Nomination of CandidatesNomination of Candidates U.S. Constitution Article I, Sect. 4

• The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof…

Article I, Section 5• Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and

qualifications of its own members…. Article II, Section 1

• Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives….

Nomination ProcessNomination Process

Nomination Process• No mention of nomination process in Constitution

because no parties in 1787-90

• But states responsible for elections

• States determine the nomination process with most (37) now using only primary elections

• But primaries were not introduced until 1903 with Progressive reforms and not widely used until after1968

Nominations continuedNominations continued

Competition for most offices has been handled through party caucuses• Grass roots effort (2166 caucuses in Iowa)• Some localities (e.g. CA) have nonpartisan

elections at local level• State and local offices vary--97,504 government

units in U.S.; >500,000 officials are elected!

Nomination of top State and Presidential candidates has proven more problematic

Early Nomination SolutionsEarly Nomination Solutions

Legislative caucus (State legislature and state members of U.S. House of Representatives) decided nominees for office• Violated separation of powers principle• Didn’t represent entire party, only those who had

succeeded in most recent elections• Citizen activists lacked say in the process

1824 election of John Quincy Adams over more popular Andrew Jackson struck death knell for legislative caucus

Early Nomination SolutionsEarly Nomination Solutions

Party Conventions• First used by anti-Masons in 1831• Popularity spread quickly for statewide offices

and Presidential hopefuls• Rival party factions objected but method

widespread until 20th century--especially until1968

Nomination ProcessNomination Process

Nomination Process• Types of primaries vary

– closed: (40 states) registered party members only

– open: voters on honor system; but must choose primary

– blanket: voters free to vote in any; U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional in 2000

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

Presidential hopefuls begin to plan for next election as soon as newly elected President has been inaugurated

Contest requires lots of money, planning and stamina...and intense pressure during Spring of the election year

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

Prior to 1968, candidate selection was:• bottom-up process orchestrated by political

parties• caucuses tested candidates’ strength within the

party• primary elections tested candidates’ electability

among the general population• Party conventions selected candidates

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

After 1968:• DNC initiated democratic reforms to

involve more people directly in the selection of party nominees

• most states adopted primaries, allowing voters to “choose” party nominee(s)

• convention delegates are often chosen after the primaries to reflect popular vote or in conjunction with vote for preferred candidate

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

After 1968:• result of reforms--greater emphasis on early

caucuses and primaries (e.g. Iowa and New Hampshire)

• other states advanced date of primaries to have a say in the outcome (California moved from June to March; 8 other states moved to earlier date in March--Super Tuesday)

• presidential marathon is time-consuming, expensive, exhausting

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

Democratic Convention

• 4337 delegates in 2000; 2169 to win

• Formula for delegate count includes population and electoral college vote

Republican Convention

• 2066 delegates; 1034 to win

• Formula for delegate count includes population and partisan voting record

NominatinNominating Candidates for g Candidates for PresidentPresident

Selection of Delegates• Party leaders• Party caucus (Iowa)• State presidential primary (41D, 44R)

Unintended Consequences• Amateur vs. professional priorities• Early calendar is decisive• Some proportional representation of delegates• More money needed in early stages

Political Campaigns continuedPolitical Campaigns continued

Good press relations help get news coverage of political events (free publicity)

Advertising costs average $400,000+ for first class commercial (Perot spent $50k)• Dole spent $45M of $62M on TV (72%)• need for name recognition• G.W. Bush spent $70M• Gore spent $40M• Forbes spent $37.5M in 96 and $20M in 2000

Federal Election Campaign ActFederal Election Campaign Act

• Passed in 1971 but Nixon spent $65M in 1972 to get re-elected; some went to jail

• If raise $5K (<=$250 ea) in 20 states, then govt. matches up to 1/2 spending limit

• Spending limit in 1996 – $30.9M + $6.2M = $37.1M in primary– $61.8M in main election (if Dem or Rep)– party can receive $12.4M for conventions

• G.W. Bush raised almost $70M; took no public money

Federal Election Campaign ActFederal Election Campaign Act

Contributions Limited for each election (primary and main)• Individuals may contribute $1,000 • Organizations may contribute $5,000 • no limit on expenses one may incur on behalf of

candidates• loophole with unrestricted donations to

national parties (soft money)

Congressional ElectionsCongressional Elections

• Influenced by Congressional district demographics– state legislatures determine districts– Supreme Court has changed position on

“racial redistricting”• Also influenced by:

– first-past-the-post process– voter preference for divided (weak) govt.

• Favors pluralist model of democracy