitions.

Hypothesis 1a. Low withdrawal cognitions will be associate d with high

positive nonwork to work spillove r.

Work/nonwork conflict reflects the goodne ss of fit between work life

and nonwork life (Rice et al., 1992) . The demands associated with one role

constrains the time and psychological resources that individuals can devote

to the other. Individuals experiencing high job demands may have limited

time and energy for family tasks. As a result, perceptions that work inter-

fe res with family would be high (Williams & Allige r, 1994) . Increased

work/nonwork conflict might lead employe es to look for an alte rnative work

setting which will offer them a better work schedule (e.g., no shiftwork, a

shorte r workday, no weekends and holiday work), or day-care arrange ments

that would reduce the nonwork demands and thereby decrease the pote n-

tial for work/nonwork conflict. Moreover, Frone et al. (1992) argue d that

individuals are less like ly to accept direct responsibility for managing the ir

work roles in a way that does not inte rfere with the ir family life . Rathe r,

individual s are more like ly to hold the ir organizat ions responsible for

work/nonwork conflict. This probably causes negative attitude s toward the

organization, increasing withdrawal cognitions.

Research has supporte d the notion that work¯family conflict and pres-

sures can cause employe es to quit their jobs. Sussman and Cogswe ll (1971)

offered specific arguments indicating how a certain type of family and life

cycle stage can cause differential propensities to move. The relationship

between family responsibility and turnove r intentions was found to be gen-

erally positive (Muchinsky & Tuttle , 1979) , indicating that work¯family con-

flict and pressures can cause employe es to quit the ir jobs. Porter and Steers

(1973) stated that increased family responsibility produces more turnove r

for women whereas the results for men are mixed. Good, Sisle r, and Gentry

(1988) found that retail managers with higher leve ls of work¯family conflict

were more like ly to leave the company.

Hypothesis 1b. High withdrawal cognitions will be associated with high

work/nonwork conflict.

Response to Nonwork

Importan ce of Nonwork. The two explanations offered for the relation-

ship between importance of nonwork and turnove r suggest that individuals

who assign high importance to nonwork domains will have weaker with-

drawal cognition s. The first one is base d on the expansion mode l of

1516 Cohen

work¯nonwork ties. Accordingly, individuals who value the ir nonwork do-

mains are more willing to cope with increasing extra-organizational role

demands by responding to them positive ly (Kabanoff, 1980; Marks, 1977) .

Adding new roles may liberate source s of energy for the individual and,

rathe r than having to pay for extensive social involve ment, individuals may

come away from new social involve ments more enriche d and vitalize d.

Many ties may be supportive of the individual and create energy for use

in other role performance (Randall, 1988) . Such individuals will not per-

ceive the organization as inte rfering in their extra-organizational role de-

mands and will not deve lop negative attitude s that might cause them to

leave the ir work setting.

Another explanation is based on the side-bet theory mentioned earlier.

It states that nonwork domains can be perceived as a side-bet, following

Becker’s (1960) theory. That is, one might hesitate to leave the workplace so

as not to lose any of the quality of one’s nonwork life in one’s current com-

munity. In many cases, leaving a workplace means having to relocate . Indi-

viduals who have deve loped strong ties to their community, friends, family,

social clubs will be less incline d to leave their organization if it means leaving

their location and their community. Thus, involve ment in nonwork domains

can be a side -bet that will prevent individuals from leaving in order not to

lose or reduce the quality of their extra-organizational life .

Hypothesis 2. Low withdrawal cognitions will be associated with high

importance of nonwork domains.

Personal Coping Strategies. Williams and Alliger (1994) argued that the

negative effects of role juggling on mood and work/family conflict sugge st

that individuals should structure their work and family roles to reduce the

potentials for role intrusions. The type of personal strategy used to cope

with the demands and responsibilitie s of multiple domains appears to affect

the expe rience of interdomain conflict (Hall, 1972; Kirchmeyer, 1993) . Gil-

bert and Holahan (1982) found that subje cts rating their characteristic ways

of coping as highly effective reporte d less conflict than subjects rating the ir

characte ristic strategies as less effective. Hall’s (1972) work on the strate-

gies of college-educate d women in coping with role conflict provide s the

framework for the concept of coping strategie s in this research. The women

in the sample were active in multiple domains and reported using 16 coping

strategie s classified into three types: structural role redefinition (e.g., a

proactive attempt to deal with the objective reality of one’s role s by reduc-

ing the role demands and changing othe r’s expectations) , personal role re-

definition (e.g., a more defensive approach where conflicts are reduced

through changing one’s personal attitude s and behaviors as oppose d to al-

tering role demands) , and reactive role behavior (e.g., no attempt to ad-

dress conflict, but rathe r the individual strives to improve his or her ability


to satisfy all demands) . Hall’s findings showed the reactive type to be the

least effective . Kirchmeyer (1993) replicated Hall’s research and found that

successfully coping with multiple domains involve s applying good personal

organization and deve loping an appropriate attitude . Strategies which aim

at altering one ’s own attitude s as oppose d to altering those of others, and

increasing one’s personal efficiency as oppose d to decreasing one’s activity

leve l or relying on others, appe ared to be most effective in he lping man-

agers cope with a multitude of life domains. These findings are in accord-

ance with those of Beutell and Greenhaus (1983) who found in a sample

of women that active coping strategies were perceived to be successful in

dealing with home and nonhome role conflicts.

Effectiveness in dealing with multiple domains should result in fewer

work¯nonwork conflicts and avoid the resulting negative attitude s toward

the work setting. For example , effective coping strategies were found to

affect job satisfaction and organizational commitment positive ly (Paras-

uraman & Hansen, 1987) . Employees who deal more effectively with mul-

tiple domains will experience less interdomain conflicts that might result

from ineffective coping. They will feel more comfortable with the ir current

setting and will be less incline d to view their work setting as the reason

for the ir conflicts and pressures. These employe es are expe cted to have

stronger intentions to remain in the organization than individuals who do

not cope effectively with multiple domains.

Hypothesis 3. Lower withdrawal cognitions will be associated with

greater personal coping strategies.

Organization al Support for Nonwork

Moble y (1982) argued that the understanding, prediction, and man-

agement of turnove r require the assessment of the extent to which policie s,

practice s, and conditions are perceived by employees to facilitate or inter-

fere with the attainme nt of nonwork value s. The logic underlying many

corporations’ decision to offer employe r-base d family supports such as

childcare and flexible work schedule s may be that such benefits will facili-

tate employe es’ abilitie s to handle family matters (Croute r, 1984) . This will

reduce the potential for work¯nonwork conflict for many employees and

will enhance the ir work performance. Williams and Allige r (1994) similarly

argue d that organizational inte rventions may reduce work¯family juggling

and conflict. Flexible work schedules and on-site day care , for example ,

provide workers with greater control over the ir work and nonwork sched-

ules and may make it easier for them to manage the daily demands of

work and family roles. This process will generate positive attitude s toward

the organization and will increase the intention to remain in it. Another

1518 Cohen

reason to expect a relationship between nonwork domains and withdrawal

cognitions is base d on the side -bet theory approach (Becker, 1960) . Here,

organizational support can be perceived as a type of benefit difficult to

obtain elsewhere.

Rudd and McKenry (1986) , for example , found that satisfactory child-

care incre ases job satisfaction of employe d mothers, and O rthne r and

Pittman (1986) found in a sample of military personnel that perceived or-

ganizational support led to stronger job morale , a stronger intent to pursue

an air force career and a stronger perceived quality of job performance.

Orthne r and Pittman (1986) conclude d that improve d family support poli-

cies are like ly to yield benefits for organizations in such areas as employe e

performance, morale , and retention. In light of the above it is anticipate d

that the greater the support provide d by the organization with regard to

its employe es’ nonwork domains, the lower will be the withdrawal cogni-

tions of these employees.

Hypothesis 4. Supportive organizational responses to nonwork domains

of employe es will be relate d negative ly to withdrawal cognitions.

Interaction Effects

This pape r argue s that the effect of the variable s “personal coping

strategie s” and “organizational support” on withdrawal cognitions might

not be direct, but a more complex inte raction effect. Moble y (1982) argued

that whether or not individuals translate the ir present and future evaluation

of the job into turnove r intentions may be relate d to the degree to which

the job is perceived to facilitate or inte rfere with important nonwork values

or with nonwork roles. As with work values, individual differences must be

recognize d. For individuals whose central life values are nonwork-re lated

the ir job choice and turnove r decision would be expected to be strongly

relate d to nonwork domains. Conversely, for individuals whose central life

value s are predominantly work-re lated, the relationships of nonwork do-

mains with turnove r intentions should be less strong. This difference is an-

ticipated to have an impact on the way individual s and organizat ions

respond to work/nonwork interface . Individuals are expose d to the effect

of nonwork domains regardle ss of their importance to them. But the im-

portance they assign to nonwork determines the way they respond to the

pressures from multiple domains.

For employees who value the ir nonwork domains, coping effectively

with the pressures from multiple domains will cause them to adjust better

to their work setting and, as a result, they will be more capable of fulfilling

the ir nonwork plans. The work setting will not be perceived as something

that inte rferes with fulfilling their nonwork plans, which they consider an


important aspe ct of the ir lives, and therefore they will be less incline d to

leave the organization. On the othe r hand, employe es who assign low im-

portance to their nonwork domains are less exposed to pressures from mul-

tiple domains. Whate ver happe ns in their nonwork domains is not expe cted

to be significantly relate d to their behavior and attitude s at work because

nonwork domains are not an important aspect of their live s. Therefore,

the way they cope with pressures from the ir work and multiple domains

will not be relate d to their attitude s towards the organization, or their with-

drawal cognitions.

Another inte raction expected is between the variable s “importance of

nonwork domains” and “organizational support”. For employe es who value

their nonwork domains, more organizational support will increase the ir

ability to cope with demands from multiple domains. That will prevent

negative attitude s toward the organization and will result in higher levels

of intention to remain in the organization. The opposite is expected when

the organization is not supportive of its employe es. In such cases, employ-

ees who value their nonwork domain might feel frustrated by the ir inability

to fulfil the ir nonwork responsibilitie s and needs. Some of this frustration

will be attribute d to the work setting, the organization in particular, and

will result in stronge r intentions to leave.

Finally, the use of three moderators in the relationship between non-

work domains and withdrawal cognitions raises the possibility of a three-

way inte raction effe ct. It is re asonable to e xpe ct that the inte raction

between the variable s “importance of nonwork domains” and “personal

coping strategies” will diffe r in a way depending on the support of the

organization for nonwork. That is, the interaction of importance of non-

work domains and personal coping strategie s will ope rate differently when

the organization supports the nonwork domains of its employees from when

it does not. When the organization supports the nonwork domains, the ef-

fect of the variable importance of nonwork domains on withdrawal cogni-

tions will be positive for employees who cope effectively with their nonwork

domains. Those who value their nonwork domains and use effective coping

strategie s to prevent work¯nonwork conflicts will respond with lower levels

of withdrawal cognitions when the organization supports the ir nonwork do-

mains. On the othe r hand, those who value the ir nonwork domains and

use effective coping strategie s to prevent work¯nonwork conflicts, but re-

alize that the organization doe s not support their efforts to cope, will react

negative ly and thus show higher levels of withdrawal cognitions.

Hypothesis 5(a). The effect of personal coping on withdrawal cognitions

will be stronger for employe es who assign high importance to nonwork do-

mains than for employees who assign them lower importance .

1520 Cohen

Hypothesis 5(b). The effect of organization support for nonwork will

be stronger for employe es who assign high importance to nonwork domains

than for employees who assign them lower importance .

Hypothesis 5(c). The effect of nonwork domain on withdrawal cogni-

tions will vary depending on personal coping strategies as well as organ-

izational support for nonwork domains.

Nonwork Domains and Work Attitudes. The final hypothe sis tests the

incremental effect of nonwork domains on withdrawal cognitions beyond

the effect of work-related variable s. Near, Rice , and Hunt (1980) argued

that a research que stion which emerged as worthy of immediate study was

the effect of nonwork aspe cts on work behaviors and attitude s relative to

work setting variable s. Such research has important implications for policy

issues because it may be necessary to conside r change s in off-the-job con-

ditions to improve the experienced quality of working life . For example , a

strong effect of the nonwork domain on turnove r would mean greater em-

phasis on improving the quality of life outside of work. It is thus important

to examine the effect of nonwork domains on turnove r in relationship to

the effect of affective responses to job. Job satisfaction and organizational

commitment have been extensive ly researched in their relationship to turn-

ove r (Tett & Meyer, 1993) , and are examined here. The two attitude s will

be examined according to Tett and Meyer’s (1993) meta-analysis findings

that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are distinguishable

constructs, each contributing unique ly to withdrawal cognitions. If nonwork

domain conside rations are important determinants of turnove r intentions,

as argue d in the above -mentioned literature , then they should have an in-

cremental effect beyond the effect of commitment and satisfaction. Other-

wise , it can be conclude d that nonwork domains are related to withdrawal

cognitions only through their effect on commitment and satisfaction.

Hypothesis 6. Nonwork domain variable s will have a significant effect

on withdrawal cognition beyond the effect of organizational commitment

and job satisfaction.

METHOD

Participan ts

All 720 employees of a school district in western Canada were sur-

veyed. Questionnaire s were mailed and a total of 300 usable que stionnaire s

were returne d; response rate was 42% . Thirty-thre e percent of the sample

were male s. The mean age of the respondents was 42.1 years and the mean

tenure in the local school, school district and occupation was 7.6, 11.2 and

14.2 years, respective ly. Sixty-se ven percent of the sample had completed


the ir university education. Of the university graduate s, 16.4% possessed an

MA or PhD degree. Seventy percent of the sample were teachers, 10%

were in administration, and 20% were in clerical, maintenance , or caretak-

ing positions.

Measures

Control Variables

The following control variable s were used: gender (0 = female ; 1 =

male), education (a scale of 1-elementary school, to 7-highe r university de-

gree), years in occupation, and annual income; these were measured as

interval variable s.

Nonwork Domain Variables

Positive Non work-to-Work Spillover. E ight ite ms from Kirchme yer’s(1992) measure were employed here. Each item began with the phrase “Be-

ing involve d in nonwork activitie s,” and example s of the continuation in-

cluded “earns me certain rights and privile ges that otherwise I could not

enjoy,” “give s me support so I can face the difficultie s of work,” and “im-

proves my image at work.” The reliability of this scale was .74, similar to

that (alpha = .76) reported by Cohen and Kirchmeyer (1995).

Work-Nonwork Conflict. Shamir’s (1983) six-ite m scale was employed.

Items referred to the disruption of nonwork by work and include “One of

the difficultie s of my job is that I am not at home enough,” and “Work

often prevents me from participating in leisure activitie s that take place at

the same time.” A 7-point scale of agre ement was used for responding.

The reliability of the instrument here (alpha = .80) is slightly higher than

that reported by Shamir (alpha = .78) .

Importan ce of Nonwork Domains. This variable was measure d based

on the basis of Randall’s measure (1988) . Responde nts were aske d: “How

important is this activity to you? ” Seven potential outside claims were ex-

plore d: jobs outside the work organization, hobbie s and recreational activi-

ties, religious organizations, political partie s, family and relative s, friends,

and a miscellaneous category of other organizations. A 5-point scale format

was used for all response categorie s, where 1 indicate d “not at all impor-

tant” and 5 indicate d “very important.” The total importance of external

claims was calculate d by summing the perceived importance of each claim.

This procedure was applie d by Randall (1988) .

Personal Coping with Multiple Domains. This variable was measured us-

ing eight items from a scale develope d by Kirchmeyer (1993) base d on

1522 Cohen

Hall (1972). These items represent effective strategie s identified in he r

study and suggest a coping theme of good personal organization and an

appropriate attitude . Examples include “Increase my efficiency by sched-

uling and organizing role activitie s carefully,” and “Develop attitude s which

put role demands in a positive light.” A 5-point scale ranging from “not

typical of me” to “very typical” was applie d. The reliability here (alpha =

.72) was slightly lower than the .76 reported by Kirchmeyer (1993) .

Organizational Support. Five items from Kirchmeyer’s (1995) measure

of organizational support for nonwork were selected here. These particular

items dealt with individual perceptions of the respect that organizations

show for nonwork, and include “Considers employe es’ personal live s when

making important decisions about careers,” “Accommodate s employe es’special nonwork needs,” and “Is flexible about employees’ work schedules.”A 5-point scale ranging from “not typical of my organization ” to “very typi-

cal” was applie d. The reliablity found here (alpha = .74) is similar to that

(alpha = .75) reporte d by Kirchmeyer (1995) .

Withdrawal Cognitions . This variable was measure d by three items

base d on Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino’s (1979) definition and fol-

lowing similar measure s applie d in the lite rature (Mille r, Katerberg, &

Hulin, 1979; Michae ls & Spector, 1982; Mowday, Koberg, & McArthur,

1984) . Accordingly, responde nts were aske d to indicate the ir agre ement

with the following three items on a 5-point scale: (1) “I think a lot about

leaving the organization ”; (2) “I am active ly searching for an alte rnative

to the organization ”; (3) “As soon as it is possible , I will leave the organi-

zation.” There is a tende ncy in recent literature to view turnove r as a mul-

tidimensional construct (Cohen, 1993) . Therefore data on four dimensions

of withdrawal cognitions were colle cted in this study: from the organization,

the head office, the job, and the occupation. This was done by using the

same items, but replacing the term “organization ” with “job” or “occupa-

tion,” or “school district.” The scale range d from 1 (strongly agree) to 5

(strongly disagre e), which indicate s that a higher score means weaker with-

drawal cognition s.

Organizational Commitment. This variable was measure d by a nine-item

scale developed by Cohe n (1993) , base d on the approach sugge sted by

O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) in which organizational commitment is de-

fined as a psychological attachment to the organization. This affective at-

tachment can take one or more of the following three dimensions: (a)

Identification —adoption of the goals and value s of the organization as one’sown; (b) Affiliation—feelings of be longing to the organization, of be ing

“part of it”; and (c) Moral involvement—internalizing the roles of the com-

mitment obje cts demonstrated in feelings of care and concern for the or-

ganization. The focus of organizational commitment in this research was


the local unit, the school in most cases. The reliability here (.76) was lower

than that reported by Cohen (.86) .

Job Satisfaction . The variable was measure d by a 5-ite m scale based

on that developed by Schrie she im and Tsui (1980) . Responde nts were asked

to indicate on a 7-point scale how satisfie d they were with their work: pay,

promotion, supervision, co-workers, job. This measure was deve lope d by

Schriesheim and Tsui (1980) . Note that the reliability in this sample (.78)

is higher than that reported by Tsui, Egan, and O’Reilly (1992) in an Ameri-

can sample (.73) .

Data Analysis

Research hypothe ses were tested by hierarchical regression analysis,

conducte d in the following steps: first the control variable s (gende r, edu-

cation, tenure in occupation, and income) were entered into the equation.

Second, the two spillove r variable s (positive nonwork to work spillove r, and

work/nonwork conflict) were entered. Third, the three response variable s

(importance of nonwork, coping strategie s, and organization support) were

entered. The reason for this orde r is that the nonwork aspects should be

relate d to withdrawal cognitions beyond the effect of the control variable s.

Moreove r, of the two groups of nonwork variable s, the response variable s

were entered after the spillove r variable s because it was assumed that one

first expe riences work/nonwork interface as demonstrated by positive spil-

lover and work/nonwork conflict, and this experience might bear on the

way one reacts to this interface: coping strategie s and perceptions of the

support provide d by the organization. In the final step, the four inte ractions

were entered into the equation, as were three two-way interaction effects

(importance of nonwork ´ coping strategies; importance of nonwork ´ or-

ganization response ; coping strategie s ´ organization response ) and the

three-way inte raction effect (importance of nonwork ´ coping strategie s ´organization response ). Each interaction is presented to allow an inte rpre-

tation of the two-way inte ractions if the three-way interaction is not sig-

nificant, and an interpretation of the main effects when both the two-way

and the three-way inte ractions are not significant. Following Aiken and

West (1991) , the three variable s include d in the inte raction (importance of

nonwork, coping strategies, and organization response) were centered to

minimize multicolline arity. To test Hypothesis 6, regarding the incremental

effect of nonwork domains an additional analysis was performed. Organ-

izational commitment and job satisfaction were entered into the equation

after the demographic control variable s. Only then were the nonwork do-

main variable s and the interactions entered in identical orde r to the one

described above .

1524 Cohen

FINDINGS

Table I shows descriptive statistics, reliabilitie s, and the intercorrela-

tions among the research variable s, demonstrating acceptable psychometric

properties of the variable s. The correlations among the four depende nt

variable s were very high and range d from .73 to .86. This finding demon-

strates the difficultie s of the respondents in differentiating among the with-

drawal cognition forms. Therefore it was decided to combine the 12 items

of the four variable s to form a single measure of withdrawal cognitions.

The corre lations among the inde pendent variable s do not indicate any

proble m of multicolline arity.

Tables II and III present the results of the regression analyse s. Table

II presents the analysis for withdrawal cognitions as a dependent variable ,

and nonwork domains as inde pendent variable s. Table III shows the same

analysis but with organizational commitment and job satisfaction entered

in the second step to test Hypothe sis 6. One should note the consiste nt

effect of the control variable s. The variable s of gender, education, years in

occupation, and income were all significantly relate d to withdrawal cogni-

tions (see Table II). But the effect of the control variable s became much

weake r when organizational commitment and job satisfaction were entered

in the equation (see Table III).

Spillover Variables. Table II shows no relationship between positive non-

work-to-work spillove r and withdrawal cognitions. Table III, which include s

commitment and satisfaction, shows a consistently negative effect of posi-

tive spillove r on withdrawal cognitions. This relationship is contrary to that

expected in Hypothesis 1(a), which anticipate d a positive relationship. Thus

no support for Hypothesis 1(a) is provide d by the data. Hypothe sis 1(b),

which expected a relationship of withdrawal cognitions to work/nonwork

conflict, received some support from the data. High work/nonwork conflict

was associate d with high withdrawal cognitions in steps 2 and 3 of the re-

gressions (see Table II). However, the effect of positive spillove r disap-

peared when the interactions were entered into the equations in step 4.

No effect was found between the two variable s when commitment and job

satisfaction were include d in the equations (see Table III).

Response Variables. Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 predicted an important re-

lationship among nonwork, coping strategie s, organization support, and

withdrawal cognitions. However, Table s II and III show no relationship be-

tween any of the three response variable s and withdrawal cognitions. There-

fore no empirical support is provide d for these hypothe ses.

Interaction Effects. Hypothesis 5(a), which predicted an interaction ef-

fect of importance of nonwork and coping strategie s on withdrawal cogni-

tions, was strongly supporte d by the data. As can be seen in Table II, this

interaction has a strong effect on withdrawal cognitions. The inte raction


Table

I.D

esc

rip

tive

Sta

tist

ics,

Re

lia

bil

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sa

nd

Inte

rco

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lati

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s(R

eli

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are

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ese

s)a

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SD

12

34

56

78

91

01

11

21

31

41

51

6

Dep

end

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tvaria

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Wit

hd

raw

al

cog

nit

ion

s4

9.4

21

1.8

5(.

95

)

Con

trol

va

riab

les

2.

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nd

erb

0.3

20

.47

¯.21

3.

Ed

uca

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.93

2.0

8¯.1

8.2

04

.Y

ea

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up

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14

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7.3

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7

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Inco

me

39

58

71

76

76

¯.12

.44

.69

.52

Ind

ep

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den

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s

6.

Imp

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ceo

fn

on

wo

rkd

om

ain

28

.92

5.0

6¯.0

4¯.0

4.0

5¯.0

0.0

27

.P

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tive

no

nw

ork

-to

-wo

rksp

illo

ver

30

.09

5.2

9¯.0

8¯.0

5.1

4¯.1

3.0

3.2

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74

)

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19

.57

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0¯.1

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1.2

9.0

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7.1

6(.

80

)9

.P

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on

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cop

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28

.92

5.0

6.1

1¯.1

4.0

7.0

1.0

6.2

3.2

3¯.0

5(.

72

)

10

.O

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sup

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3.7

0.1

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)1

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lco

mm

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(.7

6)

12

.Jo

bsa

tisf

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27

.15

5.4

6.5

0¯.1

1¯.0

3¯.0

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5¯.0

2.0

9¯.1

6.1

2.2

4.4

6(.

78

)In

tera

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13

.Im

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¯.24

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.05

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¯.06

¯.03

¯.01

¯.01

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¯.13

¯.15

14

.Im

po

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of

no

nw

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in´

org

an

iza

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for

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nw

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¯1.4

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4.0

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9.0

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5.6

9.1

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aC

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ate

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.

1526 Cohen

was plotte d and is presented in Fig. 1(a). The pattern of the inte raction

shown in Fig. 1(a) was une xpected. The plot shows that among employe es

who attached low importance to nonwork domains there was a positive

relationship between personal coping strategie s and withdrawal cognitions;

among employe es who attached high importance to nonwork domains there

was a negative relationship between personal coping and withdrawal cog-

nitions. Hypothe sis 5(a) anticipate d the opposite patte rn.

Hypothesis 5(b), which predicted an inte raction effect between im-

portance of nonwork and organizational support, was strongly supporte d

by the data. As Table II shows, this inte raction had a strong effect on

withdrawal cognitions. The interaction was plotte d and is presented in Fig.

1(b). The patte rn of the interaction as shown in Fig. 1(b) was as expe cted

according to Hypothe sis 5(b). The plot shows that employees who assigne d

high importance to nonwork domains and perceived more support by the

Table II. Regression Results (Standardized Coefficients) for Withdrawal Cognitions as De-

pendent Variables

Withdrawal cognitions

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Control VariablesGende ra

¯.21** ¯.21** ¯.20** ¯.20**

Education ¯.26** ¯.22* ¯.20* ¯.19*Years in occupation ¯.17** ¯.21** ¯.20* ¯.22**

Income .24* .28* .26* .29**Spillover var iables

Positive nonwork-to-work spillover ¯.06 ¯.09 ¯.10Work/nonwork conflict ¯.17* ¯.15* ¯.13

Respon se variablesImportance of nonwork ¯.01 ¯.04

Personal coping .09 .09Organization support for nonwork .05 .08

Interaction sImportance of nonwork ´ personal coping ¯.25***

Importance of nonwork ´ organizationalsupport

.20**

Personal coping ´ organizational support ¯.06Importance of nonwork ´ personal coping ´organizational support

.05

R2 .09 .12 .13 .23

Adjusted R2 .07 .10 .10 .18F 5.32*** 4.94*** 3.58*** 4.72***

m R2.03 .01 .10

F for m R2 3.91* 0.87 6.42***

a0 = female 1 = male.

*p £ .05.

**p £ .01.

***p £ .001.


organizatio n had lower withdrawal cognitions; employe es who assigne d

low importance to nonwork domains and perceived more organizationa l

support had highe r withdrawal cognitions. Hypothe sis 5(c) , which pre-

dicted a three-way inte raction effect, was not supporte d by the data. Fi-

nally, Table III shows an inte resting inte raction of coping strategie s with

organizational support. The plot of this interaction (not presented in this

paper) shows that for employees who perceived the organization as sup-

portive , the more coping strategie s they applie d the weaker were their

withdrawal cognitions. For those who perceived the organization as not

Table III. Regression Results (Standardized Coefficients) for Withdrawal Cognitions as

Dependent Variables with Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction as ControlVariables

Withdrawal cognitions

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

Control variables (demograp hics )

Gende ra¯.21** ¯.11 ¯.11 ¯.10 ¯.11

Education ¯.26** ¯.20* ¯.16* ¯.17* ¯.15

Years in occupation ¯.17* ¯.10 ¯.14* ¯.14* ¯.15*Income .24* .09 .11 .09 .12

Control variables (attitudes)Organizational commitme nt .18** .20** .20** .17**

Job satisfaction .39*** .38*** .39*** .37***Spillover var iables

Positive nonwork-to-work spillover ¯.14* ¯.14* ¯.14*Work/nonwork conflict ¯.08 ¯.08 ¯.07

Respon se variablesImportance of nonwork ¯.02 ¯.04

Personal coping .06 .06Organization support ¯.06 ¯.01

Interaction sImportance of nonwork ´ personal

coping¯.18**

Importance of nonwork ´ organiza-

tion support

.14*

Personal coping ´ organization sup-

port¯.13*

Importance of nonwork ´ personal

coping ´ organization support

.05

R2 .09 .33 .36 .36 .41

Adjusted R2 .07 .31 .33 .33 .37F 5.32*** 17.23*** 14.36*** 10.52*** 9.44***

m R2.24 .03 .00 .05

F for m R2 37.39*** 4.20* 0.53 4.19**

a0 = female 1 = male.

*p £ .05.

**p £ .01.

***p £ .001.

1528 Cohen

Fig. 1. Interaction effects: (a) Interaction effect on withdrawal cognitions (importance of non-

work ´ personal coping strategies) . (b) Interaction effect on withdrawal cognitions (importance

of nonwork ´ organizational support).


supportive , the more coping strategies they applie d the stronge r were their

withdrawal cognitions.

Nonwork Domains and Work Attitudes. Hypothesis 6 examine d whether

nonwork variable s had an effect on withdrawal cognitions beyond the effect

of the two work-re lated variable s examined here, namely organizational

commitment and job satisfaction. The findings in Table III support Hy-

pothe sis 6. Despite the strong relationship of the two work attitude s, non-

work domain variable s entered in steps three to five , and in particular the

inte ractions, contributed significantly to the variance explaine d by the

demographic control variable s and the two work attitude s.

DISCUSSION

The aim of this paper was to augme nt the limited research into the

influences of nonwork domains on turnove r decision. Mobley (1982) argued

that as dual career familie s become more prevale nt, as nonwork values be-

come more central, and as more young people attach less importance to

a stable and secure career, prediction and unde rstanding of turnove r will

require inclusion of nonwork variable s. This study tested nonwork variable s

other than those reflecting family responsibilitie s, the nonwork variable s

commonly tested so far. Anothe r contribution was testing the relative effect

of nonwork and work-related variable s. The findings show that nonwork

domain variable s were meaningfully and significantly relate d to withdrawal

cognitions beyond the effect of work-related variable s. But this was a more

complex effect, as demonstrated in the two strong interaction effects: they

were stronge r than the main effects. The spillove r and response variable s

had a weak main effect and little can be conclude d about the effect of

the ir ordering in the regression equations.

The variance explaine d by the nonwork variable s examined here is not

very high. But nonwork domains are not expected to be a major determi-

nant of turnove r. Lee and Mowday (1987) who found no effect of nonwork

domains on withdrawal cognitions argued that more research is needed be-

fore any conclusions may be drawn about discontinuing the use of nonwork

domains in turnove r models. What can be conclude d from this study is

that nonwork conside rations should be incorporate d in future mode ls of

turnove r. Clearly, part of the reason for Lee and Mowday’s (1987) findings

is their use of only one indicator on nonwork domains. Lambert (1990)

argue d that in considering the full work/family nexus, research identifying

factors that lead workers to balance work and home will contribute greatly

to our unde rstanding of the relationship between work and family. While

the little research that has e xamine d nonwork domain relationship with

turnove r has focused on family responsibilitie s, this paper propose s several

1530 Cohen

diffe rent aspects of nonwork domains, such as personal and organizational

responses to work/nonwork inte rface and positive nonwork-to-work spil-

lover. The relationships of the variable s tested here show the need for di-

versity in the nonwork domains examined in the ir relation to turnove r.

The strong interaction effects found here show that the relationship of

nonwork domains with turnove r is complex, rather than simple and direct.

An earlier indication of the existence of moderators in the relationship of

nonwork domains to turnover was revealed by Muchinsky and Tuttle (1979) .

They found that the relationship between family re sponsibilitie s and turnove r

was moderated by whether the employe e was the primary or secondary wage

earner. The pattern of the inte ractions found in this study shows that non-

work variable s had diffe rential relationships depending on the importance of

nonwork domains to employe es. The two groups of employees, name ly those

who valued nonwork domains and those who did not, seemed to respond

diffe rently to variable s representing work/nonwork interface.

The inte raction of the variable s “importance of nonwork domains” ´“organizational support for nonwork” shows that organizations can reduce

withdrawal cognitions of employe es by being more supportive of the ir non-

work needs. This is important in light of Lambert’s argument (1990) that

we must conside r how workplace policie s are he lping workers balance work

and family responsibiliti es in orde r to evaluate the ir merit adequate ly.

Crouter (1984) argue d that only persuasive data would convince employe rs

that it may be in their best inte rest to support familie s in ways that mini-

mized the like lihood that employees would bring family proble ms with them

to the work. This inte raction also shows that organizations should realize

that being more supportive will have a positive impact only for employe es

who assign high importance to the ir nonwork domains. More research in

this area is imperative , since most employe rs are like ly to pursue policie s

and practice s that support familie s only if there is persuasive documenta-

tion that such support will enhance the opportunity for the positive aspects

of family life to make the ir mark on the work organization (Crouter, 1984) .

Kanter (1977) identifie d two opposing types of responses to work¯non-

work issues adopte d by employers. One response is based on the myth of

separate work and nonwork worlds. Such employers expect employees to

leave their nonwork live s at the office or factory door, and are concerned

mainly with e mploye e s’ work behaviors. A second type of response is

termed “integration.” Here employers take over responsibilitie s not only

for employe es’ work lives but also for aspects of their nonwork lives. This

response aims to close the work¯nonwork gap, can reduce the conflict be-

tween work and nonwork domains, and should result in more favorable

attitude s toward the organization. The findings here sugge st that organiza-

tions who wish to decrease withdrawal cognitions should consider imple-


menting respect practices especially as the numbers of employed women

and dual earner familie s continue to grow.

The inte raction of the variable s “importance of nonwork domains” ´“personal coping” shows that employees who gave low importance to non-

work domains but were more effective in the ir strategies for coping with

multiple domains were more like ly to remain with the organization. This

patte rn of interaction was not anticipate d. One possible explanation is that

for people who regard nonwork domains as unimportant, applying effective

coping strategie s to deal with pressures from multiple domains is enough

to reduce work/nonwork interface tensions, which are minimal for them.

For this type of employe e, more effective coping strategie s should decrease

the ir withdrawal cognitions. On the othe r hand, for those who regard non-

work domains as important, additional coping strategies may be insufficie nt

to bridge the conflicts that arise from work/nonwork interface . Because of

the high importance they assign to nonwork domains, there is greater po-

tential for conflict. For this type of employe e more coping strategie s lead

to more frustrations resulting from their failure to cope with claims from

multiple domains, and can result in a greater desire to leave the situation

in orde r to find a setting in which they will be able to fulfill their nonwork

needs better. This explanation, as well as this particular finding, need rep-

lications in future research. Such research should further examine the pos-

sibility that the relationship between nonwork domains and withdrawal

cognitions is not a simple line ar one, and search for othe r inte raction effects

among nonwork domain variable s. For example , the interaction between

coping and organizational support was not anticipate d in this study and

may sugge st some directions for conceptual developme nts and future re-

search. More research into the interrelationships among nonwork variable s

is needed to increase our understanding of the processes through which

nonwork variable s are related to turnove r.

This research responds to the call of Near, Rice, and Hunt (1980) to

test the relationship between nonwork aspects to work behaviors and atti-

tudes relative to the work-se tting variable s because such research has im-

portant implications for policy issue s. The fact that organizational

commitment and job satisfaction explaine d much of the variance in with-

drawal cognitions suggests that the conditions in the work setting are the

main factor in shaping an employe e’s decision to stay or to leave . However,

policym ake rs cannot ignore the nonwork domain aspe cts as they were

found to have a significant relationship beyond the effect of the two work

variable s. The fact that the effect of nonwork domains, and the inte ractions

in particular, remained strong and consistent in the equations with and

without commitment and job satisfaction, emphasize s the importance of

the nonwork variable s examined here as determinants of turnove r.

1532 Cohen

The relationship of the control variable s, gende r in particular, is in-

teresting. The latte r is considered important because of the need to study

me n and wome n simultane ously in orde r to assess systematically how

work/family linkage s vary for men and women workers (Lambert, 1990) .

The relationship of all four control variable s was significant in all steps of

the regression equations that analyze d the relationship of research variable s

without commitment and satisfaction (see Table II). However, when com-

mitment and job satisfaction were entered (see Table III, step 2) the effect

of the control variable s became much weake r and disappe ared in some

cases. This finding shows that the control variable s were relate d to com-

mitment and satisfaction, and not to the nonwork domain variable s exam-

ined here. The disappe arance of the effect of gende r in the equations with

commitment and satisfaction supports Crouter’s (1984) argument that the

effect of nonwork doe s not depend so much on gende r per se, as on gen-

der-relate d roles. A logical extension of this argument is that single -parent

fathe rs are like ly to resemble mothers in the ir depiction of familial influ-

ence on work, as are fathers who are nontraditional and take on respon-

sibility for childcare and household tasks.

Finally, several limitations of this research should be mentioned. First,

the use of cross-sectional, corre lational data does not allow us to draw

causal inferences concerning the various hypothe sized relationships. Sec-

ond, because the study is based on self-report data, incurring the possibility

of source bias or general method variance , data must be inte rpreted cau-

tiously. The design of this research in terms of the depende nt variable is

appropriate however, because conceptually nonwork domains are expe cted

to be relate d to withdrawal cognitions and not actual turnove r (Steers &

Mowday, 1981; Price & Mueller, 1981) . Third, one can argue that turnove r

intentions are predicted to a greater extent by the presence of negative job

attitude s such as stress or burnout. Therefore, in orde r to support the case

that nonwork variable s explain work withdrawal beyond the contribution

of work-specific variable s future research should test negative work atti-

tude s inste ad of commitment and satisfaction, which represent positive

work attitude s and were tested here. Despite the ir limitations, the findings

of this study have shown that trying to explain work attitude s and behaviors

strictly in terms of work conditions and experiences is limiting. To try to

unde rstand the individual at work, not only his or her work life , but also

his or her life away from work must be considered (Kirchmeyer, 1992) . As

suggested by Croute r (1984) , future research should continue in this direc-

tion and attempt to measure specific outcomes of spillove r from the family

to the workplace . Some such outcome s may be sensitive to family influe nces

while others may not. As for turnove r, the influence of nonwork factors

on employe e turnove r is perhaps one of the richest areas for future work


(Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982) . With the increasing proportions of dual

career familie s and women in the workforce , nonwork domain considera-

tions may have an even large r role in turnove r decisions. Hence, the need

arise s for much more work on this issue. Nonwork influe nces on turnove r

could generate a stream of research that will lead us to a greater under-

standing of turnove r. The present paper advocate s further research into

this area.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author thanks two anonymous reviewers for the ir helpful com-

ments and sugge stions.

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BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

AARON COHEN is a senior Lecturer in the De partment of Political Science at the Unive rsityof Haifa, Israel. He rece ived his PhD in Manageme nt at the Technion-Israe l Institute of Tech-

nology and taught 3 years at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada. His currentresearch interests include work commitment, and in particular organizational commitme nt and

union commitment, turnover, and union participation.

1536 Cohen

nonwork influences on withdrawal cognitions: an empirical examination of an overlooked issue

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