WTP ol1 6 2,WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 162

ASIA TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT SERIES

Non-Motorized Vehicles in Asian Cities

Michael Replogle

-~~~~~~~LL

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS

No. 99 International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Planning the Management, Operation,and Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems: A Guide for the Preparation of Strategies andManuals (also in French, 99F)

No. 100 Veldkamp, Recommended Practices for Testing Water-Pumping Windmills

No. 101 van Meel and Smulders, Wind Pumping: A Handbook

No. 102 Berg and Brems, A Case for Promoting Breastfeeding in Projects to Limit Fertility

No. 103 Banerjee, Shrubs in Tropical Forest Ecosystems: Examples from India

No. 104 Schware, The World Software Industry and Software Engineering: Opportunities and Constraintsfor Newly Industrialized Economies

No. 105 Pasha and McGarTy, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Pakistan: Lessons from Experience

No. 106 Pinto and Besant-Jones, Demand and Netback Values for Gas in Electricity

No. 107 Electric Power Research Institute and EMENA, The Current State of Atmospheric Fluidized-BedCombustion Technology

No. 108 Falloux, Land Information and Remote Sensing for Renewable Resource Management in Sub-SaharanAfrica: A Demand-Driven Approach (also in French, 108F)

No. 109 Carr, Technology for Small-Scale Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Experience with Food Crop Productionin Five Major Ecological Zones

No. 110 Dixon, Talbot, and Le Moigne, Dams and the Environment: Considerations in World Bank Projects

No. 111 Jeffcoate and Pond, Large Water Meters: Guidelines for Selection, Testing, and Maintenance

No. 112 Cook and Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmer's Perspective

No. 113 Vergara and Babelon, The Petrochemical Industry in Developing Asia: A Review of the CurrentSituation and Prospects for Development in the 1990s

No. 114 McGuire and Popkins, Helping Women Improve Nutrition in the Developing World: Beating the ZeroSum Game

No. 115 Le Moigne, Plusquellec, and Barghouti, Dam Safety and the Environment

No. 116 Nelson, Dryland Management: The 'Desertification " Problem

No. 117 Barghouti, Timmer, and Siegel, Rural Diversification: Lessons from East Asia

No. 118 Pritchard, Lending by the World Bank for Agricultural Research: A Review of the Years 1981through 1987

No. 119 Asia Region Technical Department, Flood Control in Bangladesh: A Plan for Action

No. 120 Plusquellec, The Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan: Objectives, Design, and Performance

No. 121 Listorti, Environmental Health Components for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Urban Projects

No. 122 Dessing, Support for Microenterprises: Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 123 Barghouti and Le Moigne, Irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Publicand Private Systems

No. 124 Zymelman, Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 125 van de Walle and Foster, Fertility Decline in Africa: Assessment and Prospects

No. 126 Davis, MacKnight, IMO Staff, and Others, Environmental Considerations for Port and HarborDevelopments

No. 127 Doolette and Magrath, editors, Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies

No. 128 Gastellu-Etchegorry, editor, Satellite Remote Sensing for Agricultural Projects

No. 129 Berkoff, Irrigation Management on the Indo-Gangetic Plain

No. 130 Agnes Kiss, editor, Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participationin Africa

(List continues on the inside back cover)

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 162ASIATECHNICAL DEPARTMENT SERIES

Non-Motorizedi Vehicles in Asian Cities

Miichael Replogle

World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright C 1992The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing January 1992

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the developmentcommunity with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared inaccordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts noresponsibility for errors.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s)and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or tomembers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does notguarantee the accuracy of the data induded in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoeverfor any consequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for theconvenience of readers; the designations and presentation of material in them do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its Board or member countriesconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof orconcerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affiliation.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it shouldbe sent to Director, Publications Department, at the address shown in the copyright notice above. TheWorld Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and,when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopyportions for classroom use is not required, though notification of such use having been made will beappreciated.

The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications,which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors,and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit,Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or fromPublications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'I6na, 75116 Paris, France.

ISSN: 0253-7494

Michael Replogle is president and founder of the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, aWashington, D.C. based nonprofit organization that promotes sustainable transportation strategies, and aconsultant to the Technical Department, Asia Region of the World Bank. For the past eight years he hasbeen Transportation Coordinator for the Montgomery County (Maryland) Planning Department.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Replogle, Michael A.Non-motorized vehides in Asian cities / Michael Replogle.

p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; no.162. Asia technical department series)

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-1963-91. Bicycle commuting-Asia. 2. Human powered vehicles-Asia.

3. Carriages and carts-Asia. 4. Urban transportation-Asia.5. Choice of transportation. I. Title. II. Series: World Banktechnical paper. Asia technical department series.HE5739.A78R47 1991388.3'41'095091732-dc2O 91-36483

CIP

AbstractLwhat future fornon-motorized vehiclesin Asia?

Non-motorized vehicles-bicycles, three-wheelers, energy use, urban sprawl, and the employment andand carts-play a vital role in urban transport in mobility of the poor.much of Asia. NwVs account for a larger share of As cities in Japan, the Netherlands, Germany, andvehicular trips in many Asian cities than anywhere several other European nations demonstrate, thein the world. With increasing income, ownership of modernization of urban transport does not requireall vehicles, including NMVs, is growing rapidly total motorization, but rather the appropriate integra-throughout Asia. tion of walking, NMV modes, and motorized trans-

However, the future of NMVs in many Asian cities port. As in European and Japanese cities, where ais threatened by growing motorization, loss of street major share of trips are made by waLking and cycling,space for safe NMV use, and changes in urlban form NMVS have an important role to play in urban trans-prompted by motorization. Transport planning and port systems throughout Asia in coming decades.investment in most of Asia has focused principally This paper provides an overview of the currenton the motorized transport sector and has often ig- use of NMVs in Asian cities, environmental andnored the needs of NMVS. economic aspects of NMVs, the characteristics of

Without changes in policy, NMVs may decline pre- NMVS and facilities that serve them, and policies thatcipitously in many Asian cities in the coming decade. influence their use. The paper identifies conditionsLarge-scale replacement of NMVS with motorized under which NMVs should be encouraged for urbantransportation would have major negative impacts transport, obstacles to the development of NMVs, andon air pollution, traffic congestion, global warming, makes recommendations for action by the World

Bank and other donors.

iii

AcknowledgmentsThe author wishes to acknowledge his appreciation to Peter Midgley, Senior Urban Planner forAST, for his support and direction to this study. The author also wishes to acknowledge and thankDr. Setty Pendakur of the University of British Columbia and Marcia Lowe of Worldwatch Institutefor extensive contributions of research materials, ideas, and comments, which greatly enhanced thisstudy. Special thanks are offered also to 'Zerhard Menckhoff, Christian Diou, other staff of ASTIN,PRE, AFrm, and other divisions of the World Bank, to Andre Pettinga of Grontmij Consultants, andto Ralph Gackenheimer of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for their comments on earlydrafts of this report and for assistance in data and research material collection.

F'oreword

Asia has the widest variety and greatest number of ing non-motorized vehicle use where it is appropri-non-motorized fonrms of transport in the wVorld. They ate within urban transport systems. As part of theprovide the backbone of the transport system for the Asia Technical Department's review of the urbanpoor in many cities for both personal and goods transport sector in Asia, this technical paper demon-movements. The potential for the development of strates how this can be achieved and how develop-non-motorized transport and its integration within ment agencies suc-h as the World Bank can assist incity transport systems has been an area of growing the development of non-motorized transport as anconcemn within the development community for sev- attractive form of transport in an environmentallyeral years. A more concerted effort is nLeeded now conscious world.and in the future throughout Asia toward encourag-

Daniel RitchieDirector

Asia Technical Department

V

C ontents

Abstract iii

Foreword v

Acronyms and credits x

Summary xiIntroduction xiExtent of ownership and use xiiConditions under which NMvs should be encouraged xiiiKey barriers to NMVs xviFormulation of a non-motorized transport strategy xviRecommended action program for the Bank xvii

1 Ownership and use of NMVS 1

Different types of non-motorized vehicles IFactors influencing modal mix of cities 2Modal orientation of cities 3Growth of NMVs 4NMV mode share 7Relationship of income and bicycle use 9Affordability of NMVs 11Cycle-rickshaws and other public transport modes 13Other types of NMVs 14

vii

2 Economic and enviromnental aspects of NMVs 16Production of NMVS 16Employment generation by NMVS 17Macroeconomic impacts of NMVs 18Energy use, global warming, and NMvs 21NMVs and local air pollution 22

3 Characteristics of urban NMV transportation 24Variation in NMV transport depending on city type 24Variations in techmology 25NMV facilities 26Capacity of NMV facilities 27Allocation of road space between MVs and NMVs 28Security, parking, and theft 30

4 Traffic safety and NMVs 32Alternative measures of traffic safety 32Effect of cycle networks on safety 34Motorcydes, motorbikes, and scooters 34

5 Inter-modal integration 36Integration of bicycles with public transportation 37Integration of NMVS with motorized goods movement 39

6 Policies and regulations 41Regulations and policies influencing NMVs use 41Land use, investment patterns and NMVs 42Credit systems and NMVs 44

7 Recommendations for action 46Conditions under which NMvs should be encouraged 46Barriers to development of NMVs 48Formulation of non-motorized transport strategy 49Recommended action program for the World Bank 50

Appendix 55

Table sources 58

Boxes1.1 Kanpur: a walking and cycling city 92.1 Bicyde manufacturing in Malaysia 172.2 Tianjin: bicycle megacity 202.3 Air quality, energy, and motorization in Jakarta and Mexico City 213.1 Bicycle parking technology and costs in Japan 315.1 Primary reasons for use of the bicycle to reach Japanese rail stations 39

viii

Text Figures1.1 Reasons given by cyclists for nct using public transport 11

1.2 Vehicle ownership vs. household income in Delhi 133.1 Bicycle trip length in three Indian cities 253.2 Bicycle travel time in three Indian cities 253.3 Bicycle mode share by trip length and purpose in Japanese cities, 1975 254.1 Traffic accident rates, selected countries and years 32

Text Tables1.1 Vehicles in selected cities and countries 51.2 Increase in vehicles in Delhi, India, 1970-84 61.3 Occupation and income of cyclists in three Indian cities, 1979 61.4 Occupancy, residency, and bicycle ownership in Shanghai, China, 1986 61.5 Estimated number of cycle rick,haws worldwide, 1988 71.6 Number of cycle rickshaws in selected cities 71.7 Vehicular mode shares in Tianjin, China, 1950s to 80s 81.8 Share of vehicle traffic on main roads by bicycles and cycle rickshaws in selected cities, 1981 81.9 Mode shares by income for selected Indian cities 101.10 Number of buses per 1,000 people, 1985 112.1 Bicycle production in selected countries 162.2 Traditional and motorized transport sector characteristics in Bangladesh 192.3 Per capita energy use in the transport sector, 1985 223.1 Typical operational characteristics of selected urban public transport modes

in developing countries 284.1 Traffic accidents, injuries, and Xfatalities for Beijing and Tianjin, 1985 334.2 Estimated fatal accident rates for vehicle users in Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1986-87 34

Appendix tablesA.1 Percent of person trips by various travel modes 55A.2 Percent of vehicle trips by travel modes, selected cities 56A.3 Bicycle trip length distribution in three Indian cities 56A.4 Bicycle trip travel time distribution in three Indian cities 56A.5 Bicycle trip frequency in three :ndian cities 56A.6 Travel mode by trip length and purpose in Japanese cities, 1975 57A.7 Traffic accident rates, selected countries and years 57

ix

Acronyms and credits

ADB Asian Development Bank NMTS Non-Motorized Transport Strategy

ASTIN Asia Technical Infrastrucure Division NMV Non-Motorized Vehicle(World Bank) PRE Policy, Research, and External Affairs

EDI Economic Development Institute (World Bank)

ESCAP Economic and Social Comnmission on UNCTAD United Nations Commission on TradeAsia and the Pacific and Development

IFC hintemnational Finance Corporation UNDP United Nations Development Program

NMT Non-Motorized Transport

Photo credits

All photographs by author except:

page xvi Matteo Mattegnonipage 2 UN Photo/John Isaacpage 18 Ricardo NavarropageS37 Japan Bicyde Parking Associationpage 40, left Japan Bicyde Parking Associationpage 40, top right Ricardo Navarropage 44 Ricardo Navarro

x

Smumuary

This paper provides an overview of the current use investment in most of Asia has focused principallyof non-motorized vehicles (NMvs) in Asian cities. It on the motorized transport sector and has often ig-discusses environmental and economic aspects of nored the needs of non-motorized transport. With-NMVs, the characteristics of NMVs and facilities that out changes in policy, NMV use may declineserve them, and policies that influence their use. The precipitously in the coming decade, with major nega-paper identifies conditions under which NMV use tive effects on air pollution, traffic congestion, globalshould be encouraged for urban transport, obstacles warming, energy use, urban sprawl, and the employ-to the development of NMVs, and makes recommen- ment and mobility of low income people.dations for action by the World Bank and other do- As cities in Japan, the Netherlands, Germany, andnors in this area. several other European nations demonstrate, the

N?mvs offer low cost private transport, emit no modernization of urban transport does not requirepollution, use renewable energy, emphasize use of total motorization, but rather the appropriate integra-labor rather than capital for mobility, and are well tion of walking, NMV modes, and motorized trans-suited for short trips in most cities regardless of port. As in European and Japanese cities, where 30 toincome, offering an alternative to motorized trans- 60 percent of trips are made by walking and cycling,port for many short trips. Thus, they are appropriate NMVs have an important role to play in urban trans-elements in strategies dealing with poveity allevia- port systems throughout Asia in coming decades.tion, air pollution, management of traffic problems Transport investment and policy are the primaryand motorization, and the social and economic di- factors that influence NMV use and can have an effectmensions of structural adjustment. NMVs have a most on the pace and level of motorization. For example,important role to play as a complementary mode to Japan has witnessed major growth of bicycle usepublic transportation. despite increased motorization, through policies

providing extensive bicycle paths, bicycle parking atIntroduction rail stations, and high fees for motor vehicle use.

Denmark and the Netherlands have reversed theNMvs-bicycles, cyde-rickshaws, and carts-play a decline of bicycle use through similar policies.vital role in urban transport in much of Asia. NMVs China has for several decades offered employeeaccount for 25 to 80 percent of vehide trips in many commuter subsidies for those bicycling to work, cul-Asian cities, more than anywhere else in the world. tivated a domestic bicyde manufacturing industry,Ownership of all vehicles, including NMY's, is grow- and allocated extensive urban street space to NMVing rapidly throughout Asia as incomes micrease. traffic. This strategy reduced the growth of public

However, the future of NMvs in many Asian cities transport subsidies while meeting most mobilityis threatened by growing motorization, loss of street needs. Today, 50 to 80 percent of urban vehide tripsspace for safe NMV use, and changes in urban form in China are by bicycle and average journey times inprompted by motorization. Transport planning and China's cities appear to be comparable to those of

xi

for an average of over 30,000 passenger-miles andnearly 100 ton-miles of goods movements. Together,bicycles, rickshaws, bullock carts and country boatsaccount for three-fourths of the value added, 80 per-cent of employment, and 40 percent of vehicle assetsin Bangladesh's transport sector.

In Indian cities, bicycles typically account for 10 to30 percent of all person trips (including walking) andfor 30 to 50 percent of the traffic on primary urbanroads. Walking and cycling account for 60 percent oftotal trips and 40 percent of work related trips inKarachi, Pakistan. Cycle-rickshaw traffic typicallyaccounts for 10 to 20 percent of the traffic on primaryurban roads and for 5 to 20 percent of all person trips

Bicycles play a vital role in Japan's modern and efficient urban in Indian and Pakistani cities. These vehicles, alongtransport systems, thanks to supportive public policies and theprovision of extensive facilities or cyclists, such as this bike lane with hand-carts, account for a major share of urbanin Tokyo. freight movement in Chinese cities and the majority

of all freight movement in Bangladesh.Many low income people in Asian cities cannot

many other more motorized Asian cities, with much afford even subsidized public transport fares and, ifmore favorable consequences on the environment, they lack a bicycle, have no choice but to walk, evenpetroleum dependency, transport system costs, and when traveling 10 to 20 km. Lack of access to com-traffic safety. mercial credit is a major barrier to greater use of NMVS

among the poor. Many are unable to save enough toExtent of ownership and use buy a bicycle, even though the cost may be less than

a year's worth of bus fares. When incomes of the poorBicycles are the predominant type of private vehicle increase slightly, as is the general trend in Asian citiesin many Asian cities. Bicyde ownership in Asia is in recent years, the most affordable way of boostingnow more than 400 million and growing rapidly. mobility is through purchase of a bicycle. There isBicycle ownership in China increased more than 50 evidence to suggest that the use of bicycles by thefold between 1952 and 1985, to 170 million, with poor enables them to upgrade their housing condi-nearly half in cities. Since then it has risen to 300 tions by reducing their transport expenditures.million and is anticipated to grow to 500 mnillion by Travel time savings offered by the bicycle attract2000. In many Chinese cities, bicycle ownership rates many people of all income levels to bicycles in manyare one bicycle per household or more. Between 1980 cities. As traffic congestion in cities increases, publicand 1988, the number of bicycles in Beijing grew transport schedule reliability and average travelmore than 12 percent a year to 7.3 million. In India, speeds both decrease, making bicycles competitivethere are roughly 25 times as many bicycles as motor at longer trip lengths due to their flexibility, conven-vehicles and urban bicycle ownership is growing at ience, and greater reliability.a fast pace. Small informal sector enterprises, as well as formal

The majority of the world's 3.3 million cycle rick- private sector firms, have played and will continue toshaws and goods tricycles are found in Asia. Despite play a major role in non-motorized transport systems.recurrent efforts made by some local authorities to Promotion of the NMT sector can stimulate substantialsuppress cycle rickshaws in preference to motorized employment growth and microenterprise develop-transport modes, the number and use of these vehi- ment, especially in low income cities, particularlycles is growing in many cities in response to other- benefitting the poor. Where cycle-rickshaws are de-wise unmet transport needs. The number of cycle clining, frequently due to regulatory suppression,rickshaws in India is expected to increase from 1.3 taxes, licensing requirements, bans, and even confis-million in 1979 to 2.2 million by 2001. cation, hundreds of thousands of low income people

In Bangladesh, the cycle rickshaw fleet is esti- are threatened with loss of employment.mated to grow from two-thirds of a million in 1988 NMVs play an important role in getting people toto over one million by 2000. More than three-fourths and from express public transport services, particu-of Bangladesh's cycle rickshaws are in urban areas. larly railways. It is common to see hundreds or evenThese urban cycle rickshaws each annually account thousands of bicycles parked at stations in India and

xii

PP*_

II.,- * l o

Bicycles are the predominant means of urban mobility in China, thaniks to several decades of supportive government policies that hzaveproduced the most resource efficient urban mobili:'y systems in the world.

China. As in Japan and much of Europe, bicycle modes. For societies as a whole, it depends as wellaccess expands the potential market area of high- on how environmental costs, social costs, and otherspeed public transport services at low cost. This is externalities related to transport are assessed.one of the most valuable potential functions of bicy- Determination of the most efficient modal mix forcles in large cities with long average trip lengths, for a city also requires consideration of constraints onsustaining mixed NMV/motor vehicle traffic systems street space, patterns of land use, existing invest-in cities with higher levels of motorization, for rein- ments in transport vehicles and infrastructure, andtegrating NMVs into the transportation system of funds available for new investment and transportmotor vehicle dependent cities, and for dealing with operations. It should also take into account currentnetwork capacity saturation in NMV dependent cities. and anticipated problems in the overall transporta-

tion and land use system, such as traffic congestion,Conditions underwhich NMVs should be air pollution, economic impacts of growingencouraged petroleum use, access of housing to employment,

motorization trends, and goals for poverty allevia-Non-motorized modes are the most efficient means tion. Given the wide variation in these factors, urbanof mobility over short distances in cities, while mo- non-motorized transport strategies must be tailoredtorized modes offer greater efficiency for longer for different types of cities. The integration of urbantrips. The distance at which motorized modes be- development and transport planning and policy iscome more efficient than non-motorized modes for vital to expanding opportunities for NMT use.consumers depends on income levels, the value of For a given amount of road or corridor space, thetime, and the price and speed of varicus transport most efficient modes of transportation are generally

xiii