noeleen wright bmus (hons) uwa this thesis is … · light and clarity with his feed-back. to my...

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Bass lines for bowed bass or keyboard within string ensemble

repertoire from Italian presses; 1660-1700

Noeleen Wright

BMus (hons) UWA

This thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts of the University of

Western Australia, School of Music, 2012.

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Abstract

Publications exclusively for stringed instruments from Italian centres 1660-1700

exhibit several different, consistently labelled bass line instrumentations. One of the

most frequently appearing labels is ‘bowed bass or keyboard’. Categorisation of the

publications according to their bass line instrumentation as indicated on title pages

allows for direct comparisons between works calling for identical bass line

instrumentation. Examination of works with different specified bass line

instrumentations reveals trends which suggest that the detailed wording concerning

bass line instrumentation on title pages in these publications is significant.

This thesis argues that, in the absence of other evidence such as historical accounts,

treatises and iconography, the original wording in bass line indications on title pages

should be heeded and take precedence over instrumentation conventions which are

more commonly familiar to the modern musician.

A discussion of terminology for bowed bass instruments reveals that violone is the

most commonly named instrument as an option with the keyboard until after 1685,

after which violone and violoncello appear equally frequently. Discussion of the term

basso continuo reveals this term is rarely applied to publications with bass lines

scored for bowed bass or keyboard. The option of a bowed bass or keyboard is almost

exclusively found in the context of dance music. When the option of bowed bass

alone is chosen, these dance music publications become ‘unaccompanied’ string

music. The concurrent existence of options for realising the bass line using either a

bowed bass or keyboard, or a bowed bass alone, suggests that when playing alone the

17th-century bowed bass performer may have been improvising or providing a

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harmonic realization. An examination of characteristics of these bass lines, along with

known 17th-century bowed bass techniques, leads to proposed ways of applying these

techniques to bass lines in 17th-century Italian string music, in order to provide a

historically informed and harmonically complete realization of these bass lines on the

violoncello.

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Contents Abstract .........................................................................................................................ii Contents ........................................................................................................................iv Tables .......................................................................................................................... vi Illustrations ..................................................................................................................vii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................ix Prefatory notes ............................................................................................................ x Glossary of terms ........................................................................................................xi List of abbreviations .................................................................................................. xii Chapter One: Introduction ……………………………………………………………1 Repertoire ………………………………………………………….………….4 Categorisation of repertoire ………………………………………………….. 5 Issues of terminology ……………………………………………………….. 7

The case for seventeenth-century Italian string music unaccompanied by keyboard or plucked instruments……………………………….......................9 Towards an historically-informed performance of seventeenth-century string music .............................................................................................................. . 12

Sources, time period and regions …………………..………………………. 15 Chapter Two: Categories of bass line instrumentation ……………………………...17 Classification ………………………………………………………………...21 Category 1 Bowed bass or keyboard ………………………………………...21 Category 2 Keyboard and bowed bass ……………………………………....23 Category 3 Keyboard and bowed bass or plucked instrument ………………24 Category 4 Keyboard ………………………………………………….......... 26 Category 5 Bowed bass ……………………………………………………...27 Category 6 Bowed bass and keyboard or plucked instrument…...…………..28 Brief Summary ………………………………………………………………29 Categories 1-3: Popularity of works ………………………………………... 30 Chapter Three: Terminology …………...…………………………………………....38 Categories detailing bowed bass instrumentation …………………………...42 Summary …………………………………………………………………….59 Chapter Four: Exploring the use of violone and violoncello within the repertoire………...…………………………………………………………………... 62 Composers who wrote for both the violone and the violoncello

1. In different works ………………………………………………………... 65 2. Within the same work …………………………………………………….72 Comparing violone and violoncello part-books from the same work ……….76

Chapter Five: Bass line comparisons between da camera and da ballo within the same publication ……....…………………………………………………………………..90 Primi Frutti ……....………………………………………………………….91 Varii Fiori ………………………………………………………………….101 Trattenimenti Musicali ……………………………………………………. 108 Summary …………………………………………………………………...114

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Chapter Six: Bass line comparisons between categories ………………....………..115 ‘Basso Continuo’ ?..........................................................................................118 Figured bass ………………………………………………………………...120 Slurs ………………………………………………………………………...125 Dynamics …………………………………………………………………...130

Melody or accompaniment …………………………………………………137 Summary ………………………………………………………………...… ...144 Chapter Seven: Contemporary bowed bass technique and suggestions for ‘realization’…………………………………………………………………………147 Pitch range ………………………………………………………………… 149 Technique: Leaps …………………………………………………………..157 Technique: Semiquaver figurations ……………………………………….165 Technique: Triplets ………………………………………………………...168 Technique: Dotted rhythms ………………………………………………...170 Technique: Slurs …………………………………………………………... 173 Corelli’s Op.5 Sonate ………………………………………………………175 Towards ‘realization’ ……………………………………………………… 179 Technique: Double-stops and chords ………………………………………179 Summary …………………………………………………………………... 200 Chapter Eight: Conclusions………………………………………………………... 203 Bibliography Music Manuscripts….………………………………………………………………209 Primary Sources….………………………………………………………………… 209 Secondary Sources….………………………………………………………………213 Appendix A ….……………………………………………………………………..226 Appendix B ….…………………………………………………………………….. 232 Appendix C ….…………………………………………………………………….. 237 Appendix D ….……………………………………………………………………. 240 Appendix E ….…………………………………………………………………….. 242 Appendix F ….…………………………………………………………………….. 244 Appendix G: Sonata Quarta G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini (Venice, 1666c)……………………………………..………………..... 245 Appendix H: Recital 1+2………………………………………………………….. 250 Appendix I: Lecture Recital and Viva Voce ……………………………………… 252

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Tables

Table 1 ……………………………………………………………………………….21 Table 2 ...………………………………………………………………………….….23 Table 3 .………………………………………………………………………………25 Table 4 ….……………………………………………………………………………26 Table 5 .………………………………………………………………………………27 Table 6 .………………………………………………………………………………28 Table 7 .………………………………………………………………………………32 Table 8 .………………………………………………………………………………33 Table 9 .………………………………………………………………………………34 Table 10 ...……………………………………………………………………………35 Table 11 …...…………………………………………………………………………36 Table 12 ...……………………………………………………………………………42 Table 13………………………………………………………………………………50 Table 14 …...…………………………………………………………………………53 Table 15 …...…………………………………………………………………………56 Table 16 ...……………………………………………………………………………57 Table 17 ...……………………………………………………………………………58

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Illustrations

Illustration 3.1 ……………………………………………………………………….48 Illustration 3.2 ……………………………………………………………………….49 Illustration 4.1 …………………………………………………………………….…77 Illustration 4.2 …………………………………………………………………….…79 Illustration 4.3 …………………………………………………………………….…79 Illustration 4.4 …………………………………………………………………….…82 Illustration 4.5 …………………………………………………………………….…83 Illustration 4.6 …………………………………………………………………….…84 Illustration 4.7 …………………………………………………………………….…86 Illustration 4.8 …………………………………………………………………….…87 Illustration 5.1 …………………………………………………………………….…92 Illustration 5.2 …………………………………………………………………….…94 Illustration 5.3 …………………………………………………………………….…95 Illustration 5.4 …………………………………………………………………….…96 Illustration 5.5 …………………………………………………………………….…97 Illustration 5.6 …………………………………………………………………….....98 Illustration 5.7 …………………………………………………………………….....99 Illustration 5.8 ……………………………………………………………………...102 Illustration 5.9 ……………………………………………………………………...103 Illustration 5.10.………………………………………………………………….....105 Illustration 5.11.………………………………………………………………….....107 Illustration 5.12.………………………………………………………………….....108 Illustration 5.13.………………………………………………………………….....110 Illustration 5.14.………………………………………………………………….....111 Illustration 5.15.………………………………………………………………….....113 Illustration 6.1 ……………………………………………………………………...117 Illustration 6.2 ……………………………………………………………………...122 Illustration 6.3 ……………………………………………………………………...126 Illustration 6.4 ……………………………………………………………………...128 Illustration 6.5 ……………………………………………………………………...129 Illustration 6.6 ……………………………………………………………………...132 Illustration 6.7 ……………………………………………………………………...134 Illustration 6.8 ……………………………………………………………………...136 Illustration 6.9 ……………………………………………………………………...138 Illustration 6.10 …………………………………………………………………….140 Illustration 6.11 …………………………………………………………………….142 Illustration 7.1 ……………………………………………………………………...150 Illustration 7.2 ……………………………………………………………………...152 Illustration 7.3 ……………………………………………………………………...155 Illustration 7.4 ……………………………………………………………………...158 Illustration 7.5 ……………………………………………………………………...159 Illustration 7.6 ……………………………………………………………………...160 Illustration 7.7 ……………………………………………………………………...161 Illustration 7.8 ……………………………………………………………………...162 Illustration 7.9 ……………………………………………………………………...163 Illustration 7.10 ………………………………………………………………….....164

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Illustration 7.11 ………………………………………………………..…………...165 Illustration 7.12 ……………………………………………………..……………...166 Illustration 7.13 ………………………………………………………..…………...168 Illustration 7.14 …………………………………………………………..………...169 Illustration 7.15 ……………………………………………………………..……...170 Illustration 7.16 ………………………………………………………………..…...171 Illustration 7.17 ………………………………………………………………….....172 Illustration 7.18 …………………………………………………………………….173 Illustration 7.19 ………………………………………………………………….....173 Illustration 7.20 …………………………………………………………..………...176 Illustration 7.21 ……………………………………………………………..……...177 Illustration 7.22 ………………………………………………………………..…...178 Illustration 7.23 ………………………………………………………………….....178 Illustration 7.24 ……………………………………………………………..……...182 Illustration 7.25 ………………………………………………………………..…...184 Illustration 7.26 ………………………………………………..…………………...184 Illustration 7.27 …………………………………………………..………………...185 Illustration 7.28 ……………………………………………………..……………...186 Illustration 7.29 ………………………………………………………..…………...186 Illustration 7.30 …………………………………………………………..………...187 Illustration 7.31 ……………………………………………………………..……...188 Illustration 7.32 ………………………………………..…………………………...189 Illustration 7.33 …………………………………………..………………………...189 Illustration 7.34 …………………………………………….……………………... 191 Illustration 7.35 ………………………………………………………………. 192-193 Illustration 7.36 …………………………………………………………….… 194-195 Illustration 7.37 ………………………………………………………………. 196-197 Illustration 7.38 …………………………………………………………………… 198 Illustration 7.39 …………………………………………………………………… 198 Illustration 7.40 …………………………………………………………………… 199

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Acknowledgements

Firstly I would like to offer my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor Dr Suzanne Wijsman for her encouragement and commitment, without which, this thesis would never have been written. Thanks also to Emeritus Professor David Tunley, who shed light and clarity with his feed-back. To my parents, my thanks for their constant help and availability as child-minders. To my sister, Josslyn, who has always shared her vision, belief and encouragement. I would like to thank the many friends and babysitters over the long journey of this thesis who have made it possible for me to snatch moments in which to research and write.

My thanks to Paul for his incredible musical insight (and humour). Finally, my love and thanks to my three little (and not so little now) girls, Isobel, Elinor and Dimity who have inspired and loved me while putting up with the protracted process of my research and writing.

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Prefatory notes

One of the central aims of this thesis is a close look at original wording of titles in seventeenth-century prints. Because of this, italics are used to indicate the names of instruments as they appear in the original publication. E.g. violoncello means the instrument as named in the seventeenth-century print rather than the modern equivalent. Non-italicised names of instruments, e.g. violoncello, indicate the modern ‘baroque’ cello. Similarly, original spelling appears in italics and represents as closely as possible the spelling on the original publication. Spellings are standardised only when discussed in general. All dates of works in this study appear within the format as it appears in the central secondary source of this thesis, Claudio Sartori’s Bibliografia della Musica Strumentale Italiana Stampata in Italia fino al 170!. 1 Pitches are described in the following way:

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Claudio Sartori. Bibliografia della Musica Strumentale Italiana Stampata in Italia fino al 1700 2 vols (Florence, 1952 and 1968). The dates appear followed by a letter indicating the chronological order of the printing dates. E.g. 1684f was published in Venice before 1684g was published in Amsterdam.

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Glossary of terms

Italian English

A due for 2 A tre for 3 A beneplacito ‘as you like’ Arcileuto archlute Leuto lute Ouero or O vero or Partitura score Tavola table (of contents) Tiorba theorbo trattenimento [pl. trattenimenti] ‘entertainment’

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List of Abbreviations

GB-Lbl British Library

GB-Ob Bodleian Library, Oxford

I-Bc Museo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica di Bologna (formerly Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale)

I-MOe Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, Modena

I-Nc Conservatorio di Musica, Naples

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Chapter One: Introduction

Most musicians today are conversant with the ‘continuo’ section of a small baroque

ensemble. We have come to expect that the ‘trio’ sonata (sonata a tre) commonly

involves four players, and the solo sonata (sonata a due) will often be performed by three.

Generally, in music publications of the period, the number of instruments cited on a title

page refers only to the melodic instruments, the basso continuo being an uncounted

extra.1 Today, the bass line of these works is often performed by a keyboard instrument

and cello. This approach is uniformly applied to music of both the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries from every region. Comments from respected arbiters of taste in the

eighteenth century concerning the performance of the bass line in baroque music have

been applied retrospectively and cross-culturally resulting in bass-line instrumentations

that reflect a modern-day emphasis on uniformity in performance practice. This

complement of bass-line instruments also suits our textural and melodic-bass preferences

that, arguably, arise from performance practice conventions in music after the early

eighteenth century.

The practice of combining a cello with harpsichord in the continuo group derives from

sources of the baroque era. Perhaps the most cited author regarding the necessity for

bass-line doubling is C.P.E. Bach in his Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard

Instruments (1762): ‘The best accompaniment, one which is free of criticism, is a

1 Peter Allsop, The Italian‘ Trio’ Sonata from its Origins until Corelli (Oxford, 1992), p. 24.

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keyboard instrument and a cello.’2 Quantz has often been noted for offering a degree of

flexibility regarding bass line instrumentation. He writes: ‘In a trio the keyboard player

must adjust himself to the instruments that he has to accompany, noting whether they are

loud or soft, whether or not there is a violoncello with the keyboard…’3 F. Couperin

makes his intentions clear in the Avertissement to his Leçons de ténèbres which states that

‘…if one can join a Bass Viol or a Bass Violin to the accompaniment of the Organ or the

Harpsichord, that will be good.’4 However, none of these sources are commenting on

performance practices from Italian cities in the late seventeenth century.

It is less well known that in Italian music from the latter half of the seventeenth century

there exist a large number of publications, the title pages of which specifically call for

accompaniment solely by a bowed bass instrument (usually violone) or a keyboard

instrument.5 Although compositional output involving a bowed bass or keyboard

instrument culminated in Corelli’s Sonate a violino e violone o cembalo Op.5 (Rome,

1700a), the majority of works represented are for at least two violins.6 While some of the

later publications are examples of the pre-Corellian sonata, most are dance music

(balletti, correnti, etc.) or music for the chamber (arie, trattenimenti, etc.). Through the

fact of their multiple publications and wide dissemination, Corelli’s sonatas draw

2 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Versuch Über die Wahre Art das Clavier zu Spielen (Berlin, 1753) translated William J. Mitchell as Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (London, 1949), p.173. 3 Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere ru spielen (1752) translated Edward R. Reilly, On Playing the Flute (London, 1985), p. 252. 4 François Couperin. Avertissement, Leçons de ténèbres (Paris, 1713 and 1716). 5 While many prints from Italy after 1650 involved the title sonata many others did not. When speaking of the repertoire in general, the term sonata will be used, recognizing that canzona, simfonie, arie e correnti etc are often synonymous with sonata and were used interchangeably. Allsop, The Italian‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 48; Willi Apel, Italian Violin Music of the Seventeenth Century (Bloomington & Indianapolis, 1990), pp. 6-7. When speaking of specific repertoire, the title will be the guide for the terminology used. 6 Although often the second violin is directed a beneplacito as in Giovanni Battista Vitali’s Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.4 (Bologna, 1668e).

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attention to this bass line instrumental option. Numerous violinist/composers then used

these works as models for compositions, launching the previously under-utilized genre of

solo sonata into its ascendancy over the ensemble sonata.7 Many of these derivative

sonatas, particularly from France,8 maintained Corelli’s instrumental specification well

into the eighteenth century, or indeed, specify simply ‘basso’ for the bass line.9

Doubling the bass lines of these Italian works, those scored for bowed bass or keyboard,

as suggested in the performance directions by C.P.E. Bach, Quantz and Couperin above,

is to misapply those performance directions. There are no historical accounts or treatises

from the late seventeenth century stating that performers in Italian centres at that time

were using instrumentation other than what is specified on the title page. In fact, there is

no extant Italian source which instructs that a bass line should be doubled.10

This thesis will argue the importance of heeding the suggested instrumentation on the

title pages of these works by looking more specifically at: 1) the wording and

instrumentation contained in title pages and part-books; 2) commonalities between bass

line instrumentations and classifying the works according to the printed bass line 7 Mascitti, Duval, Marchand le fils, Rebel and L. Francœur are some of the French composers who imitated Corelli’s Op.5 either superficially, or as a genuine musical model. Peter Walls, ‘“Sonade, que me veux tu?”: Reconstructing French identity in the wake of Corelli’s Op.5’, Early Music, 32 (2004) : pp. 27-47. 8 The practice of using a bowed bass instrument alone on the bass line was also known in France, as is indicated by Sébastien de Brossard in his Dictionnaire de Musique (Amsterdam, 1703), where the Basso Continuo could be played ‘...simply, without figures on the Basse de Violle or [Basse] de violon &c... which the Italians call Basso Viola, Violone &c.’ 9 Works outside this study that specify only Basso or Basse etc. include M. Mascitti Sonate Op.1 (Paris, 1707), Duval Troisieme Livre (Paris, 1707), Quatrième Livre (Paris, 1708), J. Marchand (le fils) Suites de pièces mêlées (Paris, 1707), L. Francœur Premier livre (Paris, 1715), P.A. Locatelli XII Sonate à violino solo è basso op.6 (Amsterdam, 1737), W. Wodiczka Sei sonate a violino solo e basso (Paris, 1739), F.M. Veracini Sonate accademiche a violino solo e basso Op.2 (London and Florence, 1744), G. Tartini Sonate a violino e Basso op.2 (Rome, 1745). T. Albinoni on the other hand wrote Sonate da chiesa a violino solo e Violoncello o Basso Continuo Op.4 (Amsterdam, 1709) and P. Castrucci followed Corelli’s specification in Sonate a violino e violone o cembalo Op.2 (London, c1734) while J.G. Graun specified a keyboard instrument only in Sei Sonate per il Violino e Cembalo (Merseburg, c. 1726). 10 Tharald Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo in Italian Baroque Music (Ann Arbor, 1987) p. 8.

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instrumentation; 3) issues of terminology and patterns that emerge from the use of the

terms basso continuo, violoncello, and violone; 4) differences between the bass lines

themselves and their relationship to the upper parts; and 5) seventeenth-century

techniques in order to identify possibilities for accompaniment that are historically and

culturally relevant for today’s bowed bass instrumentalist performing a bass line alone.

Repertoire

This study will focus primarily on works for stringed instruments published in Italy

between 1660 and 1700 which specify a bowed bass or keyboard instrument for the bass

line. These will be examined in comparison with other published works from the same

time for stringed instruments with different bass line specifications. These different bass

line instrumentations include those for keyboard with bowed bass, and those for keyboard

with bowed bass or plucked string instrument.11 Taken as a whole, the body of works is

representative of many different combinations for the ‘continuo group’, one of which is a

bowed bass instrument alone. Works that include voice or wind instruments in the title

page, part-books or tavola have been excluded from this study in order to identify trends

relating specifically to string ensemble music.12 The inclusion of some works from

foreign presses is necessary. In each case the publications are reprints,13 or are from

composers central to this study.14

11 For example: Arcangelo Corelli, Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna, 1682h). 12 There are 135 different works in the study, and a further 114 reprints, a total of 249 prints. 13 For example: Marco Uccellini, Op.4 (1663d). 14 For example: Corelli, Op.2 (Antwerp, 1689e).

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Categorisation of repertoire

The repertoire examined in this study has previously been classified as ‘sonatas’ or other

types of pieces in the da camera or da chiesa style. While this is highly relevant to any

meaningful examination of the works in question, this study looks more specifically at

the wording and instrumentation contained in the title pages and part-books. This is

particularly because the instrumentation in works specifying bass lines for keyboard or

bowed bass, has been paid little regard by early twentieth-century music historians and

publishers, many of whom freely alter titles. Sonata per violino e violone o spinetta

becomes sonata for violin and basso continuo.15 This in turn has been accepted, as

meaning the instruments involved are the violin, harpsichord and a bowed bass. The vast

array of differences in titles and nomenclature for instruments masks the fact that, with

the exception of one piece,16 every work published between 1660 and 1700 involving

exclusively bowed stringed instruments, with or without plucked and keyboard

instruments, regardless of number of upper parts, can be grouped into six categories

according to bass-line instrumentation. Within these categories, this thesis identifies and

15 Perhaps the earliest example is the publication of Giovanni Maria Bononcini’s Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini, e violone Op.12 (Bologna, 1678a), published by Walsh with a ‘Thorough Bass for Harpsichord’ (London, 1700). Cited in Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 40. This work has since been republished as Arie, Correnti…per violino e pianoforte Revisione e realizzazione del basso continuo di Michelangelo Abbado (Ricordi: Milan, 1977). Although the original does not mention basso continuo and Bononcini directs that the violone is more suitable for the bass line, this Ricordi publication is one of the more accurate, as it does mention the original title in the preface, and contains the original slurs printed in brackets in the parts to differentiate from the modern slurs. To name just two other composers, works by Giulio Taglietti and Giuseppe Colombi are listed inaccurately in their respective articles as being for 2 violins and basso continuo rather than as in their title pages; 2 violins and violone o cembalo. Robin Bowman, and Peter Allsop. "Taglietti, Giulio." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27377 (accessed April 21, 2012); Robin Bowman and Sandra Mangsen. "Colombi, Giuseppe." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/06136 (accessed April 21, 2012). 16 Giovanni Battista Gigli. Sonate da chiesa, e da camera a 3 strumenti, col basso continuo per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna, 1690b). This is the only piece in the study for 2 violins, tiorba and organ.

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examines features common to bass lines with similar instrumentation. While recognising

that information contained on title pages is not always indicative of historical

performance practice, a close examination is warranted to determine if there is a reason

why composers were consistently labelling different bass line instrumentations. As stated

by G. Barnett, caution must be exercised in apportioning too much weight to the

significance of the title pages.17 However it is the intention of this thesis to examine the

works from a different angle, through this examination of original wording.

There is little evidence, other than the publications themselves, concerning for whom and

which instruments this repertoire was intended. The optional ‘o’ has often been dismissed

as being unrepresentative of composers’ intentions and considered as a marketing tool

targeted at an amateur market, namely that of the Italian dilettante who became a

principal consumer of printed music in the second half of the seventeenth century.18

Barnett states that much of the dance music was written with the wealthy patrons in mind

as performers.19 However, despite the varied and multifarious nature of many of the titles

of these Italian prints (disguising the consistency of designated bass line instrumental

combinations throughout the last four decades of the seventeenth century) this study will

show that this bass line instrumentation was employed by a wide range of composers in

Italian cities, including the musical centres of Bologna, Venice, Rome and Modena. This

study argues that there is a musical intent to be gleaned from the composer’s use of these

terms in the title pages, and that their appearance is not the product of indiscriminate

application by publishers.

17 Gregory Richard Barnett, Bolognese Instrumental Music, 1660-1710, Spiritual Comfort, Courtly Delight, and Commercial Triumph (Burlington V.T., 2005), p. 48. 18 Robert Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music (London, 1974), p. 361. 19 Barnett Bolognese Instrumental Music, p. 117.

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Issues of terminology

Issues of terminology arise in the examination of the stringed-instrument repertoire from

Italian centres between 1660 and 1700, necessitating the use of the term ‘bowed bass’. In

this study the term ‘bowed bass’ includes the instruments violone and violoncello and

also viola da brazzo, basso viola, viola, viola da gamba, violoncino, bassetto, basso

violone, basso violone da brazzo, etc. The examination of title pages for the repertoire

within this study includes investigating the appearance of specific bowed bass

nomenclature in association with certain types of music. Following on from this

investigation, the idea that the scoring for bowed bass or keyboard (or bowed bass alone)

is directly associated with music for dance will be explored. Arising partly from the

necessity for portability of instruments used for dance bands, a performance tradition

may have existed involving the use of the violone alone for the bass line. A smaller

number of bass lines for bowed bass or keyboard specify violoncello as the bowed bass

instrument rather than violone. It becomes clear that many composers utilize both terms

for bowed bass instrument in a short period of time and from the same publishing centres.

Most commonly, violone is associated with performing a bass line alone, and violoncello

is used in combination with a keyboard instrument. Following the discussion of

terminology, this study investigates similarities and differences between the usage of the

term violone and the term violoncello within repertoire selected for the study.

In addition, the very specific use of the term basso continuo is investigated and discussed

in relation to its appearance in association with the different categories of bass line

instrumentation. An examination of differences between bass lines for violone and those

for basso continuo within this repertoire reveals trends suggesting a bowed bass

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instrument is intended in many of the dance settings. This is supported by the tradition of

Italian dance music, which often did not involve a keyboard instrument at all.20 For

example, the bass lines of many dances in manuscript are rarely figured and contain few

references to basso continuo. It is logical that composers consistently pair the term basso

continuo with a keyboard instrument, which is evidenced by a close examination of the

titles. It is also logical that bass lines potentially performed by a bowed bass alone are not

labelled as basso continuo. This trend is exhibited clearly when title pages are examined

in detail.

In the majority of these published works, in which a bowed bass instrument is offered as

an option with a keyboard, the bowed bass instrument is stipulated first.21 The

presumption that the instruments are listed in order of preference, and that the first choice

is the ‘melodic’ rather than the ‘harmonic’ instrument ties in with the fact that composers

were not labelling these bass lines basso continuo. This is supported by the preface to the

violone part-book of G.M. Bononcini’s Arie, correnti…a violino e violone ouer spinetta

Op.4 (Bologna, 1671e)22 ‘One should bear in mind that the violone will produce a better

result than the spinet since the basses are more appropriate to the former than the latter

instrument.’23

20 John Suess, ‘The Instrumental Music Manuscripts of Giuseppe Colombi of Modena: A Preliminary Report on the Non-Dance Music for Solo Violin or Violone’, Seicento Inesplorato L'evento Musicale tra Prassi e Stile: un Modello di Interdipendenza (Como, 1993). 21 The bowed bass is indicated first in 67 out of the 88 prints identified. 22 As mentioned in the Prefatory Notes, all works included in this study will be given in this format, following that used by Claudio Sartori, Bibliografia della Musica Strumentale Italiana Stampata in Italia fino al 1700 (Florence, 1952 and 1968). 23 ‘Si deve avvertire, che sarà miglior efetto il Violone, che la Spinetta, per essere i Bassi più proprij dell’uno, che dell’altra.’ Translated in Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 40.

9

The case for seventeenth-century Italian string music unaccompanied by keyboard

or plucked instruments

A small number of works specifying only a bowed bass instrument on the bass line also

exists from the years 1660 to 1700. In effect, these works, when performed without

keyboard are string duos, trios, quartets and even sextets. The precedent for

unaccompanied string music (i.e. without keyboard continuo) in the seventeenth century

appears in the instrumental sets of S. Rossi, followed by the eleven sets for varied

ensembles by G.B. Buonamente. As pointed out by Allsop, Buonamente explains the lack

of basso continuo in his first two collections in a letter of 1627. Stating that although he

did not have time to write a ‘basso generale’, the pieces can be played as they stand (i.e.

without basso continuo) ‘which is my intention’. Despite his intention for string trio,

Buonamente had rendered an optional basso continuo for the clavicembalo which would

‘render greater harmony.’24 The thin three-part texture of Italian keyboard works such as

those by Pesenti25 further illustrates that the ‘barren’ nature of this texture was known in

seventeenth-century chamber music. Unaccompanied string music presents further

support for the idea that the performance of some of this repertoire with a bowed bass

alone on the bass line is historically correct.

Most harpsichordists today can compile an informed method of realizing (alone) the bass

line of works from this period. Italian treatises from Agazzari (1607)26 to Gasparini

24 Peter Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente: Fransiscan Violinist (Burlington V.T., 2005), p. 58. 25 Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo, p. 57. 26 Agostino Agazzari, Del Sonare sopra'l basso con tutti stromenti: e dell'uso loro nel conserto (Sienna, 1607) translated Carol MacClintock, Readings in the History of Music in Performance (Bloomington, 1979).

10

(1708)27 clearly articulate the views regarding accompaniment for keyboard

instrumentalists. It is often overlooked that the titles of these treatises include instruments

other than keyboards, such as F. Bianciardi’s Breve regola per imparar' a suonare sopra

il basso con ogni sorte d'Istromento (Sienna, 1607).28 The illustration on the frontispiece

of this print depicts an organ, spinet, harp, violone, viola da gamba, chitarrone or theorbo

and a variety of lutes. In this example Bianciardi gives no direction for the bowed bass

instruments to double the keyboard, but is concerned only with how to realize an

unfigured bass line. This study has identified several Italian ‘basso continuo’ treatises,

such as Bianciardi’s, which include references to bowed bass instruments without any

specific instructions for these instruments either to double or realize the bass line. The

absence of the term basso continuo in many of these treatises29 highlights the difference

between the indiscriminate application of the term today, and the relative infrequency

with which it was used in seventeenth-century Italian publications. This infrequent use is

a characteristic of many of the later seventeenth-century prints, yet it has not been

discussed in the literature.30

The authors of these treatises maintain that any complete harmony consists of three notes

only.31 This shows that almost all of the three-part or four-part writing when performed

27 Francesco Gasparini, L'armonico pratico al cimbalo (Venice, 1708) translated F. Stillings as The Practical Harmonist at the Harpsichord (New Haven C.T.,1963). 28 Francesco Bianciardi Breve regola per imparar' a suonare sopra il basso con ogni sorte d'Istromento (Sienna, 1607) translated F.T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (New York, 1965), p. 74. 29 Agazzari; Bianciardi; Gasparini; Adriano Banchieri; Galeazzo Sabbatini. (See Bibliography.) 30 Allsop does point out that according too much weight to the early baroque bass lines is to undervalue the early baroque preoccupation with melodic interplay. Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 42. Borgir discusses various meanings of basso continuo, theorizing that it originally related to a keyboard instrument, but in the early eighteenth century became to be equated with the bass line. Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo, p. 63-4. 31 Bianciardi, Breve regola per imparar’ a suonare sopra il basso con ogni sorte d’Instrumento in F.T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment, p. 75; Galeazzo Sabbatini, Regola facile e breve per sonarar sopra il

11

with only a bowed bass instrument on the bass line is harmonically complete by

seventeenth century standards. String instrumental repertoire from this period 1660 to

1700, has been discussed by several writers, including Peter Allsop, Tharald Borgir, Neils

M. Jensen, Sandra Mangsen, David Watkin and Eleanor Selfridge-Field.32 The possibility

of realizing the bass line on keyboard alone, and to a lesser degree, a bowed bass alone, is

now recognized to have occurred in Italian music from the last quarter of the seventeenth

century. Selfridge-Field relates an account of a ball from 1680, which illustrates that the

keyboard alone was used on the bass line. ‘During the Carnival a number of small

balls…are held in Venice. [They are] all the same as at Rome, except that at Venice the

dancers pay the violinists…A violin and spinet constitute the entire orchestra…’33

However, the evidence presented in the research literature is not widely reflected in

modern-day performance, even among highly respected historically-informed

performers.34

basso continuo nell’organo, manacordo, ò altro simile stromento in F.T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment, p. 113; Lorenzo Penna, Li Primi albori musicali in F.T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment, p. 133. 32 Allsop, The Italian 'Trio' Sonata; Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo; Niels M. Jensen, ‘The performance of Corelli’s chamber music reconsidered’, Nuovissimo Studi Corelliani, ed. S. Durante; P. Petrobelli (Florence, 1980); Sandra Mangsen, ‘“Ad libitum” procedures in instrumental duos and trios’, Early Music, 19 (1991); ‘The trio sonata in pre-Corellian prints: When does 3=4?’, Performance Practice Review, 3 (1990); David Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas: “Violino e violone o cimbalo”?’, Early Music, 24 (1996); Eleanor Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music from Gabrielli to Vivaldi, ed. F.W. Sternfeld, Blackwell’s Music Series (Oxford, 1975). 33 Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, p. 53. 34 A most notable exception, one exemplifying both optional bass line instruments, is the Trio Veracini release Corelli 12 sonate a violin e violone o cimbalo op.5 (Novalis, 1996).

12

Towards an historically-informed performance of seventeenth-century Italian string

music

The historical validity of performance by bowed bass alone is recognized by Donington:

The effect of a melodic bass instrument with no instrument of harmony is more successful in

trio sonatas, where there are three real parts, than in solos, where there are two. It sometimes

sounds surprisingly complete and beautiful. As a substitute for the full continuo with both

melodic and harmonic continuo instruments present, either alone is quite justified on baroque

precedents, but neither is nearly as satisfactory as the two together.35

However, this comment seems to presume that the melodic bass player plays only what is

written, whereas early commentators on Italian performance practices indicate that this

may have been unlikely. Bottrigari (1599, repub.1601) explains:

…But because of the presumptuous audacity of performers who try to invent passaggi, I will

not say sometimes, but almost continuously, all trying to move at the same time as if in a

passage-making contest, and sometimes showing their own virtuosity so far from the

counterpoint of the musical composition they have before them that they become entangled

in their dissonances - it is inevitable that an insupportable confusion should occur. This

increases so greatly as they continue, that even those (and you see clearly how far this caprice

and mania has gone) who play the low part, and the Bass, do not remember- not to say are

ignorant of the fact- that it is the base and the foundation upon which the cantilena was built.

And not standing firm beneath it, as the fabric requires, they go on up, they add nonsensical

passages and allow themselves, because they enjoy it, to go so far as not only to pass into the

Tenor part, but even into that of the Contralto. Even this not sufficing, they go almost to that

of the Sopranos, climbing in such a way to the top of the tree that they can't come down

without breaking their necks...Of all the causes proceeding from the instruments and their

35 Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music, p. 362.

13

players which produce the effect of discordance and confusion, so detestable in our concerts,

about which you have told me today, I believe that the most potent and efficacious would be

that of passaggi unduly repeated without thoughtful consideration… if it is very difficult to

do a thing well, even if it is done thoughtfully and carefully, how much easier it is to do it

badly if one does it without thought and in haste and, I will add, without any taste, as seems

to me to be clearly seen today in all our singers and players...36

This practice seems to have continued in the eighteenth century judging by an account

(albeit prejudiced) by Le Cerf de La Viéville:

All that is generally heard in the Italian music is a thorough-bass accompaniment unceasingly

varied, this variation being often a kind of breaking of chords, and an arpeggiation, which

throws dust in the eyes of those who know no better, and which, reduced to its elements,

comes back to the same as ours. These thorough-basses are good only for showing off the

quickness of hand of those who accompany on the harpsichord or the [bass] viol [gamba] or

again, to go one better on these basses, already varied in themselves, they vary them further

and it goes to him who will vary them the most; in such sort, that you cannot hear the melody

anymore, which would seem too naked after so much brilliance, and vanishes buried beneath

a chaos of embroidered and rattling sounds, which pass so lightly that they cannot make any

harmony against the melody. There then have to be two instruments, one to play the plain

version of the bass, and the other the variation. These thorough-bass accompaniments pass

rather for solos for the viol, than for an accompaniment, which ought to be subordinate to the

melody, and not overpower it. The voice ought to stand out and attract the main attention;

just the opposite happens here: you only hear the thorough-bass accompaniment, which

rattles so loudly, that the voice is smothered. An awkwardness arises in basses with broken

chords and variations [improvised] on the spot: this is that it is difficult for a harpsichord, a

[bass] viol and a theorbo to contrive to come together correctly, in the same kind of variation,

36 Hercole Bottrigari, Il Desiderio or Concerning the Playing Together of Various Musical Instruments (1599) translated Carol MacClintock, Musicological Studies and Documents 9 (American Institute of Musicology, 1962), p. 61.

14

not to mention other string or wind instruments; the one takes one turning, the other another,

and the result is a remarkable cacophony such that the composer can no longer recognize his

own work, which comes forth totally disfigured. You are supposed, in the midst of all this to

take pleasure in admiring the quickness of hand of the performers. There you have, at any

rate the modern taste in performance of the Italian music, so greatly vaunted.37

I include this lengthy passage to highlight two important things. First, the statement

‘…There then have to be two instruments…’ suggesting one instrument was otherwise

quite normal. Secondly, ‘…that it is difficult for a harpsichord, a [bass] viol and a

theorbo to contrive to come together correctly, in the same kind of variation…’

suggesting that all three instrumentalists were improvising.

Although many of the works in this study are harmonically complete,38 evidence of a

tradition of unwritten ornamentation implies that ‘generally’ performers were expected to

extemporize to some extent and did so. If, as we suppose, it was often the composers who

were also the performers of these works (and performers who learned to compose) it is

difficult to imagine them playing a simple bass line or melody as written without some

degree of improvisation. The degree to which this practice was applied is not clear;

however, the numerous editions including ornamentations published for Corelli’s Op.539

sonatas shows that violinists, at least, were encouraged to ornament to a greater or lesser

extent well into the eighteenth century, particularly in solo works. The lack of evidence

37 Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music, p. 369. 38 As Allsop points out, 90% of the figures in the bass lines of Corelli’s trio sonatas duplicate the violin parts. Instances in which the figures depict harmonies additional to the violin parts are rare. Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 41. 39 Neal Zaslaw, ‘Ornaments for Corelli’s violin sonatas op.5’, Early Music, 14 (1996): pp. 95-115.

15

for any performance practice tradition associated with bowed bass players may be more

indicative of the lesser importance of the accompanimental part, rather than indicating

that no tradition existed.

For the modern player of the bowed bass instrument performing a bass line alone, the

question of relevant techniques arises in order to make and informed ‘realisation’. In the

absence of other sources, this study examines seventeenth-century techniques evident

within the repertoire selected for the study, along with other select repertoire, in order to

identify possibilities for accompaniment that are historically and culturally relevant. It

will be argued in this thesis that the writing for the violone was by no means simplistic, as

has been asserted by Bonta.40 Specific evidence of idiomatic features for both violone and

violoncello will be sought, both in the repertoire of this study, and in other selected

repertoire. Evidence of technical capabilities, including double-stops or chordal playing

and passaggi figuration will be sought, in order to inform possibilities for embellishing

bass lines.

Sources, time period and regions

Finally, although in hindsight we are afforded a retrospective view of traditions

subsequent to the period in question, this thesis concentrates solely on sources from the

time and regions of the repertoire examined within this study. While it is arguable that the

40 Stephen Bonta, ‘Corelli’s Heritage: The Early Bass Violin in Italy’, Studies in Italian Sacred and Instrumental Music in the 17th Century (Burlington, 2003), p. 218. Bonta’s assertion that the violone ‘sacrificed ease of playing in favor of bass sonority’ is not reflected in the repertoire for the violone as is convincingly argued by Coral Lancaster in ‘The forms and development of the early bass-violin in Italy’ unpublished diss., (University of Western Australia, 1999).

16

evolution that ends in comparatively well-documented practices began with bowed bass

players improvising and realizing bass lines in the seventeenth century, to consider this

later information applicable to this earlier repertoire would be speculative.41 Later

historical accounts and treatises offer evidence of the practices of eighteenth-century

bowed bass players, from which inferences about the practices in the previous century

may be made. These include the use of the cello alone to realize recitative

accompaniment,42 and accounts of various violinists who were accompanied by a cellist

alone.43 Cello method books dealing with the necessity of mastering an understanding of

harmony for accompaniment with instructions on realizing accompaniments exist from

the mid-eighteenth century. These, such as the first published method for cello by the

prolific Michel Corrette and those of other masters of the instrument, such as

Baumgartner, Duport and Romberg,44 all suggest the possibility that these later practices

were preceded by a similar performance practice on the bass lines in this study.

41 Watkin presents an overview of later practices in ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’. 42 Johann Baptist Baumgartner, Instructions de Musique, Théorique et Practique, à l'usage du Violoncelle (The Hague, c. 1775), Chapter 12. 43 An account of Veracini being accompanied by Lanzetti can be found in Charles Burney, A General History of Music: from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period 2 vols (London, 1935), p. 450. Burney also writes that Corelli took his second violinist and cellist with him to Naples, without mentioning a keyboard player Burney, A General History of Music, p. 439. 44 Baumgartner, Instructions de Musique; Jean-Louis Duport, Essai sur le doigté du violoncelle (Paris, 1806); Bernhard Romberg, A Complete Theoretical and Practical School for the Violoncello (London, 1840).

17

Chapter Two: Categories of bass line instrumentation

The variation within the titles of printed Italian bowed string music between 1660 and

1700 seems almost endless. We find Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe a tre due

violini e violone o spinetta, alongside Sinfonie a due, e tre strumenti, col basso continuo

per l’organo, as well as the more familiar Concertini da camera e sonata da chiesa with

many variations besides. There has been much discussion in the literature about such

labels, including the sonata a due, which seem to require two, three or four instruments,

or the sonata a tre, requiring three, four or five. The assortment of trattenimenti, capricci,

arie, balletti et correnti, etc. and the confusing abundance of terminology relating to both

the bowed bass and keyboard instruments further combine to create a confusing catalogue

of publications from this time.45

These publications have previously been classified as either sonatas, sinfonie or other

forms, written for church or chamber, or have been sorted by the number of parts

involved. While these classifications are obviously necessary, taking a fresh look at this

repertoire by grouping it into categories defined by the title page bass line specification

may offer a different perspective. Classification in this manner facilitates comparison of

several aspects relevant to this study, such as genre and style of composition, number of

times a work is published and publishing location. There has been discussion in the

literature about the variety and inconsistency of bowed bass instruments named at this

45 As discussed by Allsop in The Italian‘ Trio’ Sonata, p. 24; Jensen, ‘The Performance of Corelli’s chamber music reconsidered’; Mangsen, ‘“Ad libitum” procedures in instrumental duos and trios’; ‘The trio sonata in pre-Corellian prints: When does 3=4?’; William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era, 3 vols, Vol. 1 A History of the Sonata Idea (Chapel Hill, 1959).

18

time in Italy.46 However, rarely mentioned is the similar variety and inconsistency

regarding the naming of keyboard instruments. The use and relevance of the term basso

continuo along with terminology for bass line instruments will be discussed in Chapter 3.

Examination of the specific variations and differences in the title pages and part-book

labelling within the context of these categories, contradicts the idea that the prints were

titled randomly or in a disorganized manner. Every work published between 1660

and1700 involving exclusively bowed stringed instruments, with or without plucked and

keyboard instruments, regardless of number of upper parts, can be grouped into six

categories according to bass line instrumentation. The one exception by Gigli, mentioned

in Chapter 1, remains alone outside these six categories.47 Furthermore, this method of

codification reveals interesting trends and identifiable combinations of instruments for

which composers active in the Italian centres of Bologna, Venice, Rome and Modena

were publishing consistently.

This investigation demonstrates that in this group of publications, the frequency of

occurrence of the bass line instrumentation calling for a bowed bass or keyboard is not

solely associated with a specific composer, instrument or publishing centre. However, it

is associated with a specific type of music. The type of work in these categories is

consistently da ballo, or dance style pieces da camera. The link between bass lines

performed on a bowed bass alone and dance style pieces points towards the distinctions

between dance musicians and church musicians. This is supported by evidence from the

46 Bonta, ‘Terminology for the bass violin in seventeenth century Italy’, Studies in Italian Sacred and Instrumental Music in the 17th Century (Burlington V.T., 2003); Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo; Henry Burnett. ‘The bowed string instruments of the Baroque basso continuo’, Journal of the Viola da Gamba Society of America, 7 and 8 (1971). 47 Gigli, (Bologna, 1690b). See footnote 16.

19

early seventeenth century where we find accounts implying differences between dance

musicians and other musicians.48

This study employs the following labels and their abbreviations to indicate families of

‘like’ instruments: keyboard (k), bowed bass (bb) and plucked (p). These families of

instruments appear consistently in six different bass line combinations within the

repertoire examined in this study. The works have been sorted into one of six categories

in an attempt to make their similarities and differences more apparent. See Appendices

A-F for the catalogue of publications in each category.

Where instrumentation is clearly specified in the tavola and is confirmed by extant part-

books, the classification is straightforward. However categorizing some publications is

more complicated. In some cases a publication has been republished within the dates of

this study, i.e. 1660 to 1700. Some of these subsequent publications specifically name

different instruments on title pages or in part-books. These later prints have been placed

in a different category to the original publication. However where subsequent

publications maintain consistency with part of the original title, but differ from the

original only by the omission of specific instrumentation, these works have been placed

in the same category as the first publication.49 In other cases involving discrepancies

between part-books and titles, whichever source specifies instrumentation with greater

48 Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente, pp. 27-28. 49 E.g. Corelli, Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome, 1681a). Republished as Sonate da chiesa a tre Op.1 (Rome, 1683i). In the absence of any further specification in the title, and the absence of part-books the 1683 publication has been placed in the same category as the 1681a print.

20

accuracy, is the source guiding the categorization of the publication.50 These examples

occur frequently, decreasing the possibility of stating with certainty which specific

instrument was intended.51 As Jensen points out, however, the title pages, part-books and

tavola do not always reveal the exact instrumentation required for every piece within the

publication.52 Occasionally a one or two movement part for viola or violino 3 is found

buried in another part-book.53 Three publications studied from the repertoire present a

further problem regarding their classification and are the subject of Chapter 5.

In the absence of being able to view every publication between 1660 and 1700, any

publication not personally sighted, has been placed in the bass line instrumentation

category according to Sartori’s Bibliografia.54

50 E.g. Domenico Gabrielli, Balletti, gighe, correnti, alemande, e sarabande, à violino, e violone, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1684a). Part-book is labelled Violone o Spinetta. 1684a is therefore categorised as having a bass line for bowed bass or keyboard. 51 E.g. G.M. Bononcini. Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini, e violone Op.12 (Bologna, 1678a). The title page clearly states Violone, but the bass line part-book clearly states violoncello, written almost directly above the word violone. See Ill.6.1. 52 Jensen, ‘The Performance of Corelli’s Chamber Music Reconsidered’: p. 243. 53 An example of this is found in Giovanni Battista Bassani’s Suonate da camera Op.1 (Venice, 1680d). The full title; Suonate da camera cioè balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito contains no mention of the alto viola part found within the optional second violin part-book. The alto viola part of the balletto sesto and following three movements, corrente, giga, sarabanda, occurs instead of the second violin part. If performed without keyboard, this publication of dances for two violins and violone, therefore also includes pieces for violin, viola and violone. 54 Sartori, Bibliografia della Musicale.

21

Classification

Category 1 Bowed bass or keyboard (bb or k)

The largest category consists of works for which an alternative of either a bowed bass or

a keyboard instrument is specified for the bass line. Table 1 lists the number of

publications in each decade and place of publication of the works in Category 1.55

Table 1

Category 1 (bb or k)

Decade/Year Total 88 Publishing Centre

1660s 8 Bologna 4, Venice 3, Antwerp

1670s 20 Bologna 15, Venice 5

1680s

33

Bologna 13, Venice 8, Modena 6, Rome 4, Milan, Antwerp

1690s

20

Bologna 9, Venice 4, Rome 4, Modena 2, Amsterdam

1700 7 Rome 2, Amsterdam, Bologna, London, Venice, Pasquino

The term da chiesa does not appear within this category, whereas the term da camera

occurs frequently. But more specifically, and most significantly, the majority of

publications include dance music, indicated as balletti, da ballo, or per ballare.

55 See Appendix A for the list of individual publications.

22

Importantly, the title pages often make a clear distinction between the pieces da camera

and the pieces da ballo.56

The most common instrumentation for the upper parts in this category calls for one or

two violins, or one violin con il secondo violino a beneplacito, although until 1690

publications involving up to five upper parts were popular. Table 1 illustrates that the

greatest number of publications in Category 1 were issued in the 1680s.

Most publications specifying bowed bass or keyboard were published in Bologna or

Venice, with only 25 out of 88 prints originating from other publishing centres.57

However, looking at the numbers of publications from 1690 onwards, we see that only

five out of the 27 works published in these years were published in Venice. This small

Venetian representation may be a result of the decline in music publishing in Venice

towards the end of the seventeenth century,58 or simply as a result of the civic injunction

against dancing issued around the middle of the seventeenth century.59 Although

Selfridge-Field describes the injunction as fairly impotent, it may account for the small

number of dance-music publications.

56 This usually conforms to one of two titular formulas as shown in the following two examples: Delle sonate da camera, e da ballo (G.M. Bononcini, Op.2 (Venice, 1667d)); or Balletti, correnti, alla francese, gagliarde, e brando per ballare. Balletti correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti, (G.B. Vitali, Op.3 (Bologna, 1667f)). 57 A majority of these 25 are reprints of works originally published in either Bologna or Venice. 58 Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, p. 161. 59 Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, pp. 51-52.

23

Category 2 Keyboard and bowed bass (k and bb)

Category 2 includes those works in which there are part-books for a keyboard instrument

and a bowed bass instrument. Variously, the part-book for bowed bass instrument

doubles the keyboard line exactly, and in some cases doubles the keyboard line

predominantly, with occasional differences in passing notes, note values and rests. Also

included in Category 2 are the publications in which it is optional to have a bowed bass

instrument doubling the keyboard.60 Excluded from this category are those works in

which a bowed bass part-book exists, but is completely independent from the bass line.

Category 2 is the category with the second largest number of publications.61

Table 2

Category 2 (k and bb)



1670s 12 Venice 8, Bologna 4

1680s 22 Bologna 15, Venice 7, Antwerp, Modena

1690s

31

Venice 10, Bologna 5, Amsterdam 4, Antwerp 3, Modena 3, Naples, Rome,

Augusta, Frieburg 1700

4 Venice 3, Amsterdam

60 E.g. Bernardo Tonini, Suonate da chiesa a tre, due violini & organo, con violoncello ad libitum Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1697d). 61 See Appendix B for the list of individual publications.

24

The works in this category are mainly titled sonate, however there are also correnti e

balletti, sinfonie, concertini and trattenimenti. The majority of prints are either labelled or

in the style of the sonata da chiesa. Those sonatas labelled da camera specify a quilled

keyboard instrument, or simply use the designation Basso Continuo.

More than half of the collections in this category are scored for two violins and a doubled

bass line, although even in the 1690s it remained popular to employ a quattro and a

cinque (i.e. four and five instruments, often 2 violins, 2 violas; alto and tenor, and

violone). The frequency of publications in this category increases exponentially each

decade, and the publications in this category are predominantly from Bologna and

Venice. In contrast to the trend in publishing centres seen in Category 1, publications

from Venice represent the largest or equal largest number in every decade except one.

Category 3 Keyboard and bowed bass or plucked instrument (k and bb or p)

The third category, though significantly smaller than the first two, contains 42 prints

specifying bowed bass or plucked instrument doubling a keyboard instrument.62

62 See Appendix C for the list of individual publications.

25

Table 3

Category 3 (k and bb or p)

Decade / Year Total 42 Publishing Centre

1660s 2 Bologna

1670s 2 Bologna, Antwerp

1680s 18 Rome 7, Bologna 7, Modena 2, Venice, Florence

1690s 18 Venice 6, Rome 5, Bologna 4, Modena, Florence, Lucca

1700 2 Venice

Titles in this category again include sonate, sinfonie, trattenimenti, capricci and scherzi.

The genres of da camera and da chiesa are both specified in this category, sometimes

within the same publication e.g. Cazzati’s Op.50 (Bologna, 1669a), Varii, e diversi

capricci per camera, e per chiesa, da sonare con diuerse instromenti. a uno, due, e tre.63

There are no works with the indication da ballo within the publications in Category 3.

With four exceptions, all works in Category 3 are scored for two upper parts.64 The

number of prints in this third category increased dramatically after the publication of

Corelli’s Op.1 (1681a). In fact before 1680 there are only four publications for this bass

line combination. As many of the publications within Category 3 after 1681 are reprints

of Corelli’s Opp.1 and 3, it is not surprising that Rome, along with Bologna, was where

the majority of prints were published. While Bologna and Venice were the main 63 In this publication the bass line part-books are for violone o tiorba and basso continuo. 64 The exceptions include scoring for up to five instruments: Giuseppe Torelli, Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5 (Bologna, 1692a); Giovanni Lorenzo Gregori, Concerti Grossi a piu stromenti, due violini concertati, con i ripieni, se piace, alto viola, arcileuto, o violoncello, con il basso per l’organo Op.2 (Lucca, 1698b); Torelli, Sinfonie à tre e concerti à Quattro Op.5 (Venice, 1698g); and scoring for one upper part AntonioVeracini, Sonate da camera a due, violino, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per il cimbalo Op.3 (Modena, 1696d).

26

publishing centres for works represented in Categories 1 and 2, only eight prints in

Category 3 originate from Venice.

The works in Categories 4 and 5 although small in number, in effect, support the

argument for one instrument on the bass line. They contain, respectively, keyboard

instrument alone and bowed bass instrument alone.

Category 4 Keyboard (k)

First, Category 4 contains works in which a keyboard instrument alone is mentioned in

the title page in relation to the bass line and no other part-books exist.65

Table 4

Category 4 (k)

Decade / Year Total 24 Publishing Centre

1660s 8 Venice 3, Bologna 3, Antwerp 2

1670s 8 Bologna 6, Venice, Antwerp 66

1680s 6 Venice 3, Bologna 2, Amsterdam

1690s

2 Modena, Bologna

1700 0 0

65 See Appendix D for the list of individual publications. 66 The Antwerp publication of Uccellini’s Sinfonie, boscarecie a violino solo e basso… Op.8 (1677d) has a more specific part-book labelled Basso continuo, interpreted here to mean keyboard.

27

The titles again specify both da camera and da chiesa and are almost exclusively sonate

and sinfonie, but also include pieces described as balletti & correnti da camera, capricci

and trattenimenti. The prints containing dance pieces clearly specify that these are da

camera.67 This category is the only category in which the number of publications

decreases with each successive decade.

Category 5 Bowed Bass bb

Category 5 consists of publications indicating only a bowed bass instrument on the bass

line.68

Table 5

Category 5 (bb)

Decade Total 16 Publishing Centre

1660s 3 Bologna

1670s 2 Bologna

1680s 2 Bologna

1690s 9 Modena 4, Bologna 3, Venice, Lucca

1700 0 0

Publications in Category 5 primarily involve only one violin on the upper part, although

there are five examples with two violins. Without exception they are da camera or are 67 E.g. Clemente Monari, Balletti, e correnti da camera a due violini, con il suo basso continuo Op.1 (Bologna, 1686e). 68 See Appendix E for the list of individual publications.

28

entitled balletti, arie or correnti, etc. without further specification. The prevalence of the

Emilia region publishing centres is significant, as unaccompanied string music most

likely originated here first,69 and this region was arguably the centre of development of

bowed bass technique in the seventeenth century.

Category 6 Bowed bass and keyboard or plucked instrument (bb and k or p)

There are five further works with consistent bass line instrumentation for bowed bass

with keyboard or plucked instrument. Although these low numbers barely amount to a

category, for reasons of consistency they will be classified as Category 6.

Table 6

Category 6 (bb and k or p)


1660s 1 Bologna

1670s 2 Bologna

1680s 1 Bologna

1690s 1 Venice

1700 0 0

69 Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente.

29

Each decade is represented once, with two publications between 1670-80. With the

exception of Lorenzo Penna’s Correnti francese a quattro…Op.7 (Bologna, 1673f), each

publication contains the indication da camera.

Brief summary

Based on the evidence in the title pages and part-books, the use of either a bowed bass or

keyboard instrument alone to realize the bass line was a popular instrumental choice for a

large range of repertoire in the da camera (and/or da ballo) style. Publications offering

bass lines for bowed bass or quilled keyboard instrument appear frequently in every

decade between 1660 and 1700.

The idea of an historical performance practice involving performing a bass line on a

bowed bass instrument alone (or keyboard alone) is supported first, by the large number

of publications in Category 1 (bb or k), and secondly, by the wording in the title pages of

a majority of prints in this largest category, which name the bowed bass instrument first.

It is further supported by the prints in Category 5 (bb), which contain no indication that

another bass line instrument is required. Although the total number of publications in

Category 5 is small, the number of publications increases after 1690, and these emanate

almost exclusively from Bologna and Modena. This suggests that possibilities for using

only a bowed bass instrument on the bass line were increasing along with the

development of instruments and technical advances pioneered in the Emilia region.

Contrasting this is the declining number of publications for a keyboard instrument alone

in each decade evident in Category 4 (k).

30

Categories 1-3: Popularity of works

If the number of times a work is republished with the same instrumental specifications

(i.e. within each category) can be accepted as an indicator of the work’s popularity at the

point of publication, then we can perhaps gauge the actual popularity of the different bass

line instrumentations by determining the proportion of extant prints in each category that

are first editions with reprints, and those which were published only once.

Half of the works in the two categories which always offer a choice of bass line

instrumentation i.e. Category 1 (bb or k), and Category 3 (k and bb or p), are reprints.

Around 25% of the publications in Category 2 (k and bb), are reprints. Interestingly, the

works which were most often republished in Category 2, are those offering some kind of

bass line instrumentation choice, most often by offering the ‘doubling’ bowed bass

instrument as an option, rather than appearing as a necessity.70

Before discussing any further specific aspects of reprints, the importance of the Corelli

publications to this study must be restated. While the Op.5 sonatas are, undisputedly, the

pinnacle of the publications employing a bass line for a bowed bass or keyboard

instrument, the popularity of Corelli’s preceding opuses is also of great importance. Just

over a quarter of the publications in Category 1 are publications of Corelli’s Opp.2, 4 and

5. The twelve editions of Op.2 published in Rome, Modena, Bologna and Venice, as well

as in Amsterdam and Antwerp, are totally consistent regarding their performance

70 For example, optional doubling includes basso continuo con un bassetto viola se piace (Giovanni Battista Mazzaferrata, Op.5 (1674d, 1678e, 1688e)), organ con violoncello ad lib (Tonini, Op.2 (1697d, 1697l)), and organ o gravicembalo con violoncello ad libitum (Giovanni Buonaventura Viviani, Op.4 (1678c, 1678f)). It appears from the titles of these examples that the keyboard instrument is the desired accompaniment, with the addition of the bowed bass as taste or availability dictates.

31

directions and without exception fit into Category 1. These editions are all labelled a tre,

doi violini e violone o cimbalo. In fact, the reprints of all of Corelli’s works, first printed

in Rome (Opp.1, 2, 3 and 5), are all remarkably consistent in their titles. Of these

publications with Roman origin only one edition alters the bass line instrumental

designation in its reprinted form. Op.4, on the other hand, first published in Antwerp, is

the least consistently titled of Corelli’s output. Apart from its first publication Suonate da

Camera a tre, doi violini, violoncello e cembalo (1692h, Category 2), five of the other six

editions can be classified in Category 1.71 In all six, the violone is the instrument

mentioned and the five in Category 1; 1694a, 1694b, 1695m, 1695n, 1697k, are

consistent in being titled sonate a tre with part-books for V.I, V.II and violone o cembalo.

Judging by the consistency of each of Corelli’s other publications, the wording on the

title page of the first edition of Op.4 (1692h) is an anomaly within Corelli’s output, and

most likely the least indicative of his intention regarding instrumentation. Lastly, each of

the Op.5 sonatas published in 1700 fall into Category 1. These first few editions were

published in Rome, Amsterdam, Venice and Bologna before their inevitably wider

dissemination, the publications of which are outside the parameters of this study. Table 7

shows the remaining publications in Category 1 without Corellian reprints.

71 The sixth reprint has been classified in Category 5 (bb) as this Venetian reprint (1695m) is entitled simply Sonate a tre with part-books for V.I, V.II and violone.

32

Table 7

Category 1 (bb or k) without Corellian reprints




1680s 26 Bologna 12, Venice 6, Modena 5, Rome 2, Milan 1

1690s 10 Bologna 6, Modena 2, Venice 2

1700 2 Rome, Modena

The number of prints in Category 1 decreases by another 25% when only first editions

are counted (see Table 8). Although a large proportion of prints in this category are by

Corelli, the number of reprinted works by other composers appearing both before and

after the Corelli reprints attest to the fact that the popularity of the genre was not a

phenomenon influenced only by his output. These numbers attest that works indicating a

bass line instrumentation of bowed bass or keyboard enjoyed general popularity, many

being reprinted several times. Corelli’s output adds greatly to the number of prints in this

category, specifically due to the number of times his Opp.2, 4 and 5 are reprinted.

33

Table 8

Category 1 (bb or k) without any reprints



1670s 10 Bologna

1680s 15 Bologna 7, Modena 5, Milan, Rome, Venice

1690s 10 Bologna 6, Modena 2, Venice 2

1700 2 Rome, Modena

Category 2 contains only one example by Corelli, the first publication of Op.4 (1692h).

When all reprints from the Category 2 are removed, the number of publications decreases

by 25%, showing that, even though this category was not favoured by Corelli, a sizable

portion of the works in it enjoyed enough popularity to be reprinted. This can be seen by

the comparison between Table 9 and Table 2. Category 2 does contain roughly the same

number of reprinted works as Category 1 by composers other than Corelli. However, a far

greater number of works in Category 2 were printed only once, resulting in this category

containing the largest variety of composers.

34

Table 9

Category 2 (k and bb) without any reprints




1680s 18 Bologna 13, Venice 4, Modena

1690s

25

Venice 10, Bologna 8, Modena 2, Naples, Rome, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Augusta

1700 1 Venice

Nearly half of the works in Category 3 are reprints of Corelli’s Opp.1 and 3. With the

exception of the Op.1 reprint in 1695i,72 its first publication and all nine other reprints fall

into Category 3. These are labelled ‘a tre’, followed either by doi violini e violone o

tiorba col basso per l’organo (1685m, 1683i), or doi violini e violone o tiorba col basso

(1697h). Every edition of Corelli’s Op.3 falls into Category 3. These editions, likewise

published in Rome, Bologna, Modena and Venice, have totally consistent titles: a tre, doi

violini e violone o arcileuto col basso per l’organo. This consistency parallels that of his

titles in Category 1, in particular the Op. 2 prints, which consistently specify violone o

cembalo for the bass line.

72 1695i has been classified in Category 1 due to the only bass line part-book: Violoncello o Cimbalo.

35

Table 10

Category 3 (k and bb or p) without Corellian reprints

Decade/ Year

Total 25 Publishing Centre

1660s 2 Bologna

1670s 2 Bologna, Antwerp

1680s 9 Rome 5, Bologna 3, Florence

1690s 12 Venice 5, Rome 3, Bologna 2, Florence, Lucca

1700 1 Venice

It is noteworthy that Category 3 contains the greatest proportional number of works by

Corelli, and contains just two other republished works. These are by Cazzati and

Torelli.73 If we put to one side Cazzati’s and Torelli’s works it is evident that there really

were no works written for this bass line combination other than Corelli’s Opp.1 and 3,

which enjoyed such enormous general popularity.

73 These works are Maurizio Cazzati’s Op.18 (Antwerp, 1674g; Bologna, 1679c) and Torelli’s Op.5 (Bologna, 1692a; Venice, 1698g). (Cazzati’s Op.18 Suonate a due violini, col suo basso continuo per l’organo, & un’altro a beneplacito per tiorba, o violone was originally published in Venice (1656c), then republished twice (Antwerp, 1657d, and Bologna, 1659a) before the two last reprints which fall within our scope.)

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Table 11

Category 3 (k and bb or p) without any reprints

Decade/ Year Total 23 Publishing Centre

1660s 2 Bologna

1670s 1 Bologna

1680s 8 Rome 4, Bologna 3, Florence

1690s 11 Venice 4, Rome 2, Bologna 2, Florence, Lucca

1700 1 Venice

When the large numbers of Corelli’s reprints are removed from each category, the effect

of these works on the statistical representation within each category can be gauged. The

data shows that Category 1 (bb or k), although containing a large number of Corellian

reprints, holds an equally large number of works before the first publication of his Op.2

(1685a). Approximately 25% of the works by other composers were reprinted. The

chronology of these works by composers other than Corelli shows the popularity of this

bass line instrumentation, importantly, both before and after his impact. The reduction by

50% of Category 3 (k and bb or p), once Corelli’s reprints have been discounted,

illustrates that while his writing for this genre enjoyed genuine popularity, the number of

publications with this bass line instrumentation was actually limited and possibly

modelled after Corelli’s output. Lastly, Category 2 (k and bb) was the category least

influenced by Corelli. The largest range of different composers is represented in the

works in Category 2, and around 25% of these works were popular enough to be

reprinted.

37

In summary, the varied and diverse nature of the titles of these Italian prints disguise the

consistency of designated bass line instrumental combinations throughout the last four

decades of the seventeenth century, by a wide range of composers in Italian cities,

including the musical centres of Bologna, Venice, Rome and Modena. The historical

performance practice of using a bowed bass instrument alone (or keyboard alone) to

perform the bass line is supported not only by the large number of prints in Category 1

but further by the existence of publications in Category 4 (k), and Category 5 (bb). This

investigation also demonstrates that the frequency of occurrence of the bass line

instrumentation bowed bass or keyboard, was not solely associated with a specific

composer, instrument or publishing centre.

The classification of this body of instrumental music into the above categories based on

specifications for the bass line on title pages supports the hypothesis that there is, indeed,

a body of repertoire from seventeenth century Italy which was intended for

‘unaccompanied’ string trio, and even quartet and duo, not involving keyboard or plucked

instruments, as has been proposed by Jensen and Allsop.74

74 Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente; Jensen, ‘The Performance of Corelli’s chamber music reconsidered’.

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Chapter Three: Terminology

The baffling array of non-standardized terminology for bowed bass instruments in Italian

prints issued between 1660 and 1700 has been mentioned in Chapter 1. Initially, the term

violone is the most commonly applied term for a bowed bass, and by 1680 violoncello

also appears frequently. Throughout these decades we also see mentioned a large number

of other terms, such as viola da brazzo, basso viola, viola, viola da gamba, violoncino,

bassetto, basso violone, basso violone da brazzo, etc. Issues relating to what these

instruments were, their tuning and respective players have been discussed in the

literature.75 It is not the intention of this study to attempt to clarify the confusion

surrounding the exact nature of the violone and violoncello in late seventeenth-century

Italian centres. Rather, this study aims to highlight differences in usage of the terms

common to many composers and cities over four decades, by studying the title pages and

part-books of works in even greater detail.

This terminological confusion creates a problem for the modern cellist attempting to play

the bass lines of the works in question. Indeed, as the majority of these works calling for

a bowed bass or keyboard instrument specify the violone rather than the violoncello, the

question must be asked whether it is appropriate to perform them on the cello at all.76

This study will examine patterns of usage of the terminology within the specified

publications, to help clarify the terminology and uses of the violone and violoncello

75 Allsop; Bonta; Burnett; Graham Dixon; Mangsen; Anne Schnoebelen; Selfridge-Field; Marc Vanscheeuwijck; Watkin. (See Bibliography.) 76 Out of 88 prints with bass lines for bowed bass or keyboard, 70 require violone, 16 require violoncello, 1 requires viola and 2 reprints of Corelli’s are simply labeled a tre.

39

within the Italian centres represented in the repertoire between 1660 and 1700. The

number of times different terminology for bass line instruments is used in each category,

and the order in which the terminology appears in print, is significant in this study as it

gives some perspective on trends in bass line instrumentation.

To date, theories proposed to explain the terminology concerning the violone include: 1)

equating it with a large-sized cello, with either low or modern tuning; 2) a five or six

stringed double-bass viol tuned an octave lower than the tenor viol; and 3) simply the

‘baroque cello’ as we understand it, an instrument with four strings tuned in fifths CC-

GG-D-A.77 Documented information from archives78 and historical accounts79

predominantly relates to non-chamber, and non-dance settings.

The question of the register of the bowed bass instrument is raised in this study because

of the different instruments which are offered as optional with the violone and the

violoncello. This study identifies the violone offered as a bass line instrumental option

with the spinetta (a 4’ instrument), tiorba (an instrument with 8’ and 16’ capabilities),

and arcileuto (an 8’ instrument). The violoncello, on the other hand, is predominantly

offered as an option with [clavi]cembalo (most likely 4’-16’ range) and arcileuto. In the

context of this investigation, it is interesting to reflect on the pairs of instruments offered 77 Bonta, ‘From Violone to Violoncello: a question of strings?’; ‘Terminology for the bass violin in seventeenth-century Italy’, Studies in Italian Sacred and Instrumental Music (Burlington, 2003); Alfred Planayavsky, The Baroque Double Bass Violone translated James Barkett (Lanham, 1998); Vanscheeuwijck, ‘The Baroque cello and its performance’, Performance Practice Review, 9. (1996): pp. 78-96. 78 Schnoebelen, ‘Performance Practices at San Petronio in the Baroque’, Acta Musicologica, 41 (1969); Vanscheeuwijck, ‘Musical performance at San Petronio in Bologna: A brief history’, Performance Practice Review, 8 (1995). 79 For example ‘The instrumental music is much better than I expected. The organ and violin they are masters of, but the bass-viol they have not at all in use, and to supply its place they have the bass violin with four strings, and use it as we do the bass viol.’ Extract from a letter addressed by Thomas Hill to his brother Abraham, written from Lucca (Italy) and dated Octobre 1st, 1657. Cited in W.H. Hill, A.F. Hill and A.E. Hill, Antonio Stradivari His Life and Work (New York, 1963), pp. 110-111.

40

as options, along with those that are offered as optional (a beneplacito). Despite several

inconsistencies, there are many trends apparent. The violone is never offered as an option

to the violoncello, i.e. ‘violone o violoncello’ never appears. Both bowed bass

instruments are offered as an option with both quilled keyboards and plucked

instruments. Plucked instruments are only offered as an option with a quilled keyboard

instrument in a handful of examples, but appear frequently as an option with violone.

(This is always in the context of a keyboard instrument also designated for the bass line.)

The violoncello appears often, within Categories 2 and 3 as an optional choice (a

beneplacito, ad libitum) in the same way that a second violin part is often offered. While

the violone alone, never appears a beneplacito or ad libitum.

The outcome of an examination of this large and complicated issue in relation to this

study is that the term violone did not designate the same instrument in all cases and the

use of the violone in the repertoire must be examined on a case by case basis. For

example the violone in prints from Bologna in the1660s, with a printed range from BB’♭

- d, was most likely not the same instrument as the violone in the Roman prints of

Corelli’s Op.5 sonatas, which include a printed range of CC - b♭, various idiomatic

features along with what looks like a violoncello depicted in the frontispiece.80 The

various terminology used was by no means consistent within regions or during a specific

period of time. As mentioned in Chapter 2, inconsistencies occur even within the output

of one composer, Corelli, whose Op.4 was published first with a part-book for violoncello

e cembalo,81 and then five more times with a part-book for violone o cembalo.82

80 Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’: p. 646. 81 Suonate da Camera a tre, doi violini, violoncello e cembalo (Antwerp, 1692h). 82 Sonate a tre (Rome, 1694a; Bologna, 1694b; Venice, 1695m; Rome, 1695n; Rome and Modena, 1697k).

41

In addition, this study looks at the patterns of usage of the terms basso continuo and

basso. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the absence of the term basso continuo in many of the

keyboard treatises of the day,83 presents a stark contrast to the often indiscriminate

application of the term today. This infrequent use is characteristic of many of the later

seventeenth-century prints in this study. The term basso continuo, when used in the title

pages of the works in this study (or simply the term basso), usually relates directly to a

keyboard instrument: i.e. sonata a tre col basso continuo per organo (or similar),

however, it rarely appears in connection with spinetta. But a large proportion of the

works with a bass line for bowed bass or keyboard does not mention either basso

continuo or basso. It is a contention of this thesis that the title pages indicate that the bass

lines of this music are not basso continuo parts, and as such, they do not require full

keyboard harmonic realization, but may have involved a different performance practice.

83 Agazzari; Bianciardi; Gasparini; Banchieri; Sabbatini (see Bibliography).

42

Categories detailing bowed bass instrumentation

Table 12

Category 1 (bb or k)

Decade/Year Total

Instr.84 90

Violone o cembalo/spinetta

Violoncello o cembalo/

spinetta/clavicembalo

Basso/Viola/ Basso Violon

1660s 8 Bologna 4, Venice 3, Antwerp 0 0

1670s 20

[18] Bologna 13, Venice 5 Bologna 2 0

1680s 34

[28] Bologna 9, Venice 8, Modena 6,

Rome 3, Milan, Antwerp

Bologna 4 Rome 2

1690s 20 [10] Bologna 3,

Venice 3, Rome 2, Modena, Amsterdam

[10] Bologna 6, Rome 2, Venice, Modena 0

1700 8 [6] Rome 2,

Amsterdam, Bologna, London, Pasquino

Modena 1 Venice 1

Category 1 contains surprisingly little variety of terminology for bowed bass instruments.

Of the 88 prints categorized here, 70 require violone and 17 specify violoncello. Only

three other sets of works require different bowed bass instruments.85 These three

exceptions appear only in prints published outside of the Emilia region, while the terms

violone and violoncello are used consistently in these bass lines from publications issued

within that region.

84 The total number of instruments named is larger than the number of prints due to some publications containing different instruments named in title pages and part-books. 85 These instruments are basse violon in G.B. Vitali’s Op.1 (Antwerp, 1668d), viola in Mazzella’s Op.1 (Rome, 1689a),85 and basso in the 5th reprint of Corelli’s Op.5 Sonate (Venice, 1700 o1705c). In every other edition of the Op.5 sonatas the bowed bass instrument is named violone.

43

Both the terms violone and violoncello are used in conjunction with the different

keyboard terminologies, spinetta and cembalo. When we look at the use of terminology

in each decade it becomes clear that violone is the only term for a bowed bass instrument

employed in each decade, and even after 1690 it is still used in 16 out of 28 prints. Within

Category 1, violoncello is first called for in G.B. Degli Antonii’s Op.4 (Bologna, 1677a),

but after 1690 rather than replacing the violone, this term is used in only 11 of the 28

prints.

The terminology for keyboard instruments found in Category 1 includes spinetta (45),

cembalo (34)86 and clavicembalo (8).87 However, the term spinetta, the most frequent

keyboard designation in this category, was used only once after 1690.88 The spinetta, one

of the smallest and most portable keyboard instruments, is a logical choice for dance

music, or dance-style music. The tradition of Italian dance music, performed by violin

bands, often in public squares,89 or between acts of operas,90 and a necessity for

portability of the ensemble could account for the most frequent bass line specification

violone (presumably more portable than a keyboard instrument) o spinetta (being smaller

than a harpsichord (cembalo), therefore a more portable keyboard instrument). However,

the spinetta was probably most in use as a domestic instrument during the seventeenth 86 Differences between spellings of keyboard instruments have been standardized except within quotation of titles: cimbalo is cembalo, organo is organ etc. 87 Three works contain no mention of keyboard instrument in the title page, only in the part-books and these are: Corelli, Sonate a tre Op.4 (Rome, 1697k). G.B. Vitali, Balletti, correnti, alla francese gagliarde, e brando per ballare, balletti, correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti Op.3 (Venice, 1679d). G.M. Bononcini, Ariette, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande, le quali ponno suonarsi à violino solo; a due violino, e violone, a trè due violini, e violone, et à quattro, due violini, viola, e violone Op.7 (Bologna, 1677f). 88 The one exception: Luigi Taglietti’s Op.1 (Bologna, 1697e), uses violoncello o spinetta. 89 Stewart Carter, A Performer’s Guide to Seventeenth-Century Music, Performer’s Guides to Early Music (New York, 1997), p. 162; Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, pp. 6-7. 90 Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, pp. 39-40.

44

century. The result of a realization by spinetta or violone is necessarily lighter than a

cembalo realization, and more suited to the chamber. The predominance of the term

spinetta in the bass lines of Category 1 before 1690, contrasting with the use of the term

cembalo (27) after 1685, raises questions about the features of these instruments and what

characteristics make them interchangeable with the violone and violoncello. It is

significant that bass line instrumentation calling for the organ is missing from this

category.91

At this stage, it is important to observe that the terms basso and basso continuo only

occur in Category 1 in the context of a few prints. Out of the 88 prints with the option of

bowed bass or keyboard, only nine contain the term basso continuo or basso, while 79 do

not. Each of these nine prints stipulate the keyboard instrument as the first option for the

bass line, which goes against the general trend within this category, in which the bowed

bass instrument is named first. In accordance with the trend seen throughout the

repertoire under examination, the terms basso continuo and basso are used only in

conjunction with a specific keyboard instrument.92 In the context of works with a bass

line for bowed bass or keyboard, the terms basso and basso continuo are never applied as

a generic direction, i.e. without being coupled with a specific keyboard instrument. For

example, the titular formula col suo basso continuo93 appears frequently in each other

category involving keyboard instruments (Categories 2, 3, 4 and 6), without association

with a keyboard instrument in the title, and as such is considered here as a generic 91 With the exception of Carlo Antonio Marini, Balletti, correnti, gighe, e minuetti diversi a trè due violini, violoncello, ò spinetta Op.2 (Venice, 1692g). Although the title page mentions only violoncello o spinetta there is an additional part-book for organ. 92 Basso o cembalo does occur in a reprint of Corelli’s Op.5 (Venice, 1700 o 1705c), but arguably refers to a bowed bass instrument. 93 For example: G.M. Bononcini, Sinfonia, allemande, correnti, e sarabande a 5. e 6. col suo basso continuo… Op.5 (Bologna, 1671f).

45

direction. After examining the appearances of these terms on the title pages and

comparing them to other bass line instrumentation information contained in the part-

books, the trend of composers not using the terms basso continuo and basso in the

context of the bass lines of Category 1 appears significant.

When we look at the prints in which the terms basso continuo or basso do appear within

the title pages of works in Category 1, the total number of prints is nine, but the actual

number of different composers and publications is only five. Only one composer, G.B.

Vitali uses the term basso continuo. This is in the five prints of his first opus, Correnti e

balletti da camera published 1668-1680.94 Three of the remaining four prints specifying

basso, are by minor composers.95 In these three cases, the term basso appears in the form

of basso per il spinetta o violone, while in the fourth, the basso seems to indicate a

bowed bass instrument.96 It is debatable whether the term as applied in these last

mentioned prints is an abbreviation of basso continuo or is applied as a term meaning

either a ‘bass line’ or a bowed bass instrument. If the term basso can be accepted in these

94 Correnti, e balletti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Bologna, 1666a). Livre Cinqieme due Recuiel [sic] des dances, ballets, allemandes, brandes, courantes, sarabandes, etc. a deux. et aucunes à deux violons avecq. la basse continuel pour les è spinettes ou basse violon Op.1 (Antwerp, 1668d). Balletti, e correnti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Venice, 1670d). Balletti e correnti da camera a due violini, con il basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Venice, 1677g). Correnti, e balletti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone (Bologna, 1680b). 95 Francesco Prattichista, Concerti Armonici di correnti, e balletti a tre, cioè due violini, e basso Op.1 (Bologna, 1666b). Bass line part-book designates spinetta o violone. Gioseffo Maria Placuzzi, Il Numero Sonoro, Lodolato in modo Armonici et Aritmetici di balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, sarabande, e capricci a due violini, col suo basso, per spinetta, ò violone, che si possono pratticare anco à violino solo, con una sinfonia à due violini Op.2 (Bologna, 1682i). Bass line part-book designates violone. Giovanni Maria Ruggieri, Bizzarie Armoniche esposte in dieci suonate da camera a due, cioè violino, e leuto o tiorba col suo basso per il violone, ò spinetta Op.2 (Venice, 1689j). Bass line part-book designates Violone o Spinetta. 96 Corelli, Dodici Sonate per violino e basso, o cembalo (Venice, 1700 o 1705).

46

cases not as an abbreviation of basso continuo, but having a different meaning, then the

only composer referring to bass lines in Category 1 as basso continuo parts is Vitali.

These statistics indicate that the terms basso continuo or basso were not necessary when

writing for this bass line option. Instead, the publications containing no mention of basso

continuo are usually designated a tre, due violini e violone o spinetta or simply a violino

e violone o spinetta. It must be asked then: what does the lack of use of the term basso

continuo indicate? Its absence, combined with the fact that the number of instruments

cited in these title pages equals the number of performing instruments designated by the

part-books, may indicate that the performance of these bass lines differs from a true

basso continuo. As discussed by Allsop, in the late seventeenth century Sonata a3 the

preoccupation for many of the late seventeenth-century composers is the ‘imitative

interplay of the melodic voices’, and there is a discernible difference between ‘melodic

bass’ and ‘continuo bass’.97 If the bass lines of the publications in our study exhibit

similarities, and are different to those bass lines more consistently labelled basso

continuo this will support the idea that the bass lines not labelled basso continuo (or

basso) should instead, be regarded as melodic bass lines. As such, they do not require full

harmonic realization, but instead suggest a different performance style.

This thesis explores the idea that this ‘different performance style’ is most suited to a

bowed bass instrument rather than a keyboard instrument. There is much evidence to

support the idea that the bowed bass instrument is the instrument intended by composers

as the preferred bass line instrument. Watkin cites three examples of composers

advocating that the bowed bass instrument is preferred over the keyboard instrument. 97 Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 42.

47

Namely, Corelli writes in regard to the possibility of accompanying a violin sonata that ‘a

single violone accompaniment ‘…will have a good effect’.’98 Bononcini’s preface to his

Op.4 Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a violino, e violone, ouer spinetta,

con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature (Bologna, 1671e) states his preference for

‘the violone as the accompaniment instrument, since being ‘more appropriate’ it ‘has a

better effect’.’99 Pegolotti mentions that the cellist can add extra notes ‘if the texture is

found too sparse.’100 Further evidence can be found in G.B. Vitali’s Varie Sonate Op.11

(Modena, 1684b). On the facing page in all six part-books of this collection of pieces for

six instruments, is a note stating, that the works, while composed for six instruments, can

also be played by one violin solo, and violone.101

It is important to note that within the works in Category 1, the order that the instruments

are named on title pages and in part-books is most often ‘bowed bass or keyboard’. This

order occurs in 67 prints and ‘keyboard or bowed bass’ in 18. If we assume the most

desirable instrument is named first, then the majority of the bass lines in Category 1 are

intended for bowed bass instrument rather than keyboard instrument. Carter argues that

the first named instrument is also the first choice of instrument in his discussion on title

pages of seventeenth-century Italian monody collections: ‘The harpsichord was usually

listed as the second choice after the chitarrone…’102 Barnett also assumes the first-named

instrument is the preferred choice in his discussion on the scoring of the sonata da

98 Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’: p. 646. 99 Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’: pp. 646-649. 100 Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’: p. 649. 101 ‘A Verta il Lettore, che quest’Opera ancorche composta a sei Stromenti, si puo sonare con il primo Violino Solo, e Violone.’ GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.e.559. 102 Carter, A Performer’s Guide to Seventeenth-Century Music, p. 288.

48

camera.103 It is easy to assume that the first named instrument is the preferred choice

when we begin looking at the original publications. For example, the bass line part-book

from G.B. Vitali’s Op.4 (Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e

violone, ò spinetta… Bologna, 1668e) serves to reaffirm this assumption (Ill.3.1).104

Illustration 3.1

Detail from Violone o Spinetta part-book: G.B. Vitali. Balletti, correnti, gighe,

allemande, e sarabande à violino, è violone, o spinetta Op.4 (Bologna, 1668e)

When comparing the printed height and length of the words violone and spinetta, the

difference in size alone could have some meaning. When we couple that difference in

size with the instrumentation designated at the top of each page of this part-book, the

103 Barnett, Bolognese Instrumental Music, p. 45. 104 I-Bc cc.124 mf 1261.

49

intended first choice instrument seems clear (Ill.3.2).105 The violone is the only

designation occurring at the top of each page of this part-book.

Illustration 3.2

Detail from title page of Violone o Spinetta part-book: G.B. Vitali. Balletti, correnti,

gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, è violone, o spinetta Op.4 (Bologna, 1668e)

Based on this evidence the first-named instrument is considered the preferred choice in

this study.

105 I-Bc cc.124 mf 1261.

50

Table 13

Category 2 (k and bb)

Total Instruments

82

1660s 11

1670s 13

1680s 24

1690s 30

1700 4

Violone 20

[4] Bologna 2, Venice 2



[4] Bologna, Naples, Rome,

Venice 0

Violoncello 44

2 [Bologna, Venice] 0

[12] Bologna 8, Venice 2, Antwerp, Modena

[26] Venice 9, Bologna 7,

Amsterdam 4, Antwerp 3, Modena 2, Augusta

[4] Venice 3,

Amsterdam

Viola 3 0 Venice 2 Venice 1 0 0

Bassetto viola

3 0 Bologna 2 Bologna 1 0 0

Basso viola 2 Freiburg 1 Venice 1 0 0 0

Viola da brazzo

2 Venice 1 0 Venice 1 0 0

Viola da gamba

2 0 Venice 1 Venice 1 0 0

Bassetto 1 0 Venice 0 0 0

Violoncino 1 0 0 Bologna 0 0

Basso violone

1 Antwerp 0 0 0 0

Basso Violone da

brazzo 1

Bologna 0 0 0 0

Basso106 2 Freiburg 1 Venice 1 0 0 0

106 The term Basso is interpreted here as a bowed bass instrument, as it is used to label a part-book in Pietro Andrea Ziani’s Sonate a 3-6 Op.7 (Freiburg, 1691g (c1667) and Venice, 1678b): V.I, V.II, Alto, Basso [being at one point divided into Tenor Viola and Basso Viola], Organo.

51

It is immediately apparent that there is a far greater variety of terms for bowed bass

instruments in Category 2 than there is in Category 1. Of all six categories the greatest

variety in the terminology for bowed bass instruments appears in this category. Although

at first glance this category does contain a great variety of bowed bass instruments, the

reality is that apart from the violoncello (44) and violone (20) the other named bowed

bass instruments occur seldomly, in only 18 out of the 76 publications and their reprints

examined in this category.107 To elaborate, the confusion resulting from the diversity in

terminology employed within this category of works is somewhat reduced when we

realize that only eight of the 37 composers represented required a bowed bass instrument

other than violoncello or violone. These different bowed bass instruments appear in a

total of 14 different pieces (including reprints, 18 publications), whereas 64 works in this

category calls for either a violoncello or violone. While there are a large number of terms

used for a bowed bass instrument throughout these years, the volume of music including

them is low in comparison to the volume of music including violone and violoncello. The

term violoncello occurs first in 1665e (Giulio Cesare Arresti Op.4, Venice) and was then 107 Viola da brazzo appears in only two prints, both by Giovanni Legrenzi: Op.8 (Venice, 1663), Op.8 (Bologna, 1671b). One might conclude that Viola da brazzo was Legrenzi’s term for a bowed bass instrument if it were not for two factors. First, within the part-books of 1663b, 1671b and 1677k the violone is also named as a bowed bass instrument while 1673j and1682g both also include works for viola da gamba. The inclusion of the viola da gamba is explained by the dedication the Emperor Leopold I and the Viennese court tradition. (Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente, p. 32.) Secondly, Legrenzi’s other opuses in this category detail violone (Op.4, Venice, 1682f) and violoncello (Op.16, Venice, 1691h). It is arguable that Legrenzi intended different instruments when using the different terminology. Bassetto viola is required in only two works; one reprinted. These are: Mazzaferrata, Op.5. (Bologna, 1674d; Venice, 1678e. Although the word bassetto is used in 1678e in all other respects it is identical to both other Op.5 publications and has been classified as bassetto viola. Bologna, 1688e) Colombi Op.4 (Bologna, 1676b). Viola da Gamba is employed twice, by only one composer: both times in conjunction with viola da brazzo in 1673j and 1682g by Legrenzi, Op.10 (Venice). Viola appears three times, in Viviani’s Op.1 (Venice, 1673b), and its reprint (Venice, 1679f). Also in Carlo Fedeli, Op.1 (Venice, 1685s). Terms that are employed only once are basso violone da brazzo by Cazzati, Op.15 (Bologna, 1667b); violoncino by Gasparo Gaspardini Op.1 (Bologna, 1683g); and basso viola by Ziani in the reprint of Op.7 (Freiburg, 1691g). In the original edition of the Ziani Op.7 (Venice, 1678b) the bowed bass was specified only as basso.

52

used in each decade. After 1690 it becomes the term used with most frequency, employed

in 30 titles, while the violone, also used in each decade, appears most frequently in the

1680s, and appears between 1690 and 1700 in only four out of the 30 prints. No term for

a bowed bass instrument other than violoncello or violone occurs after 1688, suggesting

that the terminology became more standardised by this time.

The pattern of use for the terminology within this category accords with other evidence

suggesting that the violoncello had become the most popular bowed bass instrument by

the end of the seventeenth century.108 The great variety of bowed bass instruments named

within Category 2, possibly indicates that these bass lines, for keyboard and bowed bass,

did not require a specific or specialized performance practice, but were adaptable for the

whole range of players of bowed bass instruments in use at the time.

Within the repertoire in Category 2 the designations organ (49), cembalo (8),

clavicembalo (2), and spinetta (1) each appear. The terms basso continuo (35) and basso

(17) are both used, at times in conjunction with a specific instrument and at other times

singularly.109 It is significant that the spinetta is specified once only within the repertoire

in this category (Marini Op.1, Bologna, 1687i), especially when compared to the number

of times it occurs in Category 1 (45 out of 88 prints).

108 Bonta,‘From Violone to Violoncello: a question of strings?’: p. 98. 109 Of these publications 22 specify basso continuo without reference to a keyboard instrument and two prints specify basso without reference to a keyboard instrument.

53

Table 14

Category 3 (k and bb or p)

Decade / Year

Total Instr.

43

Violone o

arcileuto

Violone o tiorba

Leuto o

violone

Violoncello o arcileuto

Violon-cello o tiorba

Basso di viola o Liuta

1660s 2 0 Bologna 0 0 0 0

1670s 2 0 Bologna,

Antwerp 0 0 0

1680s 19

[8] Rome 5, Bologna, Modena

[8] Bologna 5, Rome, Modena, Venice

Rome 1 0 Bologna

1 Florence

1

1690s 18

[8] Venice 3, Rome 2, Bologna, Modena, Florence

[7] Venice3, Bologna 2, Rome

2

Rome 1 Lucca 1 Bologna

1 0

1700 2 Venice 1 0

0 0 Venice 1 0

In Category 3, the option of using either a bowed bass or a plucked instrument reinforces

the impression that these instruments are intended to function in a similar way, and by

inference, differently to the keyboard. It is of particular interest that the bowed bass

instruments in this category include only the terms violone (39),110 violoncello (4) and

one instance of basso di viola. The consistency of the terminology is similar to the

proportion of works in Category 1 using the terminology violone and violoncello and the 110 One reprint of Corelli’s Op.1 (Rome, 1683i) has only the title Sonate a tre which is consistent with the earlier publications of the work. As the earlier prints contain the clarifying a doi violine e violone o tiorba col basso per l’organo (missing from the later publication), 1683i has been classified in the same category as the earlier publications; Category 3.

54

lack of other terminology for bowed bass instruments. Plucked instruments in Category 3

include tiorba, arcileuto and leuto. The keyboard instrument most commonly named in

this category is the organ (36). The other seven publications name basso continuo (4),

cimbalo (2), clavicembalo (1) and spinetta (1). As in Category 2, spinetta is designated

only once within these publications, and appears only in the Op.22 of Cazzati (Bologna,

1660a), one of the earliest works in this study. The popularity of the term spinetta in

Category 1 is in contrast to the usage trend in Categories 2 and 3, and this hints that there

may have been some correlation between the specific qualities or the function of the

spinetta, and the designation violone o spinetta for the bass line.

In each decade the most popular bowed bass instrument in Category 3 is the violone.

Even after 1690 the violone is the bowed bass instrument which is named in 17 out of the

20 prints. Violoncello first appears in 1686a, but never gains real popularity in pieces

involving this bass line instrumentation. The relative popularity of use of the terms

violone and violoncello for the works in this category is consistent with the patterns

identified in Category 1. Both, however, are in contrast to the pattern seen in Category 2.

In 31 publications in this category, the ‘bowed bass or plucked’ instrument is named

before the keyboard instrument, and in 30 of these prints it is the bowed bass instrument

which is named as the first, and therefore, arguably first preferred instrument. In two of

the four prints which name the keyboard instrument first, the plucked instrument is

named as the first option: tiorba o violone and this part is designated a beneplacito.111

111 The remaining 11 prints do not specify the bass line instruments in the title, only in the part-books.

55

Almost half of the 42 prints in this category are editions of Corelli’s Opp.1 and 3. None

of these however, use the term basso continuo. The term basso appears in almost every

Corelli publication in Category 3, a total of 19 publications, almost entirely in the form

col basso per l’organo. In this form, it is ambiguous whether Corelli was using the term

basso to mean ‘bass line’ or basso continuo. Within Category 3, the term basso continuo

appears in six prints by composers other than Corelli.112 In three of these prints, basso

continuo is the only designation for the bass line, but in the other three the term occurs in

conjunction with a specific keyboard instrument, in the form of col suo basso continuo

per l'organo.

112 These being Pirro Albergati, Op.2 (Bologna1683c); Antonio Caldara, Op.2 (Venice,1699c); Cazzati, Op.18 (Antwerp,1674g); Cazzati, Op.18 (Bologna, 1679c); Ruggieri, Op.3 (Venice 1693i); Torelli, Op.1 (Bologna, 1686a).

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Table 15

Category 4 (k)

Decade / Year

Total Instr.

26

Basso continuo Basso Organ Cembalo Clavice-

mbalo

1660s 8 [10] Venice 3,

Bologna 3, Antwerp 2

0 [2]

Bologna, Venice

0 Bologna1

1670s 8 [4] Bologna 2, Antwerp, Venice

Bologna 1 Bologna 3 0 0

1680s 6 0 0 [5]Venice 3, Amsterdam,

Bologna 0 Bologna 1

1690s

4 Vienna 1 Rome 1 Modena 1 Bologna 1 0

1700 0 0 0 0 0 0

Within the music with bass lines labelled only with a keyboard instrument, the range of

keyboard instruments includes organ (11), clavicembalo (2) and cembalo (1). There are

two points of great interest here: none of these publications specify spinetta, and all but

three contain the designation basso continuo or basso.113

113 The three exceptions are: Francesco Antonio Pistocchi, Capricci Puerli Variamente composti, e passeggiati in 40. modi sopra un basso d’un balletto Op.1 (Bologna, 1667c); G.B. Vitali, Varie sonate da chiesa a due violini Op.9 (Venice, 1684f); and the reprint Sonate da chiesa à due violini (Amsterdam, 1684g).

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Table 16

Category 5 (bb)

Decade Total 16

Violone Violoncello Basso

1660s

3 Bologna 2 0 Bologna 1

1670s

2 Bologna 2114 Bologna 1; see footnote

114 0

1680s 2

Bologna 1 Bologna 1 0

1690s

9 [3] Modena 2,

Venice [6] Modena 4, Lucca,

Bologna 0

1700 0 0 0 0

The bowed string instruments in this category are only violoncello (8), violone (8) and

basso (1). Although there are equal numbers of publications calling for violone and

violoncello, in the seven examples prior to 1690 violone was used five times and

violoncello only twice, while after 1690 violoncello (6) appears in twice as many prints as

violone (3). Within this study, the first example of an entire publication specifically for

bowed bass instrument alone is G.M. Bononcini’s Op.12 in 1678a.115 The three prints

prior to 1678 indicate basso116, for the entire publication, or violone, only in part of the

114 This number includes the work mentioned in Chapter 2; G.M. Bononcini, Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini, e violone Op.12 (Bologna, 1678a), which contains a part-book labelled violoncello. 115 Although outside the bounds of this study, i.e. prior to 1660, the bowed bass alone was called for in works by Rossi, Farina, Buonamente and Cazzati. 116 The basso, indicated in this work, Colombi’s Delle Sinfonie da Camera Brandi, e correnti Alla Francese…Op.1 (Bologna, 1668a) is arguably the violone if we allow for the precedent set by Colombi’s use of the term in his unpublished dance manuscripts in the Biblioteca Estense.

58

publication.117 A close look at the title of Cazzati’s Partitura di correnti, e balletti per

sonare nella spinetta, leuto, ò tiorba; ouero violino, e violone, col secondo violino à

beneplacito Op.30 (Bologna, 1662), reveals how specifically the titles can reflect the

contents of the publication. The title suggests that the work can be played on the spinetta

alone. This is reflected in the partitura part-book (printed in score). If, however, the

option of performing this work on the violin and violone is taken, as the title offers, there

is a second part-book in case the addition of a second violin part is desired, again as

specified in the title.

Table 17

Category 6 (bb and k or p)

Decade/Year Total 5

Violone, cembalo o arcileuto

Violone, spinetta o

tiorba

Violone, clavicembalo o

tiorba 1660s

1 0 Bologna 0

1670s 2 0 Bologna Bologna

1680s 1 0 0 Bologna

1690s 1 Venice 0 0

1700 0 0 0 0

Each of the five works in Category 6 contains directions for using the violone with either

a quilled keyboard instrument such as the cembalo, clavicembalo, or spinetta, or a

plucked instrument such as the tiorba or arcileuto. While within the works in Category 3 117 These being: G.M. Bononcini, Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9 (Bologna, 1675b) and G.M. Bononcini, Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale… Op.3 (Bologna, 1669g).

59

the plucked instrument is offered as an alternative to the bowed bass (melodic)

instrument, here, in Category 6, it is offered as an alternative to a keyboard instrument.

The existence of only five prints including this bass line combination indicates this was

not a popular option.

Summary

Terminology other than violone or violoncello for the bowed bass instrument occurs most

frequently in Category 2, though often the use of other terms coincides with a foreign

publishing centre. This is relevant to this study as it clarifies the terms in use in the Italian

cities, while also pointing towards trends in terminology outside of the major Italian

publishing centres.

Within Category 1, the use of the terms violone and violoncello contrasts with the trends

shown by their use in Category 2. Despite numerous variations and inconsistencies, the

violone appeared as the most frequent bowed bass instrument designated in Category 1,

even after the violoncello was used. The violoncello was the most frequent term for a

bowed bass instrument in Category 2 even though violone was still used in the 1690s

within that category. Corresponding to the trends of use evident in bowed bass

terminology is the terminology used for keyboards. Spinetta was by far the most common

keyboard designation in Category 1, but appeared only once in each of the second and

third categories. In Category 1 the term spinetta was not in use after 1690, when cembalo

was the most common keyboard term.

60

The examination of the use of the terms basso continuo and basso in late seventeenth-

century prints illustrates that these terms occur negligibly within Category 1 (bb or k).

Both terms occur frequently in the other two large categories (Category 2, k and bb and

Category 3, k and bb or p), in which the keyboard is not optional. The absence of either

term basso continuo or basso in so many of the publications with the bass line

designation of bowed bass instrument alone poses the question: can these bass lines be

considered ‘basso continuo’? Or are these melodic bass lines, not requiring chordal

harmonic realization?

The evidence suggests that during the period 1660 to 1700, the use of the violone, and to

a lesser degree the violoncello, was associated with performing the bass lines of music

without keyboard doubling. This music (Categories 1 and 5) is almost exclusively dance

music, or music in the style of dance. The association of the violone with these bass lines

continues even after the popularity of the violoncello increases. The violoncello is more

frequently associated with music da chiesa. This is understandable particularly given the

large number of cellists associated with the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna. When

the violone is specified in works in a sacred setting, most often the violoncello was called

for in an obligato role. There is a degree of cross-fertilization between the two terms for

bowed bass instrument however, and in some examples it seems possible that the violone

so labelled may well have been the violoncello that we know. Given this, it is possible

that some composers were applying the term violone in a generic fashion.

F. Vatielli provides a tantalizing hint that bowed bass players were indeed linked to dance

music when he writes of historians who claim that ‘…following a curious custom of the

time, even ecclesiastics, in order to play the violoncello in public temples, had to provide

61

themselves with dancing masters’ licenses.’118 If bowed bass players needed a dancing

master’s license to perform, this logically would strengthen the idea that dance music and

church music required different performance practices. Unfortunately, because Vatielli

does not cite his sources, or give any other details, this possibility of substantiating a

particular performance practice remains unlikely.

118 Francesco Vatielli, Arte e Vita Musicale a Bologna Vol. 1 translated Gordon J. Kinney, Musicography in English Translation (Bologna, 1978), p. 124.

62

Chapter Four: Exploring the use of violone and violoncello within the repertoire

During the discussion on Terminology in Chapter 3, the violone and violoncello were

identified as the two most common terms for bowed bass instruments within the Italian

prints under review. These two instruments are represented in the titles of 214 out of the

249 prints in the categories of this study. Identifying consistencies in the differences and

similarities between the functions accorded them in bass line instrumentations other than

Category 1 is the focus of this chapter. Also discussed in Chapter 3, and one of the main

problems encountered in discussion of the violone and violoncello, is that we do not

know with any certainty the form, number of strings, or tuning of either of these bowed

bass instruments in the different regions of Italy during the second half of the seventeenth

century. Obviously, the artistic intentions and aspirations of a composer can only be met

by the available performers and instruments at hand, and this would have been the

deciding factor for which instrument was used in many instances. Notwithstanding the

practical issues, this chapter identifies composers who called for both instruments violone

and violoncello in different works, and also composers who wrote for both instruments in

the same work. Identifying characteristics in the writing for these two instruments in

Category 3 (k and bb or p), clarifies the function of both instruments as required in that

context. The evidence concerning the different manner in which composers were writing

for both the violone and the violoncello between the categories supports the idea that

while in some repertoire the bowed bass instrument was assigned a doubling role, or a

concerted role, in the repertoire of Category 1 a bowed bass on its own was considered

acceptable, and often preferable, to perform the bass line.

63

When the entire repertoire reviewed in this study is considered, evidence emerges that

until after 1685, composers commonly designate violone when a bass line role is desired,

and violoncello generally occupies a tenor role. After this time, although the violone

continues to be used in the context of the bass line, the violoncello also becomes an

instrument used in a bass line role. For example, even composers who were cellists wrote

for the violone in the context of dance music with a bass line for violone o spinetta.

Specifically, the title page of D. Gabrielli’s Balletti, gighe, correnti, alemande, e

sarabande, à violino, e violone… Op.1 (Bologna, 1684a) clearly includes the label

Gabrielli Sonatore di Violoncello. The different roles of the instruments in the context of

the repertoire of this study accords with Bonta’s argument that it was the reduction in the

size of the violoncello which enabled it to prevail over the violone.119 However,

contradicting Bonta’s theory of an evolutionary progress from the violone to the

violoncello, and as discussed in Chapter 2, this chapter explores the evidence that the

designation for the bowed bass instrument appears to be dictated both by the instrumental

combinations employed for the bass line and the genre of composition, rather than simply

by the chronological appearance of the work. For example, as discussed in more detail

below, another cellist composer, Antonio Caldara, specifies violoncello in his Op.1

sonatas, (1693j) and its subsequent multiple republications, however, as late as 1699c he

specifies violone in a different context.120

While the violone is more often associated with a bass line role than the violoncello, it

does not necessarily follow that the violone was considered a less versatile instrument

119 Bonta, ‘From Violone to Violoncello: a question of strings?’, 98. 120 Caldara, Suonate da camera a due violini, con il basso continuo Op.2 (Venice, 1699c). This work has four part-books, Violin 1 and 2, Tiorba o Violone and Basso Continuo.

64

most valuable in adding sonority to a keyboard texture, or that the violoncello was

considered as a more virtuosic instrument. Examination of repertoire from Category 3

reveals that in many cases composers write the same material for both instruments, at the

interval of an octave. This written evidence supports the idea that the violone was an

instrument capable of being played with at least as much technical ability as the

violoncello, and one which could function as a ‘melodic’ bass rather than only as a

doubling instrument.

The writing in some early canzonas by Castello, Merula and Cima, indicates that, even at

the early stages of its development and notwithstanding its limitations, the violone was

required to perform passaggi, often in direct imitation with violins. 121 The less

challenging bass lines of the balletti and sonatas of the repertoire from Category 1

contradicts the notion of an evolutionary process in the development of instruments

during this period. One explanation for this seemingly retrograde development is that the

more simple bass lines of the balletti and sonatas were performed with an improvisatory

realization. This would reflect a more natural progression towards greater virtuosity than

the regression implied by many of the written scores. In the context of musicians freely

improvising and extemporizing in late seventeenth-century Italy, it is likely that players

of both the violone and violoncello were freely improvising on the bass lines of the works

in Categories 1 (bb or k) and 5 (bb).

121 Lancaster in ‘The forms and development of the early bass-violin in Italy’: pp. 68-71.

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Composers who wrote for both the violone and the violoncello

1. In different works.

There are a large number of composers using both the terms violone and violoncello in

separate works. The Bolognese publications of P. Albergati show this composer

specifying the use of both instruments. The Balletti Op.1 (1682e) calls for violone o

spinetta, whereas his Suonate Op.2, published a year later (1683c), is for two violins, col

suo basso continuo per l’organo, & un’altro à beneplacito per tiorba, ò violoncello. His

ten Sonate da camera Op.5 (1687b) is for two violins and basso con violoncello

obbligato. Even though Albergati indicated the use of a violoncello first in 1683, the

reprint of his Balletti, Op.1 (1685o) contains no changes to its original violone o spinetta

instrumentation. Albergati’s use of the two instrumental terms concurs with the theory

proposed in Chapters 2 and 3, that the different terms were applied according to whether

they were functioning on the bass line possibly alone (violone) or whether they were

acting either in a tenor role, or on the bass line with a keyboard instrument (violoncello).

G.B. Bassani calls for violone o spinetta in his Op.1 Suonate da camera (Bologna,

1677c). The later re-publications of this work, issuing from Bologna and Venice, (1680d,

1684c, 1686i) maintain the same instrumentation, i.e. violone o spinetta. Bassani’s Op.5

however, was first published in Bologna between these other publications (1683a) as

Sinfonie a due, e trè instromenti, con il basso continuo per l’organo. These Op.5 Sinfonie

contain a part-book for violoncello along with one for organ. This print was republished

in Bologna (1688f) and Antwerp (1691f) including the same instrumentation.122 In these

122 Although in the last publication, the title page was altered: from Sinfonie to Suonate.

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publications, the violoncello alternates between two different roles. One, a bass line role,

doubling the organ part exactly, and the other being more a tenor role, with a concerted

part, featuring melodic interplay with the upper parts. The violoncello part is not figured,

while the organ part does contain figures. Bassani, along with Albergati specifies both

violoncello and violone in different contexts. Over the course of ten years Bassani’s Op.1

and Op.5 publications, from different publishing centres, indicate violone possibly to

perform the bass line alone, and violoncello to perform the bass line with a keyboard.

B. Bernardi specifies both violone and violoncello in his Sonate da camera a tre, due

violini, e violoncello col violone, o cimbalo Op.1 (1692b). His Op.2 Sonate a tre, calls for

due violini e violoncello, con il basso per l’organo (1696f).

The labelling of Giovanni Bononcini’s works does not follow the pattern seen in works

by the above three, or many other composers. Rather G. Bononcini specifies violone to be

used on the bass line with keyboard instruments. His Trattenimenti, Op.1, (1685d) and

the Concerti da camera, Op.2 (1685e) are both scored for a tre, due violini, e violone,

con il basso continuo per il cembalo. G. Bononcini’s Bolognese publication, Sinfonie a

trè istromenti, col basso per l’organo Op.4 (1686c) calls for the violoncello in a tenor

role, and the violone as a bass line doubling instrument. (This publication has five part-

books: Violin 1, Violin 2, Violoncello, Tiorba o Violone and Organo.) After this, two

publications specify violoncello as the only bowed bass instrument. In these two

publications, his Sinfonie da chiesa a quattro, cioè due violini, alto viola, e violoncello

obligato Op.5 (1687d) and his Sinfonie a due strumenti, violino, e violoncello, col basso

continuo per l’organo Op.6 (1687e), the violoncello acts both in a tenor role, and as a

bass line instrument. At times the violoncello part doubles the organ part exactly, at other

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times it doubles the organ part at the octave. In most movements the violoncello is given

material that contains passing notes and other figuration not written in the organ part,

resulting in a violoncello line more virtuosic than the organ part. G. Bononcini is one

composer whose use of the two instruments seems to follow an evolutionary timeline,

and supports the hypothesis, proposed by Bonta that the violoncello became the most

popular bowed bass instrument towards the end of the seventeenth century. This may be

because G. Bononcini’s increasing use of the violoncello towards the end of the century

is seen predominantly in works that are in Category 2, and he did not write any music for

dance with bass lines specifying bowed bass or keyboard, in which the violone is more

commonly specified.

G.M. Bononcini, on the other hand, is completely consistent in specifying only violone in

all of his prints from both Bologna and Venice. The one exception is the anomalous

example mentioned briefly in Chapter 2, Op.12 (Bologna, 1678a), and will be examined

in detail in Chapter 6.

Although F.A. Bonporti published only two works within the time frame of this study,

each uses a different bowed bass instrument. His Op.1 sonatas (1696c) are scored for

violoncello obbligato, with a part-book also for organo, whereas his Op.2 sonatas

(1698d), call for the violone and cembalo o arcileuto. Both are published in Venice.

The two examples by A. Caldara are particularly significant. As mentioned above, they

demonstrate a known cellist specifically employing the terms violone and violoncello in

different publications, around the same time, and importantly, from the same publisher

(Gioseppe Sala). Caldara specifies violoncello in his Op.1 sonatas, (Venice, 1693j;

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Category 2,), and their reprints (Estienne Roger: Amsterdam, 1698-1699; Venice, 1700e;

Venice, 1700s). However in his Op.2 Suonate da camera (Venice, 1699c; Category 3),

the bowed bass instrument called for is the violone. This is further support of the idea that

composers were scoring bass line instruments intentionally and specifically, and that the

exact wording and instrumentation outlined on the title pages reflects the composer’s,

rather than the publisher’s, intentions. As such, the details contained within the titles

should not be overlooked.

The posthumously published Op.16 by G. Legrenzi has a part-book for violoncello. All of

Legrenzi’s other publications specify the violone or other bowed bass instrument, most

usually viola or viola da brazzo. In contradiction to the Caldara examples just mentioned,

this is one example that perhaps shows evidence of the influence of a publisher, since this

posthumous anomaly suggests the specified instrumentation may not be necessarily what

Legrenzi himself intended.

C.A. Marini published his Op.1 sonatas specifying violone in Bologna. These Sonate da

camera a trè strumenti, (1687i) have two bass line part-books, one each for violone and

spinetta. Each of his other publications calls for violoncello in addition to organo. These

are his Op.2 (Venice, 1692g); Op.3 (Amsterdam, 1697-1698b); Op.5 (Amsterdam

1700q); and Op.6 (Amsterdam 1700r). Although Marini’s use of the violoncello (i.e. with

the use of a keyboard instrument) is consistent with the theory of bass line instrumental

combinations, the use of the spinetta with the violone in his Op.1 sonatas is not. Marini’s

publications however, do emphasise the common pairing, of violone with music da

camera, and violoncello with music da chiesa.

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The two publications of G.M. Placuzzi are further examples of bass line instrumentation

that concords with the hypothesis proposed in Chapter 2. These examples demonstrate

that the pattern of instrumental terminology usage was consistent, even in the case of

those composers pioneering the early use of the violoncello. Placuzzi’s Op.1 published in

1667a, is a set of sonatas for between two and eight instruments. The part-books include

one each for violoncello and organo without any mention of violone. However, the

publication of Placuzzi’s Op.2 fifteen years later in 1682i calls for a basso per spinetta o

violone. This later publication, a collection of balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande,

sarabande e capricci, from the same publishing house in Bologna as his Op.1, Giacomo

Monti, contains no mention of violoncello at all. However, this second publication

belongs in Category 1, while the first belongs in Category 2. This supports the hypothesis

that the dance-based works in Category 1, most often specifying the use of a violone,

were published within a performance tradition relating more closely to the traditions of

the violone than to those of the violoncello.

Each of the three Venetian publications of G.M. Ruggeri falls into a different category,

and again we see in each case the use of the bowed bass instrument conforms with the

typical usage for that category. The Bizzarie armoniche eposte in dieci suonate da

camera Op.1 (1689j) includes the direction col suo basso per il violone o spinetta. His

Op.3 Suonate da chiesa (1693i) classified in Category 3, calls for violone, the most

popular choice for a bowed bass instrument in that category. His Op.4, Suonate da chiesa

(1697f) though, belongs in Category 2, and part-books for violoncello and organo are

specified in this publication. All three publications originated from the same Venetian

publishing house, that of Gioseppe Sala. Once again, supporting the hypothesis proposed

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in Chapter 2, the use of the bowed bass instrument appears to be dictated both by the

instrumental combinations employed for the bass line and the genre of composition,

rather than simply by the chronological appearance of the work.

G. Taglietti calls for violone in his Op.2, Concerti e sinfonie a tre (Venice, 1696b), which

is in Category 1. The only bass line part-book is labelled violone o cembalo. However,

the year before this publication, his Op.1 Sonate da camera was published in Bologna

(1695d) and called not for violone, but for violoncello. The only bass-line part-book for

this publication is labelled violoncello o cembalo. It is of interest that Taglietti’s

Bolognese example is labelled violoncello, while the violone, more typically associated

with this category, is indicated only in the Venetian print. As the majority of prints in

Category 1 are published in Bologna it can perhaps be assumed that any performance

tradition associated with that bass line instrumentation would have been well known

there. The label of violoncello in the mid-1690s perhaps indicates the degree to which the

violoncello was utilised in Bologna, in a role previously the domain of the violone and in

which the violone was still used elsewhere. But, on the other hand, the instrumentation of

the later publication of his Op.1 sonatas could be an indication of Taglietti’s

dissatisfaction with the violoncello as a bass-realizing instrument in the earlier

publication, explaining his reversion to the violone in 1696.123

123 His use of the term violoncello was not simply a passing fancy, as following these works Taglietti used both violone and violoncello alternatively and together in the same works. Although outside the bounds of this study, after 1700 in his Opp.3, 7, 9 and 10, he continued to specify predominantly the violone when there was an option of bowed bass or keyboard instrument in the bass line. His indication of the use of the violoncello after Op.1 always occurs in combination with a keyboard continuo instrument (Opp.6 and 8), or with the violone in the same context (Opp.3 and 10). Taglietti’s Op.5 (Venice, 1706), although not part of this study, is of particular interest due to his title page indication of violone o violoncello. This is the only print that I am aware of which offers the choice between violone and violoncello.

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B. Tonini’s Op.1, Baletti da camera (1690c) calls for violone and cembalo. His Suonate

da chiesa a tre, Op.2 (1697d), is for two violins with organ con violoncello ad libitum.

Both of these were printed in Venice, which is further support for the view that the

naming of the bowed bass instrument was not dictated by the publishing centre. The use

of the violone in the da camera setting and the violoncello in the da chiesa setting points

again towards composers associating each instrument with a different setting, which in

turn implies a different performance practice.

Among the prodigious output of G.B. Vitali, there is but one example of the use of the

violoncello. Although initially identifying himself as Musico di Violone da Brazzo in title

pages of works published between 1666 and 1671, until his Op.13 in 1689i, all of Vitali’s

titles and part-books designate the violone as the bowed bass instrument. We could

propose that a link may exist between Vitali’s title Musico di Violone da Brazzo and his

use of the term violone, namely that the violone da brazzo is the violone, or at least one

form of it. This would strengthen the argument against the violone being related to the

viol family by this time in the seventeenth century. However, this would also raise

questions about the register of the violone. Vitali’s one specification for violoncello in

Op.13 (1689i, Category 2, k and bb) is coupled with the organo. This publication is

followed by his indication for violone in his Op.14 Sonate da camera (1692d, Category 5,

bb), which names the violone as the only bass line instrument. Vitali’s earlier works

involve the use of the violone both with a keyboard instrument and alone, always, with

one exception, in the context of music da camera and per ballare. The use of the

violoncello in the church sonatas in his Op.13 and the violone in the Op.14 sonate da

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camera is consistent with the theory that the two different instruments were, at this time,

associated with different settings, and possibly different functions.

Composers who wrote for both the violone and the violoncello

2. Within the same work.

As mentioned above, and in Chapter 3, the Op.12 publication by G.M. Bononcini

contains an anomaly. This print specifies violone on the title page, and violoncello in the

part-book. There are five other publications, containing similar inconsistencies, possibly

suggesting that the violone and violoncello were interchangeable instruments, or simply,

that the difference between these two terms became confusing.124 Each of the other

examples of variations between title pages and part-books are from the 1690s. Veracini’s

Florentine edition of his Sonata a tre, due violini, e violone, o arcileuto col basso per

l'organo Op.1 has a part-book for violoncello and one for organ but not one for violone.

Alghisi’s Op.1, published in Modena as Sonata da camera a tre, due violini, e

violoncello, o cembalo (1693a), includes part-books for violone and cembalo, but none

for violoncello. In his 1695b Bolognese publication of Trattenimenti Armonici da camera

a tre, due violini, violoncello, o cembalo, Op.1, De Castro included part-books for

violone and cembalo, but not violoncello. L. Taglietti published his Op.1 Suonate da

camera à trè, due violini, e violoncello (1697e) in Bologna, but the only bass-line part-

book is for violone o spinetta. The 1697i Venetian publication of Corelli’s Suonate da 124 A possible explanation of this discrepancy is that the existence of both terms is not a discrepancy, but that the term violoncello is a further qualifier, i.e. the part was intended for a violone, but a small violone; hence violoncello. This explanation supports the theory that the violoncello was (at least at one stage) a small violone.

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camera a tre due violini, e violone ò cembalo Op.2 contains a part-book for violoncello o

cimbalo [sic] rather than violone o cembalo. With the exception of Veracini’s publication

from Venice, all other publications fall into either Category 1 or Category 5. The

significance of the category of bass line instrumentation, is that these anomalies can be

explained if both of these instruments were capable of performing a bass line alone, in a

similar manner. Perhaps in the context of functioning as a ‘realizing melodic bass’

instrument, the violone may have been interchangeable with the violoncello by the last

decade of the seventeenth century. Given the small number of these works, however,

caution must be exercised in placing too much emphasis on the significance of these

discrepancies between title specifications and labels on the part-books.

Five other publications examined in this study employ both the terms violone and

violoncello. All five examples involving violone and violoncello together are from

Bologna.

These are:

1. G. Torelli’s Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1 (1686a, Category 3,

k and bb or p). The three bass line part-books for this work specify Violoncello,

Tiorba o Violone and Organo.

2. G. Bononcini’s Bolognese publication, Sinfonie a trè istromenti, col basso per

l’organo Op.4 (1686c, Category 3). This also has three bass line part-books for

Violoncello, Tiorba o Violone and Organo.

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3. B. Bernardi’s Sonate da camera, a trè, due violini, e violoncello col violone, ò

cimbalo Op.1 (1692b, Category 1, bb or k). The part-books in this publication are

labelled Violin 1, Violin 2, Violoncello and Cembalo.

4. G. Torelli’s Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5 (1692a, Category 3) includes

bass line part-books for Violoncello, Tiorba o Violone and Organ.

5. The Venetian reprint of G. Torelli’s Op.5 Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro

(1698g, Category 3) like the first edition, includes three bass line part-books for

Violoncello, Tiorba o Violone and Organ.

These five publications are worth noting, specifically because their title pages call for

both violone and violoncello. All these prints, by Torelli, G. Bononcini and Bernardi,

originate from Bologna, and fit into one of two categories in this study, namely Category

1 and Category 3. The fact that one of these publications is a reprint suggests the use of

both instruments within that work, as well as the work itself, enjoyed a degree of

popularity. However, whether because of the different publisher, city, or changing taste in

the intervening years, when Torelli’s Sonate a tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1

(1686a) was republished (Antwerp, 1695h) almost ten years later the tiorba o violone is

dispensed with, when the instrumentation changes to requiring only violoncello and

organo.

The significance of Torelli’s use of the violone and the violoncello together over a 12

year period in his Opp.1 and 5 publications is highlighted when we consider his use of

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both instruments separately in publications from the intervening years. (i.e. The violone is

specified in Torelli’s Op.2 (1686d), and the violoncello in Op.3 (1687c, 1689o) and Op.4

(1687 s.a.).) While it has been pointed out that the most prominent early use of the cello

was seen in Bologna these examples indicate that, at least in some cases, the cello was

used alongside the violone, rather than replacing it. In the Op.5 prints, the violone is

offered as an alternative to the tiorba or cembalo (both realizing instruments) instead of a

textural addition. These occurrences may suggest that the violone was used in an

improvisatory capacity to realise harmonically the bass line, whereas the use of the

violoncello may have been more literally determined by its slightly more fully notated

part.

The use of both terms within the same titles is evidence that, at least in late seventeenth-

century Bologna and Venice, these two terms did not refer to the same instruments, nor

were these two instruments regarded as the same. However, in a study of nearly 250 titles

the evidence ascribed to just these five examples must be weighed carefully, since

statistically this number is very small. In this case, however, considering the repeated

specification of both instruments by Torelli (including a reprint as discussed above), the

fact that these came out of major publishing centres and, are mainly by well-established

composers, the information in these titles gains in importance.

It is interesting to note that in the myriad of instruments that were interchangeable, as

indicated by specifications such as violone o tiorba, violone o cembalo, violone o

spinetta, violoncello o clavicembalo etc., the option of violone o violoncello never arises.

Occasionally, we do find leuto o tiorba (e.g. 1689j) suggesting the lute and theorbo were

76

considered as mutual alternatives and interchangeable. This suggests that the functions of

the two bowed bass instruments either were markedly different, precluding their

substitution with one another, or they were so interchangeable that this specification was

unnecessary.

In summary, support for the theory that the titles reflect the composer’s intentions, rather

than the publishers influence is found in the works discussed above. While several

composers include both instrumental specifications violone and violoncello within one

work, a greater number of composers call for both of these instruments in separate works.

The possible influence of the publisher on instrumental wording can be regarded as

negligible when we consider the evidence, including dates, locations and publishing

houses.

Comparing violone and violoncello part-books from the same work

To look for idiomatic writing for violone and violoncello within the repertoire, we will

examine the bass line part-books of the two publications by Torelli in which both

instruments are called for; Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1 (Bologna,

1686a), and Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5 (Bologna, 1692a).

The initial examination reveals features common to both prints. The most obvious is that

the violoncello part-books are not figured, while the tiorba o violone and organo part-

books are figured. In both publications the tiorba o violone part-books are identical to the

organo part-books. In both pubilcations, the tiorba o violone and organo part-books are

77

not copies of the violoncello part-book with the addition of figures, but are different parts.

For ease of reading, the rest of this discussion will use the term tiorba o violone part-

book to mean both the tiorba o violone part-book and the organo part-book.

Minor differences between the part-books include some occasional slurs in the

violoncello part-book. These slurs occur over pairs of notes, and where the identical

passage is found in the tiorba o violone part, slurs are not notated (see Illustration 4.1,125

bb.7, 18, 58). Slurs appear in the violin parts over the same material.

Illustration 4.1

Allegro (bb.1-60) G. Torelli. Sinfonia Seconda Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5

(Bologna, 1692a)

There is no discernible reason for slurs not appearing in the tiorba o violone part, as ties

are notated clearly in both parts (Ill.4.1, bb. 12-13, 15-16, etc.). As we will discuss further

in Chapters 5 and 6, if slurs are marked in a publication, they are commonly marked in

the part-books in the context of melodic or thematic interest. In the case of the slurs in the

125 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.c.175 (a-f).

78

bass line part-books of Torelli’s Opp.1 and 5, slurs are marked in only one of the bass

line part-books, that of the violoncello, even though, as is shown in Illustration 4.1, both

part-books contain identical material. This could be interpreted as meaning that the

violoncello is acting as a melodic instrument while the violone is functioning as a bass

line instrument.

The range of the two part-books is remarkably similar. The Op.1 violoncello part-book

has a range from CC – f while the range of the tiorba o violone part is CC – e. The low

CC occurs far more frequently in the tiorba o violone part-book than in the violoncello

part-book. The range in the Op.5 violoncello part-book is DD – f! and the range of the

tiorba o violone part is identical, DD - f!. Other differences between the writing in the

tiorba o violone and violoncello parts are the subject of the remainder of this chapter.

The writing for the violoncello is in many cases simply an octave higher than the writing

for the tiorba o violone/organo parts. A clear example is seen in the final section, Adagio,

e Spiccato of the first sonata (Ill.4.2).126

126 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071.

79

Illustration 4.2

Adagio, e Spiccato, Sonata Prima G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo

Op.1 (Bologna, 1686a)

This octave displacement occurs often in both publications. The tiorba o violone part is

usually an octave lower than the violoncello part. Frequently, Torelli writes both parts

alternating between being at the octave, and in unison, such as in the writing seen in the

Grave [Adagio] of the second sonata (Ill.4.3).127

Illustration 4.3

Grave / Adagio, Sonata Seconda G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo

Op.1 (Bologna, 1686a)

The option of tiorba o violone suggests that the performance of a bass line by these two

instruments is similar in some way. It is common for the tiorba to realise the bass line

127 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071.

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with one or two note chords above the written note,128 and it seems logical to assume that

a similar realization might be expected from the violone. The difference in tessitura

exemplified in Illustrations 4.2 and 4.3 is significant if we consider a similar chordal

realization performed on either of the bowed bass instruments. In these passages the

tiorba o violone part would allow for one or two note chords to be executed above the

bass note; however, the violoncello tessitura frequently leaves no string above the written

note on which to play a double stop or chord.

The difference in tessitura is also significant if the (tiorba or) violone is performing as a

16’ instrument. If this is the case, the violoncello sounds 2 octaves higher than the violone

in passages shown in Illustrations 4.2 and 4.3, while the organo plays at the notated pitch.

A rich and lustrous sonority would be the result of a bass line spanning three octaves.

Although desirable and possibly necessitated by the capacious setting of a church like

San Petronio in Bologna, there is a possibility that the (tiorba or) violone was playing at

the 8’ pitch. (If the violone was a violone da brazzo for example.) This would mean that

the large amount of notated octave doubling within these publications results in the

violoncello simply sounding an octave higher than the rest of the bass line instruments.

Some of the other repertoire in this study points towards the possibility that the violone

was not a 16’ instrument. We will briefly diverge and discuss these four publications,

each of which are published in score.

First published is Cazzati’s Correnti, e balletti per sonare nella spinetta, leuto, ò tiorba;

ouero violino, e violone, col secondo violino à beneplacito Op.30 (Bologna, 1662). The

title of this work clearly indicates that the publication can be played on spinetta alone (or 128 Nigel North, Continuo Playing on the Lute, Archlute and Theorbo (London and Boston: Faber, 1987).

81

lute, or tiorba). The treble and bass lines are printed in one part-book, in score,

confirming this work can be played on keyboard alone. The title also specifies another

option: to play the work on violin and violone, with an optional second violin part

provided in a separate part-book. This option clearly indicates an unaccompanied string

duo or trio is one of the possible performance ensembles, and raises a question about the

treble-bass ratio between the parts. Obviously, when performed on the spinetta, the treble

and bass relationship is approximately an octave apart. If played on a violin and 16’

violone the treble sounds at notated pitch and the bass sounds an octave lower than

written. The result is almost always two octaves difference between the parts.

A similar situation occurs in the second of the four prints under discussion. The title of

Pietro Degli Antoni’s Balletti, correnti, & arie diuerse à violino, e violone per camera, &

anco per suonare nella spinetta, & altri instromenti Op.3 (Bologna, 1671c), suggests that

a keyboard alone can perform this work, however in this case it is the unaccompanied

string duo that is first named. The specification for violone again raises the same question

about treble-bass ratio that is raised by the instrumentation in the Cazzati Correnti.

Performed on violin and a 16’ violone the treble-bass relationship would be completely

different to the same work performed on spinetta alone. The third work is by Pietro’s

brother G.B. Degli Antonii Balletti a violino, e violoncello, o’ clavicembalo Op.6

(Bologna, 1690d). This work, however, when performed by either of the designated

instrumental options in the title results in the same treble-bass ratio, of approximately an

octave difference between the parts. The final work published in score is Corelli’s Sonate

a violin e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome, 1700a). Unlike the previous three examples

there is no specification for this work to be played on keyboard alone. As argued by

82

Watkin and discussed in previous chapters, it is unlikely that the part for violone is

intended for a 16’ instrument in this work.129 When the bass line is played at the 8’

register, the resulting treble-bass relationship would be the same performed on the violin

and violone as when the bass line is performed on the cembalo. Perhaps the explanation

for the difference between the treble-bass relationship in the first two examples discussed

here is that this was simply unimportant to these composers in the context of these

publications. However, this difference must cast doubt over the register of the violone

specified in these publications.

Returning to the repertoire under discussion in this chapter, throughout both publications

there are many movements, particularly Allegro movements, in which the writing in both

parts is in pitch unison, but each part moves in slightly different rhythms. An example of

this style of writing is seen in bb.1-4 of Illustration 4.4.130

Illustration 4.4

Allegro, Sonata Quarta G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1

(Bologna, 1686a)

The final Allegro of the fourth sonata Op.1 (Ill.4.5)131 displays writing that is common

throughout both publications. Both parts enter unison, and continue unison until b.18.

129Watkin, ‘Corelli’s op.5 sonatas’. 130 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071. 131 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071.

83

The violoncello part has one bar of passing notes in b.19 not found in the tiorba o violone

part. Torelli wrote similar material in both parts three bars earlier, and it is interesting to

note that this writing continues only in the violoncello part, however, only for one bar.

There follows a small passage of octave displacement, but from b.26 to the end of the

movement the parts remain in unison.

Illustration 4.5

Allegro, Sonata Quarta G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1

(Bologna, 1686a)

Within both publications Torelli employs two main styles of writing in the bass line parts.

One, a harmonic style devoid of melodic interest, is the style that comprises the majority

of the material in the tiorba o violone part and is often found in the violoncello part. The

other, is melodic material, in trios with the material in the two violin parts, found often in

84

the violoncello part and occasionally in the tiorba o violone part. The final Allegro of

sonata 5, Op.1 (Ill.4.6)132 contains examples of these different styles, which is the most

commonly observed difference in writing between the two bass line parts. The tiorba o

violone part provides the bass line from b.1. The violoncello, tacet until b.9, then joins

with the third entry of the theme (presented initially by violin 1 (b.1) and secondly by

violin 2 (b.5)). The violoncello joins the bass line in unison (with some octave

displacement) from bb.13- 20. After this the violoncello is given another statement of the

4 bar theme, (bb.21-24) before re-joining the bass line almost entirely an octave higher

until the conclusion of the movement.

Illustration 4.6

Allegro, Sonata Quinta G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1

(Bologna, 1686a)

132 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071.

85

It is noteworthy that the violoncello part in Illustration 4.6 is written in tenor clef between

bb.21-24. Tenor clef occurs occasionally throughout both publications in the violoncello

part-books, however Torelli applies it only once in the tiorba o violone part. This can be

found in the first Allegro of Sinfonia Quinta Op.5.

The final major difference between the two bass line part-books is clearly shown in

Illustration 4.7.133 Very few movements in the two publications have very simple bass

lines in the tiorba o violone part-books, and markedly busier bass lines in the violoncello

part-book. However they do appear occasionally, as is shown in the final Allegro from

the sixth sonata (Ill.4.7).

133 I-Bc cc.23 mf 0032; 5071.

86

Illustration 4.7

Allegro, Sonata Sesta G. Torelli. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1

(Bologna, 1686a)

Overall it is fair to say that Torelli’s writing in the violoncello part-books is more

virtuosic than that in the tiorba o violone (and organo) part-books. However, it is only

marginally so. Particularly throughout the Op.5 publication, the writing is remarkably

equal. In this later publication a much greater number of movements are in unison

between the parts, or in unison at the octave, than is found in the Op.1 publication. The

final Allegro from the Op.5 Concerto Quarto is one example (Ill.4.8).134

134 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.c.175 (a-f).

87

Illustration 4.8

Allegro Concerto Quarto (bb.1-11) G. Torelli. Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5

(Bologna, 1692a)

In conclusion, with the exception of the octave doubling, and small amounts of more

virtuosic and melodic writing in the violoncello part than in the tiorba o violone part, the

two different bass line part-books are in fact very similar. There is no other evidence in

the part-books of either publication of any particularly idiomatic writing for the

violoncello as opposed to the violone. Considering the notated range of the parts for both

instruments is almost identical, there is no difference in the tessitura employed in the

writing for either instrument, other than that created by the octave displacements. While

the octave displacement can create opportunities for the addition of double-stops or

chords to the tiorba o violone part, whether performers did this or not is speculation.

Similarly, although the additional figurations in the violoncello part can be interpreted as

models for further figurations by the performer, again it is speculation whether or not this

was either intended by Torelli, or practiced by performers.

The examination of the works in which the same composers were writing for violoncello

or violone in different works, results in two clear patterns of use of terminology. First,

composers naming violoncello almost exclusively on the bass lines when a keyboard

88

instrument is also named for the bass line, and when part-books are provided for both

instruments. Secondly, naming violone as the bass line instrument when the title suggests

one instrument only plays the bass line. In these cases only one bass line part-book is

provided. When either violone or violoncello is named, the violone is usually named in

the context of music da camera or da ballo, while the violoncello is named in the context

of music da chiesa. When both instruments are specified together, it is always in the

context of church music. The consistency of association of the instrumental terms and the

type of work and other bass line instruments justifies a close reading of the detail

contained within the titles of these works. It implies that the wording of the titles,

including the nomenclature of the instruments, is significant, and almost always related to

the role of the instruments within the publication.

Discussion of works in which composers specify both violoncello and violone reveals that

in terms of range and technical factors, the demands on both instruments are very similar.

In these works, the violoncello occupies a more tenor role than the violone, which

functions as a bass line instrument. The option of tiorba o violone in this context supports

the theory that the violone was considered as a realizing bass-line instrument, in a manner

similar to tiorba.

The suggestion that the composer’s intentions are not reflected in the wording of the titles

of the works in this study, can have little weight when we consider the evidence that

often these works involving the terminology violoncello or violone were published by the

same composer, in the same city and by the same publishing house within a short time of

each other.

89

As discussed in Chapter 2, the option of violone o spinetta occurs frequently. This option,

viewed in combination with the option of tiorba o violone points strongly towards the

idea that composers regarded the violone (and after 1685, the violoncello) as an

instrument capable of realizing a bass line. Considering that the violone is never offered

as an alternative bass line instrument to the organ, it seems logical to conclude that

composers may have regarded the violone as capable of realizing a bass line in a lighter

style.

90

Chapter Five: Bass line comparisons between da camera and da ballo within the

same publications.

This chapter is concerned with three of the publications from the selected repertoire.

The three publications are:

1. G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini (Venice, 1666c

Category 1, bb or k and Category 4, k)

2. G.M. Bononcini. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da camera a 2.

3. e 4. col suo basso continuo, & aggiunta d’alcuni canoni studiosi, & osseruati

Op.3 (Bologna, 1669g Category 5, bb and Category 4, k)

3. G.M. Bononcini. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9

(Bologna, 1675b Category 5, bb and Category 4, k)

Each of these publications by Bononcini contains two very distinct bass line

instrumentations for the pieces contained within. Because of this, each print has been

placed in two different categories. Each publication contains both sonate, as well as

separate dance movements. The sonate all have a bass line part-book for basso continuo,

while the dances all have a bass line part-book for violone, or violone o spinetta. These

are clearly defined within the publication. The section of the part-books labelled basso

91

continuo contain no mention of violone, and the section of the part-books labelled violone

(or violone o spinetta) contain no mention of basso continuo. As discussed in Chapter 3,

it is possible that composers were labelling music with basso continuo parts differently to

dance music, which have bass lines calling for violone (or violone o spinetta) and that this

may reflect a performance practice associated with dance music. In this chapter we will

look at the similarities and differences between these bass lines within each publication.

Primi Frutti

We begin with Bononcini’s Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale (1666c). The first pieces

in the set are 12 Sonatas, with part-books clearly marked for Violino 1, Violino 2 and

Basso Continuo. As seen in Illustration 5.1,135 there is no particular instrument specified

to play the basso continuo.

135 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

92

Illustration 5.1

Detail from title page: G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini

(Venice, 1666c)

These sonatas are structured predominantly in three sections, fast-slow-fast, often with

similar thematic material in the two outer fast movements. The two upper parts contain

all of the melodic interest, and are often written in counterpoint. The writing for the

violins in the fast movements is characterised by fast semiquaver scalic passages, leaps of

fourths, fifths, sixths or occasionally larger. Many of the slow movements are marked

adagio e tremolo, with slurs over groups of three of four repeated notes. The bass lines of

these sonatas are characterised by simple rhythmic movement, often crotchets, and

predominantly linear movement, with some intervals of an octave. Appendix G contains

the fourth sonata, demonstrating two idiomatically written upper parts for the violins over

a supportive, steadily moving bass line. From the 3/2 section (p.248) to the end of the

sonata the different sections flow into each other, and were probably played without

break.

93

The bass lines of the twelve Primi Frutti sonatas have a range of CC - e. Slurs are marked

in Sonatas 7 and 8, over pairs of notes, although they are marked more frequently in the

violin parts. As mentioned above, slurs are also marked over three or four notes in

Sonatas 4 and 9 within tremolo passages. Two dynamic markings are found in the adagio

bass line of Sonata No.8, but none in any other sonata, although they are marked fairly

frequently within the violin parts. Many of the bass lines are similar in shape to those

evident in Sonata No.4 (Appendix G), specifically characterised by the regular crotchet

movement of the Allegro sections, the frequent movement by step, and lack of rhythmic

interest overall. Sonata No.5, however, does contain short passages of uncharacteristic

faster movement. See bb.1 and 7 of the allegro in Illustration 5.2.136

136 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

94

Illustration 5.2

Final adagio – allegro Sonata Quinta G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino

Musicale a due violini (Venice, 1666c)

The bass line of the short adagio in Sonata No.11 (Ill.5.3)137 is similar to a ‘walking

bass’, and the only one of its type within the sonatas.

137 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

95

Illustration 5.3

Largo-Adagio-Allegro, Sonata Undecima G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino


In each sonata, the basso continuo is active from the beginning of each movement or

section, often followed on the off-beat by one of the violins, and then joined a bar or

more later by the other violin. Typical examples of this can be seen at the beginning of

each Allegro section in Sonata No.4 (Appendix G). Throughout the sonatas each

individual violin entry is marked ‘v.’ in the basso continuo part, and ‘vv.’ when they enter

in unison (see b.1, adagio and b.1 allegro in Illustration 5.3 above). The figures, in

combination with the marking ‘v.’ provide a fuller picture of the score to the performer of

the basso continuo.

Following the twelve sonatas, there appears the title Brando, arie, corrente a due violini,

e violone ò vero spinetta per camera. This title is clearly printed in each part-book (see

96

Basso Continuo part-book in Illustration 5.4).138 In addition to this title, the part-book for

the bass-line player previously labelled basso continuo is now labelled Violone ouer [ò

vero] Spinetta.

Illustration 5.4

Detail from Basso Continuo part-book: G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino


The eleven dances that follow, appear to be individual, unrelated movements, with the

exception of the first three, a brando, a gavotte and a corrente, which arguably could be

considered a short suite. The dances are short, and are each in binary form. The

relationship between the three parts is markedly different to that in the sonatas. The three

parts often move in rhythmic unison, particularly so at the beginning of each dance, and

after the repeat. The rhythm usually moves collectively in the upbeat. Nine of the eleven 138 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

97

dances are rhythmically in unison at the beginning. In the two exceptions, there are

staggered entries, with the first violin beginning, followed by the second violin, and lastly

violone. This is markedly different to the writing in the sonatas, in which the basso

continuo always begins, sometimes with, but most often followed by, the violins. The

bass lines of the dances are much more rhythmically active than in the sonatas. A typical

example of a more active bass line can be seen in the Aria Seconda. The first half of this

piece can be seen in Illustration 5.5, 139 in which we see movement by dotted rhythm

(b.1), dotted rhythms in effect tied across the bar line (bb.3-4), quavers, and semiquavers.

Illustration 5.5

Aria Seconda G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini

(Venice, 1666c)

139 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

98

The range of the violone o spinetta part is BB’!- d and the bass lines of the dances are

characterised by frequent leaps of an octave or more. Aria Quarta exhibits the range

encompassed in the dance movements, and includes frequent leaps (Ill.5.6).140

Illustration 5.6

Aria Quarta G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini

(Venice, 1666c)

140 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

99

Illustration 5.7141 depicts the Prima Corente, in which we can see the varied rhythms and

leaps of an octave and more, which characterise the dance bass lines.

Illustration 5.7

Prima Corente G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini

(Venice, 1666c)

141 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

100

Within the dance movements often the two upper parts are in parallel motion, or exhibit

rhythmic interplay rather than the counterpoint most evident in the sonatas. Overall, there

appears to be greater evidence of a hierarchic relationship between violin 1 and violin 2

in the dance pieces than exists in the sonatas, which are more equal between the violins.

This is most evident in the difference in range, the first violin being often in a much

higher register than the second violin, with a range up to ee’. While the second violin

reaches only up to b’. Dynamics are marked equally between the three parts within the

dances, and occur more frequently overall than in the sonatas. (See the ‘p.’ marking in

bb.12 and 35 of Ill.5.7). In addition to the dynamic markings within the dances, five of

the eleven dances end with a ‘piano’ marking in each part. There are no slurs in any of

the dances in any part-book. Another feature absent from the dance movements is the

marking ‘v.’ to indicate the violin’s entry. This may be explained by the fact that this

marking is redundant in these dance pieces, in which every voice is almost constantly

active.

While the designation Basso Continuo appears only once in the collection Primi Frutti,

on the title page in the bass line part-book, the indication Violone ouer Spinetta marked

clearly at the top of the first page of dances (in each part-book) not only specifies the

instrumentation for the dance movement bass lines, but also implies that the bass line

instrumentation for the basso continuo of the previous twelve sonatas was different.

Without any instrument named in relation to the basso continuo though, we can only

speculate about the intended instrumentation of the basso continuo part. As discussed in

Chapter 2 however, some inferences are drawn between the consistent pairing of the label

basso continuo with a keyboard instrument. The differences between the characteristics

101

of the bass lines of the sonatas and dance pieces are manifest enough to support the

theory that the basso continuo bass lines of the sonatas are for keyboard, and the bass

lines of the dances are for violone, or spinetta as a second choice. Indeed, the relationship

between all three parts is different between the two types of piece in this publication. The

two upper parts in the sonatas are generally equal, often with the same material, entering

in imitation. The register is identical within both parts. In the dance movements,

however, the role of violin 1 is more virtuosic (containing wider leaps and higher

register) than that of the second violin. Although each of the three voices in the dance

movements participates in the melodic interest, the register of the first violin is

consistently higher than that of the second.

Varii Fiori

The second publication, Bononcini’s Varii Fiori Op.3 (Bologna, 1669g) begins with 15

individual dances. Each dance within this publication, variously gighe, allemande,

corrente and a brando, all have a bass line part printed only for violone. The scoring of

the dances ranges from two parts, e.g. Giga a 2. Violino, e Violone, to four parts e.g.

Corrente a 4 (2 violins, alto viola and violone). Again, these dances do not represent a

suite, but are individual, brief and in binary form. Following the various gighe, allemande

and corrente, two sonate da camera are printed. Both sonatas consist of various multi-

tempo sections, slow-fast-slow-fast, and both also have only a bass line part designated

for violone. Following these, the dances No.18 and No.19 are a brando and corrente,

which appear, due to their notation and relation to each other, to be a small ‘suite’. The

102

eleven works following these dances (Nos.20-30) are examples of that ‘specific

Modenese preoccupation’142 the canon. These canoni are written, col suo basso continuo,

except for Nos.1 and 25. Although these pieces are listed in the tavola of the violone part-

book (Ill.5.8),143 there is no music for them printed in the violone part-book.

Illustration 5.8

Detail from Tavola: G.M. Bononcini. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da

camera a 2. 3. e 4. col suo basso continuo, & aggiunta d’alcuni canoni studioso, &

osseruati Op.3 (Bologna, 1669g)

142 Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente, p. 182. 143 GB-Bl Shelfmark d.27.

103

This is further evidence that the violone is associated with performing bass lines of dance

music, and is not considered a basso continuo, which is most often associated with other

types of music at this time. As I have only been able to access the part-books for violone,

violin 2 and alto viola, from this publication, this investigation cannot comment on the

relationship between all parts, but must simply deal with characteristics of the violone

part.

Illustration 5.9

No.4 Giga a 2 G.M. Bononcini. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da



As is the case in the dance bass lines of the Primi Frutti bass lines, the violone part is

characterised by varied rhythmic activity, frequent leaps of an octave, or more, and

104

anacruses. Unlike the Primi Frutti, however, within the bass lines of the dance

movements from the Varii Fiori publication, there are many slurs marked, particularly in

the gighe movements. Illustration 5.9144 contains examples of varied rhythmic activity

(bb.1, 13, 15), slurs (bb.2-3, 6, 7, 13, 15) and leaps of an octave and more (bb.10, 11, 13-

14 etc.).

144 GB-Bl Shelfmark d.27.

105

Illustration 5.10

No.6 Giga a 4 G.M. Bononcini. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da



Illustration 5.10,145 the Giga a 4 (2 violins, viola and violone), illustrates not only the

typical characteristics of these dance bass lines, but also illustrates Bononcini’s use of the


106

whole range of the violone in these dances, BB’!- e !, which is covered in this one

movement.

The violone part moves quickly in all registers, stepwise, bb.18-21, and by octave leaps

bb.23-24, etc. Bononcini’s utilization of quick notes in every register implies that the

violone was capable of agile and facile movement. This is also exemplified in the

Allemanda a 4 (Ill.5.11).146


107

Illustration 5.11

No.8 Allemanda a 4 G.M. Bononcini. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da



Unlike the earlier Primi Frutti publication (1666c), there are no figures marked in the

violone part-book of the Varii Fiori collection (1669g). As discussed in Chapters 2 and 4,

Bononcini’s Arie, e correnti…op.12 (1678a) for violin and violone contains no figures

either. There are no dynamics marked in the violone part-book of the Varii Fiori

(1669g).

108

Trattenimenti Musicali

Finally, the third publication under consideration here, Bononcini’s Trattenimenti

Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9 (Bologna, 1675b) contains five Sonate, with

part-books for 2 violins and basso continuo. These sonatas are all multi-tempi, often fast-

slow-fast, but also slow-fast-slow-fast. Following these, are five pairs of Allemanda and

Corrente. These binary-form dances are paired in the same keys, and are marked clearly

as Sonate da camera a tre, due violini, e violone, not only in the bass line part-book, but

also in the violin part-books (e.g. Ill.5.12).147

Illustration 5.12

Detail from Violin 2 part-book: G.M. Bononcini. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à

quattro stromenti Op.9 (Bologna, 1675b)

This arrangement, of sonatas followed by dances, and the markings concerning

instrumentation, mirrors the presentation of works in Bononcini’s earlier Primi Frutti

(1666c). The difference here, however, is that some pages of the dance bass line part-

book are labelled basso continuo too, despite the clear direction showing Violini, e

147 I-Bc x.119 mf 1231.

109

Violone evident in Illustration 5.12. This indication contradicts the evidence previously

discussed, that dance bass lines are intended for bowed bass accompaniment only.

The simplest and most obvious explanation in this case may be the chaotic and

amateurish nature of this particular publication. After page 10 the pages are not in the

correct order. Namely, page 10 is followed by 13, then 12, 17, 14, 11, 16, 19, 18, 15 and

20, after which they appear in chronological order. The result of this is that the

movements from sonatas four and five are mingled together, with various dances

interspersed. The sonatas and dance movements correspond to the page number in the

tavola; however, the pages have been arranged in the wrong order. It is likely that an

edition with these kinds of mistakes could also contain a mistake in the part-book

labelling, the violone part mistakenly labelled as basso continuo.

A less simple explanation is one that does not support the theory that bowed bass players

alone play bass lines of dance music. This explanation requires a closer look at the bass

lines involved. The bass lines of both the sonatas and dance music involve the use of

clefs (bassetti) to indicate the entry of the upper parts, in the style of a basso seguente

part.

Illustration 5.13148 is an example, from the basso continuo part, in which the first violin

begins, (indicated by the g clef) followed in bar 3 by the second violin (indicated by the c

clef) and finally the basso continuo enters in bar 6 (indicated by the f clef).

148 I-Bc x.119 mf 1231.

110

Illustration 5.13

Allegro Sonata Terza G.M. Bononcini. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro

stromenti Op.9 (Bologna, 1675b)

The canonic entries evident in the beginning of almost every movement of these sonatas,

explains this style of notation in the basso continuo part. Canonic entries occur between

the three parts (most commonly in the order, violin 1, violin 2, violone), and at the

beginning and mid points of each of the eight dance movements.

These dances, therefore, evince characteristics that up till now, Bononcini has used in

conjunction only with a basso continuo part. In particular the basso seguente style, and

use of bassetti, is associated closely with keyboard accompaniment. Bononcini’s use of

this technique in the writing of the bass line part highlights the un-standardised nature of

notation in the seventeenth century. Whereas only six years earlier, in the same city and

with the same publisher, he used markings of ‘v.’ and ‘vv.’ to indicate the entry of the

violin(s), the 1675b print reverts to an older tradition in the notation of the bass line. The

Trattenimenti contains many paradoxes, making it rather exceptional and therefore

difficult from which to draw conclusions.

111

One facet of the notation of the bass line is interesting, however, and strengthens the view

that composers were using figured bass as a ‘short score’, rather than just, or only, as a

guide to harmonic realisation.149

Illustration 5.14

Largo Sonata Terza G.M. Bononcini. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti

Op.9 (Bologna, 1675b)

In some cases, for example as seen in this Largo (Ill.5.14),150 only one of the violin

entries is notated (b.1). The second entry is indicated in bb.3 and 4 with the use of

figures. These figures describe the second violin’s entry and following five notes, a third

above those of the first violin. This use of the clefs and figures indicates that, to some

degree at least, Bononcini was using figured bass as a form of score writing. If we

interpret the figured bass as a score, it follows that a realization of the harmony may not

149 Borgir, The Performance of the Basso Continuo, Chapter 2. 150 I-Bc x.119 mf 1231.

112

be compulsory, and the lighter ‘harmonisations’ possible on a bowed bass instrument are

acceptable.

In other respects, the bass lines of the sonatas marked basso continuo in the Trattenimenti

evince similar characteristics to those discussed above, in the Primi Frutti, 1666c.

Although the bass lines in the sonatas from the Trattenimenti contain more rhythmic

variety than those in the Primi Frutti sonatas, the Trattenimenti dance bass lines are still

more complex. For example, the Corrente Prima contains dotted rhythms producing

syncopations and ties across bar lines, which add a level of complexity not evident in the

sonata bass lines (Ill.5.15151 bb.8-9, 9-10, 15-16).

151 I-Bc x.119 mf 1231.

113

Illustration 5.15

Corrente Prima Bononcini. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9

(Bologna, 1675b)

Like the Varii Fiori bass lines, the bass lines in the sonatas of the Trattenimenti tend to

move by step more frequently than by leap, while leaps are more common features of the

dance bass lines. There are no markings for slurs or dynamics throughout the

Trattenimenti.

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Summary

In summary, while there is some confusion raised by the discrepancies within

Bononcini’s Trattenimenti publication, there is evidence of several major differences

between the characteristics of bass lines for dance movements and those for non-dance

movements. First, there is a high level of rhythmic involvement in the bass lines of the

dance movements, and a low level in the non-dance movements. This high level of

rhythmic activity includes fast dotted rhythms, greater rhythmic unison with the upper

parts and collective anacruses. The bass lines of the non-dance pieces involve more

consistent rhythmic movement, and are generally markedly slower than the upper parts.

The intervals in dance music bass lines tend to leap more frequently and more widely

than the bass lines of the non-dance pieces. All of these features of the dance movement

bass lines are arguably more suited to a stringed instrument than keyboard, as they

require a third part that is equal and similar to that of the two upper string parts. Although

it is not within the scope of this thesis to determine if the basso continuo specified in each

publication involves a keyboard and a bowed bass instrument, or a keyboard alone, this

evidence points towards the bowed bass instrument being more desirable to perform the

bass line of the dance movements. Perhaps the characteristics of the bass lines themselves

contain material that explains what Bononcini means in his preface to his Op.4 Arie,

correnti…a violino e violone ouer spinetta (Bologna, 1671e), when he writes that ‘…the

violone will produce a better result than the spinet since the basses are more appropriate

to the former than the latter instrument.’152

152 Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 40.

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Chapter Six: Bass line comparisons between categories

To determine if there are any discernible difference between three of the different bass

line instrumental combinations: namely, those indicating bass lines for a bowed bass

instrument alone (Category 1, bb or k and Category 5, bb), a bowed bass or plucked

instrument doubling a keyboard (Category 3, k and bb or p), and keyboard alone

(Category 4, k), bass lines from selected works from these categories are compared. Any

differences in musical style, use of figures, slurs and dynamics may contain clues

pertaining to differences in performance practice of these bass lines. Selected works by

G.M. Bononcini and Corelli have been chosen first, due to their importance historically

and, therefore, in the repertoire of this study; secondly, their location of publication; and

thirdly, the relative consistency of terminology used within their output included in this

study. Corelli’s output has been established as being important in the body of works in

question and is representative of both Bolognese and Roman tradition. Bononcini, a

contemporary of Colombi, Uccellini and G.B. Vitali, represents the Modenese and

Bolognese traditions of string playing, in particular the Bolognese tradition, in which the

development of cello playing was arguably more advanced than in other Italian centres.

The pieces examined in this chapter are:

1. G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a violino, e

violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4

(Bologna, 1671e Category 1, bb or k)

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2. G.M. Bononcini Suonate a due violini con il basso continuo per l’organo Op.6

(Bologna, 1677e Category 4, k)

3. G.M. Bononcini. Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini, e violone Op. 12 (Bologna,

1678a Category 5, bb)

4. A. Corelli. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo

Op.1 (Rome, 1681a Category 3, k and bb or p)

5. A. Corelli. Sonate à 3. Op.4 (Bologna, 1694b Category 1, bb or k)

The works by Bononcini under examination in this chapter were all published in Bologna

by Giacomo Monti after Bononcini’s return to Modena from Bologna. They all contain

consistent terminology between title pages and part-books with the exception of Arie, e

correnti Op.12. As mentioned in Chapters 2-4, although each instrumental part-book title

page states the Op.12 collection is for ‘a tre, due violini, e violone’, the bass line part-

book has a clear, but paradoxical specification for violoncello (see Ill.6.1).153 This is not

directly relevant to the subject of this chapter, and has been discussed in Chapter Four

along with five other prints published between 1692 and 1697, which display similar

confusion within the part-book and title page labels.

153 GB-Ob ms.mus.sch.E.484 (c).

117

Illustration 6.1

Title page of the Violoncello part-book

G.M. Bononcini. Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini e violone Op. 12 (Bologna, 1678a)

The Bononcini works represent two clear genres. First, there are dance publications,

Opp.4 and 12 which contain 27 and 24 pieces respectively. Together, these do not form

any type of coherent suite or sonata, but seem to be ‘stand alone’ pieces. The ‘brevity,

simplicity and approximation to tonality’154 of these pieces is typical of the music for

dance from the middle of the seventeenth century until its end. Importantly, these

individual dance movements are labelled as such in the titles (e.g. Arie, e correnti), which

contain no reference to sonatas. The second genre is represented by the twelve sonatas

154 Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, p. 143.

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published as Bononcini’s Op.6. These sonatas mostly consist of three, four or five

contrasting sections.

‘Basso Continuo’ ?

To begin the analysis we will again call to attention the examination into the use of the

term basso continuo in Chapters 2 and 3. This will be followed by an examination of the

disposition of figures in the bass lines, relationship between upper parts and bass line, and

patterns of usage of slurs and dynamics. Our investigations of these occur within the

overarching umbrella of genre and type of composition. Clear distinctions emerge,

between characteristics of bass lines written for bowed bass and those written for

keyboard, which would support the theory that many bass lines from Category 1 are

written for performance by bowed bass alone. However, often differences between the

bass lines are subtle and appear specific to the particular publication, or offer no

idiomatic evidence of the instrument intended by the composer.

In the title pages of works within Category 1, the term basso continuo occurs in a total of

only five prints. The consistency of these title pages in not specifying basso continuo or

basso during a period spanning 40 years of publishing is unlikely to be a coincidence. If

we accept this premise then this evidence may indicate that these bass lines in Category

1, were considered by composers and/or at least by publishers, as bass lines and not basso

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continuo parts. Although this idea is not new,155 it is often overlooked. To make the

distinction between the two types of bass lines clear, it may be more accurate to call one

type basso continuo and the other melodic bass lines.

It should be considered that perhaps composers simply refrained from using the

appellation basso continuo because of the option of the bass line being played by a

bowed bass instrument alone. In that situation, regardless of how much harmonic filling

the bowed bass player executes, a result that would be comparable to a keyboard

realization of a basso continuo line is extremely improbable, hence the logic in the

absence of the term basso continuo. A realization on a bowed bass instrument will

necessarily be much lighter than on a keyboard. While a bowed bass instrument can

imitate the single melody lines, articulation and tone colours of the upper parts, along

with providing some harmonic support, it cannot come close to providing full harmonic

support and simultaneously offering imitative motifs and counter melodies in the way

that is possible on a keyboard instrument. The lighter style, however, is arguably more

suited to the da camera setting.

Within Category 2 however, the term basso continuo is used in the title page or part-

books in 35 of the 76 examples. The term basso is used in a further 17 prints. Together

these total over two thirds of the publications in this category which involve either the

term basso continuo or basso in the title pages or part-books. A similar trend occurs in

Category 3, where 38 of the 42 prints contain either basso continuo or basso in the title

pages or part-books.

155 ‘…one may state that the term “Basso Continuo” or “Thorough Bass” from about 1650 on was meant to apply to a keyboard instrument primarily…’ Burnett, ‘The bowed string instruments of the Baroque basso continuo’: p. 69.

120

Examination of the prints in Category 5 indicates that none of these works contain either

term in the title or part-books.156 By contrast, in the publications with bass lines for

keyboard alone (Category 4), every print contains either the label basso continuo or

basso.

This evidence suggests that there is a direct link between the use of the terms basso

continuo or basso and the instrumental designation for the bass line. Whether or not the

bass lines labelled to be played by a bowed bass instrument alone, or by a bowed bass or

keyboard instrument alone are basso continuo parts, is open to argument but, on the

whole they are not designated as such.

Figured bass

The presence of figures in bass lines indicates that the role of the bass line player may

have been essentially the same in works not labelled as basso continuo as in works that

were labelled basso continuo (or basso). However, the degree to which figures are

applied as a form of ‘short score’ writing, and the degree to which they imply an

expectation of harmonic realization, is unclear. As discussed in earlier chapters often bass

lines not labelled as basso continuo evince characteristics, apart from just

instrumentation, that are different to those characteristics found in bass lines labelled

basso continuo. It is possible that the melodic bass line of some works had a tradition of

156 An exception are the two cello sonatas at the end of Giuseppe Jacchini’s Op.3 Concerti per camera à violino, e violoncello solo, e nel fine due sonate à violoncello solo col basso (1697c).

121

performance on a bowed bass instrument which was either not documented in treatises, or

the documentation has not survived.

When we examine the appearance of figures in the bass lines, some differences between

categories are self-evident and others are more obscure. In the case of Bononcini’s Arie, e

correnti a tre Op.12, the part-book for violoncello is unfigured (see Ill.6.2).157 While

many sources comment on the prolific number of unfigured seventeenth-century bass

lines,158 the repertoire examined in this study contains relatively few examples. The

sources usually refer to unfigured bass lines in the context of instructions for keyboardists

on how to realize them, so we cannot automatically infer that simply because a bass line

is unfigured it is intended to be performed on a bowed bass instrument. The four other

bass lines discussed in this chapter all contain figures. Bononcini’s Op.12 does not

contain any ‘accidentals on the stave’. These indicate the chordal tonality of individual

notes and do occur in all other (figured) bass lines in this study.

157 GB-Ob ms.mus.sch.E.484 (c). 158 Bianciardi, Breve Regola, p. 75; Gasparini, L’armonico Pratico.

122

Illustration 6.2

Violoncello part-book No.2, Corrente G.M. Bononcini. Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini

e violone Op. 12 (Bologna, 1678a)

Turning to the four bass lines under discussion in this chapter that are figured, there are

some identifiable patterns regarding the use of figures. When the bass lines of the

Bononcini publications are compared, it is clear that the bass lines of Op.6 (Category 4)

are much more heavily figured than the bass lines of the Op.4 bass lines (Category 1).

More than half of the dance movements from the Op.4 collection contain an average of

less than one figure per bar, and there are no movements containing more than two

figures per bar. Only five of the movements contain slightly more complex figures

throughout: those that require a four-note harmonisation to be complete, rather than three

notes. This is a reflection of the harmonically simple and transparent texture of many of

the movements in this collection, but it could also be an indication of a limited capacity

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for realization, by the instrument specified, such as the violone or spinetta. Each of the

five movements containing more complex figures is fast.

By comparison, over two thirds of the movements in Bononcini’s Op.6 (Category 4)

contain on average more than one figure per bar, and almost half of these movements

contain more than two figures per bar. Almost every movement contains complex figures,

with just seven containing simple figures only. Of these seven, three are fast movements,

three are slow movements and one is a fast-slow movement (Allegro-Adagio). There is

no apparent relationship between the keys and the amount or type of figuration in either

publication; both greater and lesser amounts of figuring are found in each of the keys

within the publications.

The use of figures in the Corelli publications is more consistent between the categories,

however some distinctions are still evident. Comparing the bass lines from Corelli’s Op.1

(Category 3), with the Op.4 bass lines (Category 1), it is the Op.4 that is more heavily

figured. 6/7ths of the movements in the Op.4 collection contain on average more than one

figure per bar, and half of these movements contain on average more than two figures per

bar. There are only seven movements out of the 49 in the collection which contain on

average less than one figure per bar. A further seven movements out of the 49 contain

only simple figuring.159 Three of these are fast movements, and four are slow. The slow

movements are all of six or less bars length, relatively unsubstantial, and the lack of

complex figuring is therefore not surprising. The number of movements in the Op.1 bass

line with less than one figure per bar is almost a quarter of the total number of

movements. In the other three quarters of the movements, the average number of figures 159Three of these seven movements are the same movements which contain less than one figure per bar.

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per bar is more than one, and more than two per bar in two thirds of these movements.

We find only simple figured basses in ten out of these 55 movements. Of these ten

movements, four are slow, four are fast, and two are Allegro-Adagio movements. In the

Corelli publications, like those of Bononcini, there is no apparent connection between the

key of the movement and the frequency, or complexity, of figures applied.

In summary, there is discernible difference in the manner of figuring between the

different bass line categories in the Bononcini publications. The absence of figures from

the Op.12 (Category 4), suggests an unaccompanied, equal, three-part, thin-textured

soundscape (as indicated by the instrumentation on the title page) may have been desired.

In addition, the lower frequency and simpler figures used in Bononcini’s Op.4 (Category

1) publication seem to suggest that less realization was expected than in the Op.6 sonatas

(Category 4) in which the figuring is both more frequent and more complex. There is

evidence here of a three-tiered application of figures which correlates with Bononcini’s

bass line instrumentation in works from Categories 1, 4 and 5. Because one of the two

publications of dance music contains no figuration and the other has simple figuration,

while the sonata compositions contain slightly more complex and frequent figuration we

may infer that dance music requires less harmonisation than non-dance music. The

instrumentation of the bass line as specified in titles supports the hypothesis that the bass

lines of music requiring only a bowed bass also require less harmonic realization than

bass lines of music requiring a keyboard instrument.

In the case of the Corelli publications examined in this chapter, there is no evidence that

figuration has been applied to the bass line based on any basis of differentiation between

the bass line instrumentation as specified by the composer. There is a slightly greater

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number of figures in the Op.4 sonatas (Category 1), than in the Op.1 sonatas (Category

3), although the figures are similarly complex in both works.

Slurs

A comparison of the use of slurs between the bass part and the upper parts has revealed a

few trends. First, although there are slurs in both upper parts, Corelli did not mark any

slurs in either bass line of the works in this case study; there are no slurs in the Op.4 bass

line (Category 1), or in the Op.1 bass line (Category 3). The fact that there is no shortage

of ties in the bass line or other parts implies that slurring was purposefully omitted from

the bass line parts. For the purposes of establishing that a difference existed between the

writing for a bowed bass instrument and other bass line combinations, however, it is clear

there is no differentiation between the two Corelli publications in relation to slurring,

because no slurs are applied to either bass line instrumentation.

In the case of the Bononcini publications, more identifiable trends can be established that

support this distinction in bass line instrumentation. Both of the publications involving a

bowed bass instrument on the bass line, the Op.4 Arie (Category 1), and the Op.12 Arie, e

correnti (Category 5), contain slurring in over half of the movements. Unlike the Corelli

publications, slurs are marked in the bass part-books as well as in the upper parts. Around

half of the dance movements in which slurs are marked in Bononcini’s Op.4 contain slurs

in both the treble and the bass parts. There are equal numbers of pieces with slurs marked

consistently between the parts, and those where the slurs are marked in each part, but not

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marked consistently between the parts. For example, Illustration 6.3160 shows slurs

marked equally between the parts in bb.7 and 9. In bb.21 and 23, however, when a

slurred figure appears only in the violin part, slurs are only marked in the violin part.

Illustration 6.3

No.7 La Pozza G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a violino,

e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4

(Bologna, 1671e)

A further example, in Illustration 6.4,161 displays a slurred motive, (first appearing in b.3

vln 1) again slurred in each part whenever it returns. There is an evident pattern, of slurs

160 I-Bc x.112 mf 0388. 161 GB-Ob ms.mus.sch.E.484 (c).

127

being marked in association with particular melodic motives. When these motives do not

occur in one part, slurs are also not marked.

129

There is one example, the tenth piece, Aria La Fontana, in which slurs are only marked

in the Violone ò Spinetta part and not in the violin part (Ill.6.5).162 This illustrates the

equality of the writing between the upper and lower parts, and that sometimes it is the

lower part which contains the melodic interest. This example provides further support for

the idea that these pieces are written as two-part unaccompanied duos.

Illustration 6.5

No.10 Aria La Fontana G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande

a violino, e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4

(Bologna, 1671e)

In the case of the Op.12 publication (Category 5), two thirds of the slurred movements

only contain slurs in the upper parts. Where slurs are marked in all parts roughly half of

these are slurred consistently between all parts. Of the Op.6 sonatas (Category 4), just 162 I-Bc x.112 mf 0388.

130

over half of the movements are slurred, but of these only three movements contain

slurring in all three part-books. The majority of movements with slurs show these marked

consistently between the violins without any marked in the organ part-book, clearly

marked as a basso continuo per l’organo.

From this examination of slurring in these works we can deduce two things. First, we see

that in these prints Bononcini employed slurs more frequently in the violin parts when a

bowed bass instrument was indicated than when a keyboard alone was indicated.

Secondly, Bononcini indicated slurring in every part (not only in the violin parts) more

often when a bowed bass instrument is designated. This equality of the slurring across the

parts within each of these works with bowed bass could strengthen the argument that the

bowed bass instrument, as opposed to the keyboard, was Bononcini’s preferred

accompanying instrument. This accords with Bononcini’s statement in the preface to his

Op.4 Arie already mentioned in Chapters 1 and 5, that ‘the violone will produce a better

result than the spinet since the basses are more appropriate to the former than the latter

instrument’163 precisely because of the equality between three bowed string instruments

in the context of the unaccompanied string trio.

Dynamics

When we look at the trends concerning dynamic markings among the Bononcini

publications, we see that the vast majority of movements contain no dynamic markings at

all. In the two-part (violin-violone) writing of the Op.4 Arie there are eight pieces with

163 Allsop, The Italian ‘Trio’ Sonata, p. 40.

131

dynamics marked. These dynamic markings all occur at the same time between the two

parts, although depending on the motive, are often marked on different beats (bb.8-9 and

bb.22-23 Ill.6.3).

In the Op.12 publication on the other hand, there are only four pieces with dynamics

marked. In only one of these are dynamics marked across all three parts. The dynamic

markings occur here also in connection with thematic material, and if one part does not

contain the thematic material, there are no dynamics marked in that part. Because of the

conversational nature of the writing in this publication, each of the other pieces with

dynamics marked have these in only one or two of the three parts. For example, the third

piece in this collection, an Aria, contains two ‘piano’ markings in both the violin 1 and

the bass part-books (Ill.6.4 bb.10, 23), confirming that the dynamics are marked

according to the occurrence of thematic content, and not associated with instrumentation.

Although the ‘piano’ markings do not occur in the violin 2 part when it enters after the

rests in bb.11 and 13, performance practice conventions of the period dictate that the

second violinist would imitate the dynamic level of the other two parts.

Out of all the movements in Bononcini’s Op.6 sonatas three contain dynamics marked in

all three parts equally. One example can be seen in Ill.6.6.164 The dynamics in this

Adagio are marked unanimously across the parts, in bb.6, 9, 14, and 16, at moments

when all three parts have the same motives, and are moving in rhythmic unison.

164 I-Bc x.116 mf 0818.

133

Three other Op.6 movements have dynamics indicated in the upper parts, but none

indicated in the organ part-book. For example, the first Allegro from Sonata 11 (Ill.6.7)165

shows the thematic material distributed between the two violin parts, with dynamics

marked accordingly. However, the organ part has no dynamics marked, which

corresponds with the fact that this part contains no melodic interplay, acting rather as a

harmonic foundation for the upper two parts.

165 I-Bc x.116 mf 0818.

135

Thus, the only discernable pattern in which dynamic markings occur more frequently in

the violin parts than in the organ part relates to the occurrence of melodic or motivic

content. The dynamic markings coincide with the occurrence of melodic material,

demonstrating that bass line instrumentation does not influence the inclusion of dynamic

markings.

In the Corelli publications we find overall that dynamics are marked with greater

frequency than in the Bononcini publications. When we look at the Op.4 sonatas we see

that almost half of the movements contain dynamic markings. A majority of these are

marked to occur simultaneously between all parts. Three of the movements contain

dynamics marked only in the violin parts, and another three contain markings in all three

parts, but fewer markings in the violone o cimbalo part than in the upper parts.

About one third of the movements in Corelli’s Op.1 publication contain dynamic

markings. The majority of these contain markings that occur across all four parts

simultaneously, although there are six movements with markings in all parts, but with

more indicated in the violin parts and again which may be associated specifically with

melodic interest. Illustration 6.8166 is an example showing dynamics marked

simultaneously (bb. 89, 92 and 97), and later only in the violin parts (b.96) when the

organ part-book and the violone o arcileuto part-book have rests indicated.

166 I-Bc Y.173 mf 0462.

136

Illustration 6.8

Allegro, Sonata 3 A. Corelli. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, o arcileuto col basso per

l’organo Op.1 (Rome, 1681a)

In summary, within both the Bononcini and the Corelli publications we find examples of

inconsistent dynamic markings between the parts, and a trend indicating fewer markings

in the bass line parts. However, in almost every case the dynamics are clearly aligned to

the presence of motivic ideas or melodic interest. In general, the nature of the writing

within each publication (i.e. two- or three-part equal, or two-part with accompaniment) is

consistent with the frequency of dynamic markings occurring simultaneously across all

parts, or in one or two parts more frequently than in another. Since dynamics are marked

more frequently in the publications designating a bowed bass for bass lines, it is possible

to conclude that these bass lines are generally more melodically active than those bass

lines designated for a keyboard.

137

Melody or accompaniment

As we have seen, the occurrences of slurs and dynamic markings are closely linked with

thematic or melodic material in these works of Corelli and Bononcini. This data

correlates strongly with the two different styles of writing exhibited in the different

publications. One style, in which the bass line contains little melodic material but acts

mainly as a support to the upper parts, contains few or no slurs, nor dynamics marked in

the bass line when compared with those of the upper parts. The other style, in which all

three parts are melodically active, contains both slurs and dynamics marked with greater

frequency in the bass lines.

Within the Bononcini publications, we can discern a tendency towards more inter-part

equality in terms of melodic distribution in the publications including a bowed bass

instrument. Eleven of the 27 pieces in his Op.4 Arie contain equal two-part writing for

the entire duration of movements. The 11th piece, a Corrente labelled La Nigrella

(Ill.6.9),167 is an example which shows fairly equal distribution of thematic material, in

which Bononcini even introduces two different motives in the bass line first, that are

followed by the violin at the half bar (see bb.4 and 12 in Ill.6.9).

167 I-Bc x112 mf 0388.

138

Illustration 6.9

No.11 La Nigrella G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a

violino, e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4

(Bologna, 1671e)

The bass lines in nine of the pieces in the Op.4 collection involve a combination of

writing characterised by both some melodic interest and a more supportive style of

accompaniment. There are only seven pieces in which the violin part has all of the

primary musical material and where the bass line is purely accompaniment.

In the case of the three-part writing in Bononcini’s Op.12 Arie e correnti, an even greater

number of pieces contain equal three-part writing than in the Op.4 collection. In this

publication, 15 out of 24 movements have melodic material distributed equally between

all parts. In many of these, the bass line is more active than the second violin part. Often

the second violin part alternates between being paired with either the first violin or the

bass line, continuing the impression that this work is conceived as an equal three-part

139

composition. The 14th piece contains similar examples of this (Ill.6.10).168 In bb.1 and 3

the main melodic interest is in the violin 1 and bass lines. In bb.4 and 5 again the bass

line moves with violin 1 against the less rhythmically active violin 2 part. In a further

four pieces in the Op.12 publication, the bass line includes both melodic and supportive

material, and in only five movements out of a total of 24, is there a complete absence of

melodic interest in the bass line.

168 GB-Ob ms.mus.sch.E.484 (c).

141

This trend whereby melodic material is distributed across all parts, evident in the works

involving a bowed bass instrument, is reversed in the Bononcini Op.6 sonatas. None of

the 36 movements have melodic interest consistently distributed between all parts. Eleven

movements do contain fragments of thematic material in the bass line, or in some cases

an entire statement of the principal or secondary theme, but in each of these movements a

majority of the material in the bass line is purely harmonic in function and therefore

supportive of the upper parts.

An example of the typical style of bass-line writing Bononcini utilizes throughout the

entire Op.6 publication is in Illustration 6.11.169 The two violins enter, in imitation, over a

supportive bass line. The melodic interplay between the two upper parts continues, while

the basso continuo part provides foundation and support for the entire movement. The

bass line in this example is so much more simple than that of the upper parts, that it is

notated in C time, while the two upper parts, with many triplets, are notated in 12/8. This

style of bass line writing is found of most of the Op.6 sonatas, and is arguably more

suited to a keyboard instrument, contrasting with the melodic bass style of writing that

features more prominently in the Op.4 and Op.12 publications, and which suit

performance on bowed bass alone.

169 I-Bc x112 mf 0388.

143

The equality of the two- or three-part nature of both of the Op.4 Arie and the Op.12 Arie

e correnti is indicated exactly by the specific wording on their title pages, while the two-

part writing with bass line (basso continuo) accompaniment is precisely specified in the

title of Op.6: Suonate a due violini con il basso continuo per l’organo. The specificity of

the wording reflects the apparent general trends within these publications towards either

equal part-writing or solo parts with accompanying keyboard. It is possible that the

‘melodic’ bass lines of the type found in Bononcini’s Op.4 and Op.12, are not true basso

continuo parts, as we understand them in modern times, but instead represent an

alternative possible performance practice convention in their realization by a bowed bass.

It is also intriguing to note the way in which Bononcini is described on the title pages of

these publications. On the title page of the Op.4 Arie (1671e) he is ‘Del Concerto de gli

Strumenti dell’ Altezza Serenissima di Modena’, and on the title page of the Op.12 Arie, e

correnti (1678a) as ‘Del Concerto dell’ Altezza Sereniss. di Modena, Maestro di

Cappella della Cattedrale, & Accademico Filarmonico.’ But, in 1677 (on the title page of

the Op.6 Suonate) he is described as ‘Maestro de Capella nella Cattedrale di Modena, &

Accademino Filarmonico di Bologna’. It is only in the Op.6 works with organ that

involve no reference to dance or to a bowed bass instrument, that his position in the Court

orchestra is not mentioned. It seems unlikely that this is simply coincidence; rather, it is

further evidence that at the Modenese Court there was a strong tradition of

unaccompanied string ensembles. In Chapter 2 we discussed the existence of the

unaccompanied string trio, quartet and even duo, as exists in Buonomente’s output,170

and the underestimation of the tradition, particularly as it appears to have existed in

170 Allsop, Cavalier Giovanni Battista Buonamente, pp. 13, 58.

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Bologna and Modena.171 In particular, with regard to Modena, the numerous surviving

manuscripts of violin-violone dance music without figuring or mention of a keyboard,

provides further support for this theory.172

Summary

The results of our analysis in this chapter illustrates, first, that in the repertoire studied the

terms basso continuo and basso are employed in title pages or part-books only in works

in which the keyboard instrument is labelled as compulsory. In publications involving the

option of either a keyboard or a bowed bass instrument, or those for bowed bass

instrument alone, the absence of both terms (basso continuo and basso) suggests the

practice of realizing the bass line was considered differently to that of the basso continuo

or basso bass lines of works requiring a keyboard instrument. This absence of the terms

basso continuo and basso is evident consistently throughout the works of various Italian

composers, regions, time periods and publishers. The liberties taken by modern editors173

in the homogenous designation of almost every bass line as basso continuo has obscured

this apparent distinction, indicated clearly by composers in some works with specific

keyboard requirements versus those works with bass lines for optional bowed bass alone.

Accordingly, in such modern editions any differences between these melodically active

bass lines and a basso continuo bass line are not discernible without reference to the

original publications. 171 Jensen, ‘The Performance of Corelli’s chamber music reconsidered’. 172 Suess, ‘Giuseppe Colombi’s Dance Music for the Estense Court of Duke Francesco II of Modena’ Marco Uccellini: Atti Del Convegno Marco Uccellini Da Forlimpopoli e la sua Musica, Forlimpopoli, 26-27 Ottobre 1996, ed. M. Caraci; M. Toffetti (Lucca, 1999). 173 As discussed in footnote 15.

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Considering this evidence in conjunction with what we have learnt about the figuring,

slurring, dynamics and accompaniment style or equal style of writing between the parts,

it is clear that Bononcini, and to a lesser extent Corelli and possibly other composers,

were writing bass lines which may well have required a different treatment in their

realization, which was dependent on the instrumentation and context of the work. We

saw in Chapter 2, that the majority of works with bass line instrumentation for bowed

bass or keyboard, or bowed bass alone (Categories 1, and 5), specify violone until 1685,

and subsequently violoncello and violone equally. At the same time, many of the same

composers were writing for the violoncello, mainly in works specifying other types of

bass line instrumentation (i.e. not for bowed bass instrument alone). In a number of these

works which specify a violoncello (i.e. those in Category 3), the violone is also specified,

as a doubling instrument, usually in a part labelled basso continuo.

The close relationship between the application (or lack) of the term basso continuo and

the da chiesa or da camera type of composition rather than da ballo strengthens the

argument that perhaps this Italian repertoire can be categorized into three types: da

chiesa, da camera, da ballo, rather than just the two accepted standard types, da chiesa

and da camera.174 Could this distinction be linked to a distinction between dance

musicians and church musicians that appears to have existed at this time, dating back to

the end of the sixteenth-century?175 Certainly the accepted notion that many of the

174 Apel, Italian Violin Music of the Seventeenth Century. 175 Girolamo Diruta, Il Transilvano, Bibliotheca Organologica (1593) translated Soehnlen, E.J.; Bradshaw, M.C. (Buren), p. 91.

146

performance practices associated with dance music from this time were unwritten,176 and

therefore not represented in treatises of the period supports this link.

176 Carter, A Performer’s Guide to Seventeenth-Century Music.

147

Chapter Seven: Contemporary bowed bass techniques

The evidence discussed in Chapters 1-6 points towards bowed bass players being

involved in some form of improvisation as a method of bass line realization in late

seventeenth-century Italian prints. Particularly, this thesis is concerned with bowed bass

performance practices in the repertoire from Categories 1 and 5. The violone is the most

commonly named bowed bass instrument in Category 1 and as such, this chapter will

identify contemporaneous techniques associated with that instrument. Although as

mentioned in Chapter 3, the violoncello is not named as frequently as the violone, after

1685 the violoncello is often named as an optional choice with a keyboard instrument in

dance-based works of Category 1. Within Category 5 both instruments are named almost

equally. For these reasons this chapter is also concerned with identifying

contemporaneous violoncello techniques.

Outside Categories 1 and 5, there are differences between the roles of the violone and the

violoncello within certain repertoire, such as in Category 3, discussed in Chapter 4. There

are also differences between the role of each instrument within Category 2, in which we

see frequent examples of the violoncello obligato or violoncello ad libitum. These bowed

bass parts are different to that of the keyboard parts in varying degrees. We also find

many examples of parts for either violoncello or violone within Category 2, which are

identical to the keyboard part. The qualifiers obligato or a beneplacito are never applied

to the bass line in any category when the bass part is designated violone, except in the

context of tiorba o violone.

148

However, even if we decide that composers expected a different performance practice

from players of the violoncello to that of players of the violone in repertoire outside of

Categories 1 and 5, in the context of the bass lines from these categories, this chapter will

show that the role of the violoncello is similar to the role of the violone. When

comparisons are made between parts for violone or violoncello within this repertoire,

there is little discernible difference, and enough similar features and techniques to

warrant this approach.

In order to propose possible ways for a twenty-first century cellist to embellish a bass

line, this chapter examines the techniques and idiomatic features contained in these bass

lines, along with examining techniques and idiomatic features of selected works outside

this study. Examination of works outside the repertoire that is the focus of this study is

necessary in order to gain an idea of technical capabilities of the seventeenth-century

bowed bass player. Because the bass lines contain no evidence of unwritten traditions or

performance practices, the starting point to inform a modern approach is the notated

evidence of bowed bass player techniques. Tempting though it may be to ascribe known

techniques from times and regions outside the scope of this study to works within this

study, we will not do so and instead try only to ascertain what is known with certainty

from the bass lines themselves and selected works from the period and regions under

consideration. From this, suggestions for extemporizing on, and ‘realizing’ bass lines

using techniques known to seventeenth-century bowed bass players will be offered. As it

lies in the domain of the modern day cellist (arguably the closest equivalent player to

those seventeenth-century instrumentalists) to accompany these works, the discussion

will focus on performance practice possibilities for the cellist in the twenty-first century.

149

Within the dance-music repertoire of Category 1 there is little evidence of virtuosic

writing for violone, or violoncello. The one exception is Corelli’s Op. 5 sonatas. This

publication will be discussed separately, as it represents a departure from the style of bass

lines evident in dance music of Categories 1 and 5.

Pitch Range

The range of the tessitura in bass lines for violone within works in Category 1 is

approximately from CC (and occasionally BB’♭) – d in the 1660s, CC – e (f once) in the

1670s, CC – f♯ in the 1680s and CC – f in the 1690s-1700. However, for the majority of

publications, the range most often employed in each movement or piece is narrower than

that for these groups of works. The extremities of the range are often only notated once or

twice throughout the publication. Many of the publications before 1690 have entire

movements spanning one octave only, specifically, GG –G. As written, they could be

performed comfortably in first position on the G and D strings of a modern cello. For

example, see the Minuet and Borea from G.B. Vitali’s Balli Op.12 (Ill.7.1).177

177 I-Bc cc134 mf 1760.

150

Illustration 7.1

Minuet (Vivace) and Borea (Allegro p.16) G.B. Vitali. Balli in stile francese à cinque

stromenti Op.12 (Modena, 1685j)

The first print in Category 1 for violoncello encompasses a range from CC - c (G.B. Degli

Antonii, Op.3 1677a). The range of bass lines for violoncello in the 1680s is DD - c and

CC - f♯ in the 1690s. However, two exceptions in Category 1 exhibit an expanded

tessitura extending into the upper range. These two exceptions are Opp.1 and 5 Ricercate

by G.B. Degli Antonii. Op.1 appears to be solo violoncello music (Ricercate) that can

also be played on the harpsichord, and Op.5 appears to be a violin and violoncello duo

(Ricercate) that again can be played on the harpsichord. The range of the violoncello in

both of these publications is CC – a. These two works are exceptional among the bass

151

lines in Category 1 in range, technical difficulty and genre (they are not related to dance

music). For the purposes of this chapter, these two works are treated separately to the

other bass lines in Category 1, in that they are examined as examples of violoncello

technique of the late seventeenth century, rather than being examples of typical

violoncello technique utilised for dance music of Category 1. This distinction, between

the non-dance Ricercate and Balletti, is clear when we look at examples of Degli

Antonii’s writing for violoncello in the context of his 1690d Balletti. Within this

publication there are many movements in which he ventures outside the range GG - G by

only one note, and only a handful of times in the entire movement. For example, in the

second Corrente from this collection (Ill.7.2),178 Degli Antonii uses the note A only four

times (bb.10, 16, 20 and 25), the rest of the movement remains within the range GG - G.

178 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.c.170.

152

Illustration 7.2

Corrente (p.7) G.B. Degli Antonii. Balletti a violino, e violoncello, o’ clavicembalo Op.6

(Bologna, 1690d)

As discussed above, the pitch range in the bass lines of non-dance music for violoncello

is greater than that of the dance music bass lines for violoncello. By comparison, the pitch

range for the violoncello in music outside this study is also greater. Within Scipriani’s

153

solo Toccate179 the range is CC - a and the range of D. Gabrielli’s Ricercarj per

violoncello solo180 is CC - g. Colombi’s Toccata a violone solo181 is the work examined

for violone technique from outside the repertoire of this study, and has a range of BB’ - e.

It seems that throughout the years 1660 to 1700 bowed bass players of instruments with

varying tunings were familiar with shifting, as evidenced by the upper pitch range of the

bass lines for both violone and violoncello.

Until around 1685, the lower notes of the range in bass lines for both violone and

violoncello generally occur outside the context of cadence points, characterized both by

octave leaps, and by a scalic approach. When the lowest notes of the range occur at

cadence points, they commonly appear as the quasi-penultimate or penultimate note of

the cadence, rather than the final note (see the final cadence in Illustration 7.3).182 Again,

it is only in Corelli’s Op.2 (1685a) that we consistently see final cadence notes lower than

F. Within the Op.2 sonatas, and in his Opp.4 and 5, Corelli frequently utilizes the lowest

notes in the range for the final cadence note. This trend, which is evident as early as 1620

in the cadences within Francesco Rognoni’s Passaggi for violone,183 occurs only

infrequently between 1660 and 1685 in the repertoire of Category 1. The final cadence

note occurs on the lowest string in only three out of twelve Toccate for violoncello by

Scipriani.

179 Principij da imparare à suonare il Violoncello e con 12. Toccate à solo Unpublished MS: I-Nc Ms. 9607. 180 D. Gabrielli, Ricercarj per violoncello solo, con un canone a due violoncelli, e alcuni ricercari per V.lle e B.C. (1689). Unpublished MS: I-MOe Mus.G.79. 181 Unpublished MS: I-MOe F286. 182 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.e.500. 183 (Milan: Appresso F. Lomarzo, 1620) facsimile reprint (Bologna: Forni, 1970).

154

The increasing use of the register above G by composers after c. 1685 explains the

appearance of more melodic material which features in the bass lines of this study after

that time. An example is in Colombi’s Sonate da camera (Ill.7.3). Fragments of melodic

writing occur at bb.2, 3-4, 8, 10-11, 18-19 etc.

155

Illustration 7.3

Balletto Sonata Sesta G. Colombi. Sonate da camera, a tre strumenti, due violini, e

violone, ò cimbalo Op.5 (Bologna, 1689g)

Also found in this movement is one of the rare markings for a trill in the bass line (b.8).

As already mentioned in Chapters 4-6, throughout this publication and in many others we

can see equal distribution of the melodic interest between the three parts, including the

bass line.

156

This higher and more melodic writing in the bass line is also evident in the two non-

dance publications by G.B. Degli Antonii involving violoncello, mentioned above. The

style of writing in these two Degli Antonii publications is similar, featuring arpeggiated

figures and melodic writing, extended fast passagework and consistent utilization of a

wide pitch range. These features are contrasted with more common bass line idioms

within both works. This style is markedly different to that in Degli Antonii’s Balletti,

correnti… Op.3 (Bologna, 1677a) also scored for violoncello. The earlier bass lines of the

various Balletti, correnti… are characterized by alternating steady, stepwise movement,

occasionally featuring one or two bars of melodic interplay with the violin part, combined

with passages involving jumping octaves, fifths or fourths.

The increased technical difficulty of the Ricercate published later (op.1, 1687 and Op.5,

1690) could be accounted for by the decade or so that had elapsed between the

publications if it were not for two facts. First, Degli Antonii’s Op.1 Ricercate may well

have been written before his Op.3, published in 1677, and secondly, the publication of

Degli Antonii’s Balletti a violino, e violoncello, o’ clavicembalo Op.6 (Bologna, 1690d),

which contains simple and slow-moving bass lines, contradicts this possibility. The bass

lines in this publication, although again scored for violoncello, revert to the conservative

and predominantly slower moving style that we see in the Op.3 publication. The fact that

the Op. 6 is comprised of dance movements supports the idea that the bass line writing in

dance music was more simple than the probable technical capabilities of the

instrumentalists, thereby providing opportunities for embellishment and realization of the

bass line.

157

Degli Antonii’s Op.6 publication is one of the few in the repertoire that is published in

partitura (see Ill.7.2), as is the Op.3 publication by his elder brother Pietro Degli Antonii.

Both the title, and publication in score of P. Degli Antonii’s Balletti, correnti, & arie

diuerse à violino, e violone per camera, & anco per suonare nella spinetta, & altri

instromenti Op.3 (Bologna, 1671c), make it clear that the composer’s intention is for the

works to be played by two string instruments, or a keyboard, or other instruments. Each

brother, however, specifies a different bowed bass instrument. The bass lines in P. Degli

Antonii’s Balletti contain features in common with his younger brother’s later dance-

based works. These are generally slow moving, though they contain occasional fast

passing notes, octave jumps and short sections of melodic interplay with the violin part.

The differences in style between a ricercar and a dance movement can explain the

difference in the technical requirements between the two types of composition as

composed by G.B. Degli Antonii. One can speculate that bowed bass players who knew

the Ricercate could employ some of the techniques and figurations in them when

performing the simpler bass lines of the balletti.

Technique: Leaps

A common feature in the interval content of bass lines within Category 1 is the leap of an

octave. This occurs frequently in most balletti, correntti, and gighe, and to a lesser degree

in sarabande, which often move in a more linear way. There are many examples of

octave leaps occurring in every register, usually in a quick tempo, involving crossing two

158

strings and frequently occurring at cadence points. Typical examples can be seen in

Ill.7.4184 at bb.4-8, 10, 12, 20, 21, 30, 31, and 36.

Illustration 7.4

Corrente Terza (Allegro) G.B. Bassani. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e

violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1684c)

Similar writing appears in the bass lines for violoncello, e.g. G. Taglietti’s Sonate da

camera. (Ill.7.5185 bb.2-6, 9, 12, 13, 19, 20, 23, 26.)

184 GB-Lbl Shelfmark d.28. 185 GB-Lbl Shelfmark f.16.

159

Illustration 7.5

Allemanda (Presto) Sonata Decima G. Taglietti. Sonate da camera a trè: due violini, e

violoncello, ò cembalo (Bologna, 1695d)

In a bass line realization on the cello, the addition of octave leaps can be considered

historically relevant. Octave leaps are often preceded and/or followed by intervals of

fourths or fifths. At times, these fourths or fifths require awkward fingerings, regardless

of whether the tuning of the top string is A or G. Again, there are numerous examples

both in prints for violone and in those for violoncello. One of these is seen in Grossi’s

Balletto Quarto (Ill.7.6).186 The flats create awkward fingerings, requiring shifting and

extensions regardless of the tuning of the top string of the instrument. The progression in

b.2; F-A♭-B♭-BB♭ requires consecutive forward and backward extensions if the top

186 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.e.507.

160

string is tuned to A, and a backward extension if the top string is tuned to G (bb.7-9

requires similar extensions). Many backward extensions are required by E♭ and AA♭

such as those in b.1, 3, 15 and 17. The awkward progression in bar 5; AA♭-D♭-E♭ is

not affected by the tuning of the top string and illustrates that the bass line player is

expected to move quickly through these extensions.

Illustration 7.6

Balletto Quarto A. Grossi. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe a trè, due violini, e

violone, ouero spinetta Op.2 (Bologna, 1679a)

These left hand techniques demonstrate that seventeenth-century bowed bass players had

enough technical facility to add extra notes as desired.

161

Outside the bass lines of Categories 1 and 5 the octave leap is idiomatic of the writing for

both violone and violoncello, as we can see in just one of the many examples contained in

Colombi’s Toccata (Ill.7.7)187 and in bb.14-17 of Scipriani’s Toccata Seconda (Ill.7.8).188

Illustration 7.7

G. Colombi. Toccata a violone solo (p.32 staves 7-9)

187 Unpublished MS: I-MOe, F.286. 188 Unpublished MS: I-Nc Ms. 9607.

162

Illustration 7.8

Toccata Seconda (bb.1-24) F. Scipriani. Principij da imparare a suonare il Violoncello e

con 12. Toccate a solo

The consecutive octave leaps in bars 4-6 and 14-16 in the Scipriani Toccata, however,

demonstrate a more advanced technique than that generally seen in most of the bass lines

in works found in Category 1. The characteristic movement by fourths or fifths found in

many of the bass lines from Category 1 is not found in the Toccate of either Scipriani or

Colombi.

Bass lines by Bononcini, P. Degli Antonii, G.B. Degli Antonii and Bassani, in particular,

contain frequent examples of wide leaps. These often require two or three string

crossings, and often use the lowest note of the printed register. Bars 11, 13 and 18 of

Bononcini’s Aria Quarta from his Primi Frutti contain examples of the wide leaps

common in the bass lines from Category 1 (Ill.5.6).

These examples of wide leaps are evidence of idiomatic string writing. When we also

remember the discussion of the Primi Frutti from Chapter 5, and that the bass lines of the

first 12 sonatas in this publication are labelled Basso Continuo while the following Arie

163

and dance movements are labelled Violone o Spinetta, it seems clear that a bowed string

instrument is the intended bass line instrument for the dance movements.

These types of leaps are common throughout the Ricercate Opp.1 and 5 of G.B. Degli

Antonii. Examples are found in bb.47-48 of the Ricercata seconda (Ill.7.9).189

Illustration 7.9

Ricercate Seconda (bb.45-51) G.B. Degli Antonii. clavicembalo Op.1 (Bologna, 1687a)

Such wide interval leaps are also a feature of the writing for violone by Colombi in his

Toccata (Ill.7.10),190 e.g. staves 2, 3 and 4.

189 Giovanni Battista Degli Antonii, Ricercate sopra il Violoncello o Clavicembalo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1687a) facsimile edition (Kings Music, 1998). 190 Unpublished MS: I-MOe F.286.

164

Illustration 7.10

G. Colombi. Toccata a violone solo (Page 41, Staves 1-7)

Wide leaps are much less common throughout Scipriani’s Toccate; however, they are not

absent entirely. An example can be seen in b.20 of Toccata Seconda (Ill.7.8). The

examples of wide leaps found in the bass lines, and other repertoire demonstrates that

these were part of the seventeenth-century bowed bass player’s technique, and might

therefore be included in realizations.

165

Technique: Semiquaver figurations

Short passages of semiquavers are common features of many of the bass lines in the

publications in Category 1. These semiquaver passages appear most often in one of two

forms, one, as passing notes, and the other, as a sequential pattern. Illustration 7.11191

contains examples of both of these. Specifically, bars 6-7 and 13-14 (Ill.7.11) contain

sequential patterns of semiquavers, while b.15 contains semiquavers as passing notes.

Illustration 7.11

Balletto Undecimo G.B. Vitali. Correnti, e balletti da camera a due violini, col suo basso

continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Bologna, 1666a)

191 I-Bc cc.115 mf 1260.

166

Although only one example is included in this chapter, these two types of semiquaver

movement occur in all registers throughout the bass lines in Category 1, in both fast

tempi movements.

These two styles of semiquaver movement also feature throughout Colombi’s Toccata for

solo violone. See Illustration 7.7 for an example of semiquavers moving in a sequential

manner, and Illustration 7.10 for one with semiquaver passing notes. While many of the

dance movements contain semiquaver passing notes, or short semiquaver figurations, it is

not until 1694 that we see an extended passage of semiquavers in a bass line of works

within this study. This first extended passage of semiquavers occurs in an Allemanda

from Corelli’s Op.4 (Ill.7.12).192 Bars 1-6 contain continuous semiquaver movement,

which continues uninterrupted until the penultimate bar.

Illustration 7.12

Allemanda (Vivace bb.1-6) Sonata Ottova A. Corelli. Sonate à 3. Op.4 (Bologna, 1694b)

192 I-Bc y.193 mf 0465.

167

This thesis contends that the examples of passing notes and short figurations within the

bass lines themselves provides models of further extemporizing appropriate to apply to

the bass lines of the works within Category 1. The modern cellist can add passing notes

to bass lines which contain few written passing notes, and the short figurations which

often appear in isolation in the bass line can serve as a guide to further figurations applied

where suitable. When performing a bass line alone, the cellist can employ both of these

styles of extemporization without fear of creating conflicting harmonies with a keyboard

instrument.

We see an unusual appearance of demi-semiquavers, in Albergati’s Balletti, correnti,

sarabande, e gighe (Ill.7.13).193 The demi-semiquavers appear in all three parts, the

violin 1 and violone parts in question-answer style, and the violin 2 demi-semiquavers

alternately parallel to violin 1 and violone. This is yet another example of equal three-part

writing which is so often a feature of these dance-based works. The demi-semiquavers in

the violone part indicate that this part is treated equally to that of the violins, and not as a

slow-moving harmonic foundation for the upper parts.

193 I-Bc v.44 mf 0012.

168

Illustration 7.13

Giga Settima (Allegro) P. Albergati. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe, à violino e

violone, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1682e)

Technique: Triplets

Typically, many of the gighe movements contain passages of running quaver triplets,

such as those in Bassani’s Giga Settima (Ill.7.14).194

194 GB-Lbl Shelfmark d.28.

169

Illustration 7.14

Giga Settima G.B. Bassani. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone,

ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1684c)

Much of the movement of the bass line in this example is in continuous triplets (bb.8-10

and 12-15) and although not as technically advanced, involves similar techniques to those

required in Scipriani’s Toccate Undecima (Ill.7.15).195

195 Unpublished MS: I-Nc Ms. 9607.

170

Illustration 7.15

Toccata Undecima (b.19-end) F. Scipriani. Principij da imparare a suonare il

Violoncello e con 12. Toccate a solo

Technique: Dotted rhythms

Bass lines in dance movements by G.B. Vitali are generally more rhythmically active and

variable than any other composer. He employs quick dotted rhythms, particularly in the

gighe and correnti, which require a nimble and facile bow technique if these movements

are performed at quick tempi. Examples of these quick dotted rhythms are evident in bars

1, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 17 and 19 in Illustration 7.16.196 Dotted rhythms, such as these are

noticeably absent from Colombi’s Toccate and G.B. Degli Antonii’s two Ricercate

publications.

196 I-Bc cc134 mf 1760.

171

Illustration 7.16

Giga (Allegro p.22) G.B. Vitali. Balli in stile francese à cinque stromenti Op.12

(Modena, 1685j)

Illustration 7.17197 is an example of the uneven giga rhythm (albeit notated in ‘C’ time)

continuing in the violone part throughout the entire movement.

197 I-Bc v.92 mf 0025; 3321.

172

Illustration 7.17

Giga Sesta P. Degli Antonii. Arie, gighe, balletti, correnti, allemande, e sarabande a

violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1670b)

Although the dotted giga rhythm does not feature in works for bowed bass instruments

outside the repertoire of this study, the uneven giga rhythm featuring quick leaps is a

feature of Scipriani’s Toccata Setima (Ill.7.18).198 The uneven giga rhythm frequently

seen in the bass lines of works in Category 1 most often appears in a linear context and

requires dexterity of bowing technique.

198 Unpublished MS: I-Nc Ms. 9607.

173

Illustration 7.18

Toccata Settima (bb.1-14) Scipriani. Principij da imparare a suonare il Violoncello e con

12. Toccate a solo

Technique: Slurs

Although slurs are marked in only a handful of works in Category 1, these do require

additional bowing agility when involving string crossings. At times, regardless of the

tuning of the top string (i.e. whether it is A or G) the slurs require string crossings under

the slurs as seen in Illustrations 7.19. As discussed in Chapter 6, such slurs are marked

consistently in relation to melodic and thematic material in the bowed bass parts of the

repertoire in this study, rather than to facilitate a particular technique.

Illustration 7.19

No.11 La Nigrella (bb.13!-end) G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, &

allemande a violino, e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse

accordature Op.4 (Bologna, 1671e)

174

It is interesting to note that none of the Toccate or Ricercari examined outside the

repertoire of this study contains slurs. Occasional ties are found throughout each work,

but slurs are noticeably absent, although they are notated as early as Rognoni’s Passaggi.

In summary, most of the techniques represented in Colombi’s Toccata are evident

throughout the repertoire of Category 1. In addition, however, in these bass lines we see

the use of dotted rhythms, both by step and frequently by leap, which are absent from the

Toccata. The techniques contained in the Scipriani Toccate, however, are more advanced

overall than the techniques in the repertoire of Category 1. These more advanced

techniques include more frequent string crossings, sustained fast passages, and occasional

double-stops and chords. We have seen that in almost every case the technical demands

of works for both solo violone and solo violoncello in works outside this study exceed

those found in the bass lines of works covered by this study. The conclusion drawn is that

the simple bass line writing within Category 1 is both a feature of the dance music and a

vehicle for bass line extemporization and ‘realization’. Although little evidence of

virtuosity exists in the bass lines of this dance music, this does not imply that the bass

lines are consistently easy to execute in performance. There are many examples of short

passages that are awkward and even difficult, either because of the string crossings, keys

or rhythms, or a combination of all three. The difficulty of some of the material for

violone or violoncello in the bass lines of these works approaches that of techniques

called for in solo works for violone or violoncello. However, until the 1690s these occur

in short bursts of difficulty, rather than as sustained sections within these works.

175

Corelli’s Op.5 Sonate

The one publication from Category 1 containing and featuring more advanced bowed

bass techniques is Corelli’s Op.5 Sonate (Rome, 1700a). The fast passage work and string

crossings required particularly in the Follia variations, are equally challenging to any

required in the Scipriani Toccate.

The Parte Prima of Corelli’s Op. 5 contains six sonatas that are freely composed, in the

style of the sonata da camera which is associated with bass lines scored for combinations

of instruments other than that with which we are concerned: a bowed bass or keyboard.

As such, these six sonatas, along with G.B. Degli Antonii’s Ricercate, Opp.1 and 5, are

the only non dance-based publications within Category 1. This study is not concerned so

much with these first six sonatas, as they represent a departure from the style of writing

commonly found in the bass lines of Category 1. These six sonatas seem to develop the

possibilities available to the unaccompanied string duo, and depart from the association

of this bass line instrumentation with dance music. Instead, we are concerned only with

the techniques evident in the ‘Preludii, allemande, correnti, gighe, sarabande, gavotte e

follia’ of Parte Seconda of the Op.5 publication. Within these dance-based sonatas the

role of the violone is so much further developed than in earlier repertoire from Category 1

that it merits separate discussion.

All of the techniques discussed above, found in the repertoire of Category 1 that was

published prior to 1700, are evident in Sonatas 7-11 of the Parte Seconda of Corelli’s Op.

5. These include fast scalic passages, quick dotted rhythms, string crossings, and

semiquaver figurations; as both passing notes and sequential patterns. In addition, we find

176

idiomatic writing, particularly in the Follia variations, which confirms the tuning of the

violone for which Corelli was writing, A-D-GG-CC. The string crossings evident in the

giga of Sonata No.7 (Ill.7.20)199 are one example of this idiomatic string writing. These

string crossings (b.4-5) particularly suit an instrument with the top string tuned to A,

which enables all combinations to occur without shifting. Writing similar to this in

technical complexity is not found in any repertoire within the works in Category 1 before

this date.

Illustration 7.20

Giga (Allegro bb.1-19) Sonata No.7 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo

Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

Comparable writing, involving repeated string crossings in triplet rhythm occurs in two

of Scipriani’s toccate, Nos. 3 and 11 (Ill.7.15). In both of these, however, shifting up to

fourth position is required, for example in bar 24 of No.11 (Ill.7.15). The rapid string

crossing passage, with repeated sixths or thirds, seen in the Allegro of Corelli’s Sonata 199 I-Bc mf 4025.

177

No.11, Op. 5 (Ill.7.21)200 is similar to the repetitive string crossings in Scipriani’s first

and second Toccate (Ill.7.8), although notated in quavers rather than the semiquavers in

the Corelli sonata.

Illustration 7.21

Allegro (bb. 1-18) Sonata No.11 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5

(Rome, 1700a)

The dialogue in the writing between violin and violone in variation 3 of Corelli’s Follia

(Ill.7.22)201 is reminiscent of the style of writing often evident between violin and violone

in earlier works with bass lines for bowed bass or keyboard. In this example, the quick

semiquaver figuration and the arpeggio-like triplets require more technical agility than

any previous bass lines in Category 1. 200 I-Bc mf 4025. 201 I-Bc mf 4025.

178

Illustration 7.22

Variation 3 Follia A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

Both left and right hand techniques required by the fast semiquaver string crossing in

Variation 22 (Ill.7.23)202 are similar to those required in Scipriani’s final Toccata, again

highlighting the similarities between the technical demands of Scipriani’s Toccate for

violoncello and Corelli’s writing for violone.

Illustration 7.23


202 I-Bc mf 4025.

179

These similarities, in both bowing and left hand technique, between the bass lines of

Corelli’s Op.5 Sonatas and Scipriani’s Toccate illustrates either, that by the time of the

publication of Corelli’s Op.5 Sonatas many of the bowing techniques of the violone and

the violoncello were comparable, or that Corelli’s violone was the same instrument as

Scipriani’s violoncello.

Towards ‘Realization’

The evidence discussed above demonstrates that the techniques required of bowed bass

players in the repertoire for solo violone or solo violoncello we have examined is

arguably more advanced than the technique dictated in the bass lines within the repertoire

of Category 1 (bb or k). This supports the view that many players were capable of

varying, or adding to, the bass lines in question. The examples demonstrating advanced

technical difficulty, such as those contained in the Corelli Op.5 publication, can be taken

as representing more fully notated examples of ways that bowed-bass players might have

realized these bass lines when performing without keyboard.

Technique: Double-stops and chords

Application of these more advanced techniques to the realization or harmonization of

bass lines of the works in Category 1 (bb or k) can take many forms. Before we look at

examples of other ways to realize or embellish the bass lines of the Category 1 repertoire,

180

we will discuss the most obvious method to realize and fill out the harmony of a bass

line, namely, the use of double-stopping and chords.

There are no double-stops or chords explicitly indicated in the bass lines of the repertoire

in Categories 1 and 5. The presence of figures informs us of the composer’s expectations

regarding the harmonization of the bass line, as well as often acting as a ‘short score’, as

discussed in Chapter 5. However, the figures do not tell us how, or even if, the bowed

bass player was harmonising, whether with double-stops, chords, or other additions.

There is no written evidence of double-stops or chords in any extant works for violone

that I am aware of.203 In the case of the violoncello, we find double-stops and chords

notated in both manuscripts of Scipriani’s solo Toccate and Sinfonia di violoncello a solo

and D. Gabrielli’s Ricercarj per violoncello solo. Single three- or four-note chords occur

mostly at cadence points, primarily final cadence points, in these works. Consecutive

double-stops occur even less frequently, only in Gabrielli’s Ricercar 6. It is immediately

clear that these double-stops and chords make the writing more idiomatic for violoncello,

and less possible to play on an instrument with a different tuning. It is possible, and

probable, that the notated double-stops and chords could be examples of a performance

style more common in unwritten practises, however this cannot be substantiated from

documentary or musical evidence.

203 I have sighted a manuscript of Colombi, Sonate a due violini e basso (Unpublished Manuscript in Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, Modena. Mus.F.279) in which there is a double-stop octave on the last note of the last bar. As the part contains no other marking than Basso we cannot include this in known repertoire for violone. A similar case has to be made for the Tromba a Basso solo del Colombi mentioned by Suess as containing double-stops. Although it is most likely that this was intended for, and played on, the violone, until there is further evidence we cannot include it in the known repertoire for violone. Suess, ‘The instrumental music manuscripts of Giuseppe Colombi of Modena’: p. 92.

181

Although double-stops and chords were often not notated in Italian violin music (and as

we have seen, even less so in cello music), Allsop writes in relation to the violin that this

was not due to any lack of technical ability on the part of violinists. Rather, he argues that

the printing method in use in Italy at the time, that of moveable type, made printing

double-stops extremely difficult.204 In Germany, for example, the works of Biber (1644-

1704) contain far more double-stops than the Italian works from the same time. Allsop

maintains that this is as a result of the German presses moving over to the copper plate

engraving method 20 years before those of the Italians. By comparing manuscripts with

their printed counterparts, he has proven that the Italians too, were technically advanced

and that often their manuscripts were simplified when printed due to the inadequacies of

the commercial presses. Because of these limitations, Italian composers had to resort to

means such as printing double-stopping on two lines. Examples from within the

repertoire in this study are the last four dances from Bononcini’s Op.4. Illustration 7.24205

depicts the violin part of the last dance L’Incognita which, along with the preceding three

dances, is notated on two lines, the lower line representing the double-stop notes. It is

interesting to note, in bars 5, 8-11 and 17, that the harmonising note is higher in pitch

than the melodic note.

204 Peter Allsop, ‘Violinistic Virtuosity in the Seventeenth Century: Italian Supremacy or Austro-German Hegemony?’, Il Saggiatore Musicale, 3 (1996): pp. 233-58. 205 I-Bc x112 mf 0388.

182

Illustration 7.24

No.27 Corrente L’Incognita G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, &

allemande Op.4 (Bologna, 1671e)

There are other examples of one of the notes of each double-stop being handwritten into

the violin part after printing.206 In these circumstances, it is not surprising that the ‘less

important’ bass lines were always written with figures rather than chords even if they

were intended to be realized with double-stopping by a bowed bass instrument. With

particular regard to the bass line, the printing of chords or double-stops that might be

suitable for one instrument (e.g. the violone) would effectively rule out performance from

206 Allsop, ‘Violinistic Virtuosity’: p. 245.

183

the same printed part on another instrument for which such double-stopping would be

technically awkward. Issues of idiomatic writing aside, even if composers wanted to

notate double-stops or chords in the bass lines for bowed bass instruments, the printing

technology available in the Italian centres at the time would have made it very difficult.

The evidence of double-stops and chords within the Scipriani Toccate (e.g. final note of

Toccata Terza is a three-note chord; b.14 of Toccata Quinta contains a double-stop; b.30

of Toccata Sesta contains a three-note chord; and the final note of Toccata Duodecima is

a four-note chord) and Gabrielli’s sixth Ricercar shows that some late seventeenth-

century northern Italian cellists were familiar with double-stop and chordal techniques. It

can therefore be regarded as a possibility that cellists were applying these techniques on

occasions when they were not notated, with a particularly strong case for their application

at important and final cadence points when accompanying on the bass line.

So, while there is no real written evidence that bowed bass players prior to the emergence

of the violoncello were playing double-stops or chords, there are still several points that

strengthen the notion that bowed bass players added chords, particularly at cadence

points. First, it would be a very unusual scenario if violinists used double-stops and

chords, but bowed bass players never did so. And we must remember Allsop’s evidence

showing that violinists in Italy were using double-stops and chords but that such double-

stopping was not always notated in printed music. Secondly, we have some examples of

chords and double-stops in early manuscripts for violoncello. Thirdly, many of the binary

form dance movements exhibit cadences in a manner where the addition of chords would

be logical, particularly in relation to the suitable tessitura for the final cadence note. As

described above, the final notes of cadences are generally higher than FF before 1685,

184

but often lower afterwards. Many of these cadences provide perfect opportunities for the

addition of chords when realized in performance. Illustration 7.25207 shows such a

cadence point at which the addition of chords is possible when performing these bass

lines on the violoncello of today. In Bononcini’s Corrente La Buffalina (Ill.7.25), the

figures over A can be fully realized without doubling the violin notes (e’ and d’), (see

Ill.7.26).

Illustration 7.25

Corrente La Buffalina (bb.35-end) G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, &


Illustration 7.26

Corrente La Buffalina (bb.35-end) G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, &


207 I-Bc x.112 mf 0388.

Violone

(Presto) Adagio35

185

Difficulties arise when adding double-stops or chords, particularly in three part works, as

many of the options available to the cellist result in undesirable note doubling. The

publication of Corelli’s Op.5 Sonatas in score makes the bowed bass player’s job a little

easier, however, as it is immediately apparent which notes to avoid when adding

harmony to the bass line. For example, the cadence at the end of the first half of Corelli’s

Corrente from Sonata No.7 Op. 5 could be realized with the suggested additions in

Ill.7.27.

Illustration 7.27

Corrente (Allegro) (bb.33-34) Sonata No.7 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o

cimbalo Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

However, when a similar passage occurs earlier in the movement at bar 17 (Ill.7.28)208

the options for chordal realization for the bowed bass player are more limited, because of

the written notes in the violin part. A realization such as that in Illustration 7.27 will

result in unacceptable note doubling. A possible realization of the bass line at this point is

in Illustration 7.29.

208 I-Bc mf 4025.

Violone

Violino

375

4

33

186

Illustration 7.28

Corrente (Allegro bb.17-18) Sonata No.7 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo

Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

Illustration 7.29

Corrente (Allegro bb.17-18) Sonata No.7 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo

Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

The issues associated with note doubling are less problematic, however, if the violinist is

improvising freely and floridly, in the manner of any of the numerous ornamentations for

the Corelli Op.5 Sonatas published in the early eighteenth century.209 In this case, the

chance of unwanted note doubling is much reduced. It has been stated earlier in this

thesis, that that the figures, where notated, frequently describe the note or notes in the

upper parts. So many harmonisations on a bowed bass need to consist of the other notes

209 Zaslaw, ‘Ornaments for Corelli’s violin sonatas op.5’.

Violone

Violino

75 4 3

17

187

in the harmony, not the notes implied by the figure(s). For example, we see this in the

final bar of Ballo Decimo from G.B. Degli Antonii’s Op.3, one of the other publications

printed in score format (Ill.7.30).210 If the bowed bass player decides to add chords in this

bar, the notes described by the figures (4, 3♯) need to be avoided, as they are the notes

written in the violin part.

Illustration 7.30

Ballo Decimo (bb.9-end) G.B. Degli Antonii. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande da

camera à violino, e clauicembalo ò violoncello Op.3 (Bologna, 1677a)

A possible chordal realization for this cadence is seen in Illustration 7.31.

210 I-Bc v.86 mf 0017, 3614.

188

Illustration 7.31

Ballo Decimo (bb.9-end) G.B. Degli Antonii. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande da

camera à violino, e clauicembalo ò violoncello Op.3 (Bologna, 1677a)

If we look at the example of variations 4 and 5 of Corelli’s Follia (Illustration 7.32),211

we can see that the same material first presented in the violone part (bb.1-13) is then

presented in the violin part (bb.17-29), with the addition of double-stops.

211 I-Bc mf 4025.

Violone

Violino

11

189

Illustration 7.32

Variations 4 and 5 Follia A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5

(Rome, 1700a)

As a bowed bass player performing this part, it is almost difficult not to add double-stops

to the top note of each pair, where the tessitura allows. With minimal shifting of position,

double-stops can be added to Variation 4 at bars 2, 8, 10 etc. as shown in Illustration

7.33.

Illustration 7.33

Suggestions for Variation 4 Follia A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5

(Rome, 1700a)

Violone

14

190

As suggested earlier in this chapter, double-stops may have been omitted from the bass

line simply to allow players of different bowed bass instruments, or keyboard players, to

realize the part appropriately according to their instrument. With the exception of several

of the Follia variations, most chords in the violin part of the Corelli Op.5 publication

occur at final cadences, mid-point cadences and structurally significant moments. For

example, Corrente of Sonata 7 contains printed double-stops in the violin part at

structurally significant moments, including the final cadences of both halves of the

movement. The placement of chords in the violin part supports the hypothesis that chords

can also be added to the bass line in these contexts.

If we turn to other techniques to realize bass lines for the repertoire in Categories 1 and 5,

the addition of octaves leaps, particularly to add depth to cadence points, is appropriate to

the style of writing common to this repertoire. In the same way, the addition of

harmonizing leaps of fifths or fourths moving in quavers is another means of providing a

fuller accompaniment with a bowed bass instrument alone. The eighth Corrente of

Bassani’s Op.1 (Ill.7.34)212 is just one example containing opportunities for these kinds

of additions to the bass line. The following illustration contains my suggested additions,

in the style of moving quaver octaves, fourths and fifths.

212 GB-Lbl Shelfmark d.28.

191

Illustration 7.34

Corrente Ottava with suggested bass line additions. G.B. Bassani. Balletti, correnti,

gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à

beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna, 1684c)

(suggested)Violone

o SpinettaViolone

Violino 2

Violino 1

Allegro

7

13

192

The possibility of adding quaver or semiquaver passing notes to the bass lines of the

repertoire in Category 1 is endless. Even within movements already containing passing

notes, such as Aria La Fontana by Bononcini, there are many opportunities for adding

more passing notes (see suggestions in Ill.7.35).

(suggested)Violone

o SpinettaViolone

Violino

Aria

4 3 6 6

4

6 5 4 3 6

8

6 6 5 4 3 4 3 6 4 3

11

193

Illustration 7.35

No.10 Aria La Fontana (with additional passing notes) G.M. Bononcini. Arie, correnti,

sarabande, gighe, & allemande Op.4 (Bologna, 1671e)

This style of bass line realization is possibly most relevant when the bass line answers,

imitates, or is in parallel with the upper part(s). Among the many possible examples in

the repertoire of this study, the Capriccio Primo from G.B. Vitali’s Varie Sonate seems

well suited to this style of extemporization on the bass line. Suggestions for the

realization of the bass line are included in Illustration 7.36.213

213 GB-Ob Ms.Mus.Sch.e.559 (a-f).

43

15

194

(suggested)Violone

o SpinettaViolone

6

Violino

Vivace

5

6 7 6 7 6 67 7 6

9

7 6 7 7 6

13

4 3 6 6 6

16

195

Illustration 7.36

Capriccio Primo G.B. Vitali. Varie Sonate alla francese, & all’itagliana à sei stromenti

Op.11 (Modena, 1684b)

In movements containing more canonical or contrapuntal writing, on the other hand, it is

probably most suitable to employ double-stops or chords than passing notes or

figurations, so the integrity of the counterpoint is maintained, e.g. Preludio from Corelli’s

Op.5 Sonata 7 (Ill.7.37).214

214 I-Bc mf 4025.

6 6 6

20

196

suggested

Violone

Vivace 7 5 24

6 7 6 6

Violino

Preludio

Violone

6 6 6 66

4 3

5

65 67

9

5 6 6

13

197

Illustration 7.37

Preludio Sonata 7 A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome, 1700a)

Repetitive intervals or broken chord figurations result in the filling in of chords in a

horizontal rather than vertical manner, an option described in both the bass lines of

Corelli Op.5 (Illustrations 7.21 and 7.38)215 and Scipriani’s Toccate (Illustration 7.39).216

215 I-Bc mf 4025. 216 Unpublished MS: I-Nc Ms. 9607.

6 6 5 665 5

6 64 3

56

17

7 6 4 3 6 5 24

664

53

21

198

Illustration 7.38


Illustration 7.39

Toccata Decima (bb.1-17) F. Scipriani. Principij da imparare a suonare il Violoncello e

con 12. Toccate a solo

199

Corelli’s Follia variations 14 and 15 could be used as a guide for providing a

harmonization on a simple crotchet bass line (Ill.7.40).217 The integrity of the bass line in

variation 14 is completely preserved in variation 15, with the addition of the broken triad

of each chord above each note.

Illustration 7.40

Variations 14 and 15 Follia A. Corelli. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome,

1700a)

This technique of realizing the bass line using broken chords and repetitive figuration

styles is perfectly suited to the repetitive Follia bass line. As already mentioned, the

ground bass is a form almost entirely absent from the dance repertoire of Category 1;

however, limited opportunities for the application of these styles of realization do arise

within the earlier repertoire.

217 I-Bc mf 4025.

200

Summary

In the context of dance music, the sound of two-part writing for violin and violone is one

with which late seventeenth-century Italian musicians were familiar. Similarly, the two-

part violin and keyboard texture was common in the context of dance music. Although at

first, this trend for string ensemble without keyboard was local to the Emilia region, the

association of the two or three-part string ensemble texture with dance music spread to all

major publishing centres. Many of the publications within Category 1 (bb or k) are

almost entirely harmonically complete without an obvious need for additional

harmonizing notes. Further, many of the bass lines of this dance music do not require

extensive amounts of bass line realization, in order to be active and equal partners for the

upper parts in a two- or three-part texture. As such, while many publications may be

harmonically complete, some additions by bowed bass players can enhance the music in

performance and are possibly desirable, in the same manner that improvisations and

ornamentation by players of the upper parts are also desirable.

Using the evidence of seventeenth-century bowed bass techniques as a guide, suggestions

for additions to the bass lines of works from Categories 1 and 5 for the cello player in the

twenty-first century include the following:

• Three- or four-note chords in first position, and less frequently in second, third or

fourth position, occurring at important cadence points, most notably final

cadences of each half;

• Occasional double-stops in first position, and again less frequently in second,

third and fourth positions;

201

• Consecutive double-stops are not recommended, due to the lack of evidence of

their use in the repertoire examined;

• Octave jumps, on subdivisions of main beats, along with harmonising leaps of

fourths or fifths are recommended;

• Short passages of semiquaver figurations in imitation of the upper parts, or

sequential extensions of motives found in the bass line;

• Semiquaver passing notes can be easily added to most fast simple-time bass lines,

and many of the giga bass lines present opportunities for dividing the compound

beats into harmonising triplets;

• Extended passages of sequential semiquaver movement is not recommended in

works before 1685;

• Extended patterns of repetitive broken chord figurations in fast semiquavers, often

involving string crossings can be applied in appropriate movements, particularly

after c. 1685.

These examples of extemporizations applied to bass lines from Categories 1 (bb or k)

and 5 (bb) result in a lighter style of accompaniment than would be likely with a

keyboard accompaniment. In the context of accompaniment by a bowed bass, the

differences between the features of a bass line we will call a ‘melodic bass’ and a basso

continuo bass line are further highlighted. The melodic bass style of accompaniment is

more similar to the kinds of improvisations and extemporizations that would be

performed by players of the upper parts, as considered appropriate by historically

202

informed performers of the twentieth and twenty-first century. The unaccompanied string

music that results from such an approach is significantly different to that of violin music

with a chordal keyboard accompaniment. It is possible that this style of playing by bowed

bass instrumentalists was one of the many performance practices of seventeenth-century

Italy, and contributed to the palette of colours and textures that made up the musical

landscape.

203

Chapter Eight: Conclusions

On the subject of works from Italian regions between 1660 and 1700 for small string

ensembles, this thesis has identified an existing body of repertoire which specifies that

the bass line be played by bowed bass instrument or keyboard (called Category 1, bb or

k). In addition, there are also two other categories containing works specifying that the

bass line is to be played only on one instrument, either a bowed bass instrument

(Category 5, bb) or a keyboard instrument (Category 4, k).

Although questions remain about whether the variety in terms of options for bass line

instrumentation was a marketing angle, or represents the true intentions of the composers

for performance of bass lines, the results of this study provides evidence that obligatory

doubling of keyboard instruments by a bowed bass instrument, as is commonly practiced

in the performance of baroque music today, is not supported by the printed text of title

pages or part-books in this repertoire. In the absence of documented performance

practices, the discussion of the title pages and terminology aims to offer a different

approach for analysis.

The works in both Categories 1 and 5 (bb or k and bb) consist predominantly of dance

music (balletti), most often published as short pieces that are not combined in identifiable

suites, and of sonatas that are collections of between two and four dance movements.

Although we find ‘sonatas’ labelled on title pages before 1685 we rarely find them

grouped as such within the publication. After this date the form of the sonatas within the

repertoire begin to resemble what we know as the baroque sonata. Non-dance movements

204

(such as an opening Introdutione or Preludio), and slow, short, linking movements

appear around this time and with greater frequency afterwards.

The dance pieces were predominantly published in Bologna or Modena, but were also

published in Venice and Rome among other centres. They possibly represent a regional

practice, particularly because of the high level of instrumental patronage at the Ducal

court of Francesco II in Modena. The bass line instrumentation requiring a bowed bass

alone arguably may have arisen out of an Italian practise in the performance of dance

music, both notated and unwritten. The tradition of dance bands and dance musicians by

necessity required more portability than ensembles for church performances, further

supporting the idea that a bowed bass instrument alone may have been commonly used

on the bass line in dance music.

For a number of years, until around 1685, the published works with bass lines for bowed

bass or keyboard are identifiably different, not only to da chiesa works, but also to da

camera works. Within this brief period of time, both the instrumentation and style of

composition is identifiable: most movements are single, stand-alone pieces, often in

binary form. The level of rhythmic activity in the bass line is high in the dance

movements, and lower in the others. This high level of rhythmic activity includes fast

dotted rhythms, rhythmic unison and anacruses that are unanimous with the upper parts.

The bass lines of the non-dance pieces involve more regulated rhythmic movement,

generally markedly slower than the upper parts. The dance bass lines tend to leap more

frequently and with wider intervals than the bass lines of the non-dance pieces. All of

these features of the dance music bass lines are arguably more suited to a stringed

205

instrument than keyboard, in comprising a third part that is equal to that of the one (or

two) upper parts.

Corelli’s Op.5 represents in many ways a major departure from the tradition which

preceded it as the first six sonatas have no association with dance styles or forms, but are

instead fugal or free composed. Most of the dance-based movements of sonatas 7- 11 are

not only extended by comparison to the earlier repertoire by other composers, but each

work is also presented as a coherent, structurally crafted sonata.

Three publications by G.M. Bononcini have been examined in this study because they

each contain clear examples of both sonate da camera movements and balletti. These two

styles of work are separated distinctly within each publication, and clear differences

between the styles of bass line of each style of piece are obvious, not least of which is the

specifier basso continuo in the sonate da camera and violone in the balletti. The close

relationship between the application (or lack) of the term basso continuo and the da

chiesa or da camera type of composition strengthens the argument that perhaps bass lines

in Categories 1 and 5 should be considered ‘melodic’ bass lines rather than basso

continuo.

It is possible that the more active dance music bass lines are conceived as complete in the

context of a two or three-voice duo or trio. Viewed in this light, there would be little need

to add embellishments or harmony to these bass lines. However, in the context of what

we know of late seventeenth-century improvisation, a bass line player performing exactly

what is written seems unlikely. It is possible the answer lies somewhere in between.

These two- three- four- or even six-part string pieces have fairly equal parts, to which

each player is free to add in their own manner.

206

As a broad generalization, it appears that during the years 1660 to 1700 the violone is the

bowed bass instrument most commonly associated with music that is in the style of

dance. In 1677, the option of using a violoncello instead of the violone, appears. The

association of the violone with dance music continued even after the popularity of the

violoncello increased, and that instrument seems to have been more often associated with

music da chiesa. The violoncello is often called for in this context as an optional bass line

instrument, often with a slightly more concerted part than the keyboard part, or in an

obbligato role. Within some works the violone is specified alongside the violoncello. In

these works, usually in a sacred setting, again often the violoncello is called for in an

obligato role. At the same time as both of these named instruments are called for in bass

lines alone, and together, they are also both mentioned in the contexts of bass lines for

different instrumentation (i.e. Categories 2 and 3).

As discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, although there are a multitude of terms for bowed bass

instruments in the repertoire, most composers—particularly those from Bologna and

Modena—specify violone and violoncello almost exclusively. Many composers specify

both instruments in different works written around the same time. Some specify them

both in the same works, mainly in the church setting. In these cases, the style of writing

for either instrument is similar and consistent between the works. The writing for the

violoncello is slightly more concerted, often notated an octave higher than the violone,

and is only slightly faster moving and more melodically involved than the violone, the

part of which is usually identical to the organ part. The coupling of a bowed bass with

organ and other instruments (including other bowed bass instruments) in a church setting

is appropriate for the size and ceremony of the church. The lighter style of

207

accompaniment on a bowed bass alone is suited to the more intimate setting of the

chamber.

Although it seems clear that when the two instruments, violone and violoncello, are used

together in the same work they have identifiably different roles, this does not shed any

light on the role of either instrument in the dance music with a bass line for a single

bowed bass instrument. In the discussion in Chapter 7 on contemporary bowed bass

technique, bass lines scored for violone or violoncello exhibit no identifiable difference.

Comparing extant repertoire for the solo violone and solo violoncello with the bass lines

for violone and violoncello from Categories 1 and 5 (bb or k and bb), shows that the solo

repertoire even from decades earlier requires more advanced techniques. The exceptions

to this are the two G.B. Degli Antonii Ricercate (1687a and 1689l), both labelled

violoncello o clavicembalo, and Corelli’s op.5 Sonate a violino e violone o cembalo

(1700a). The assumption we can make from this comparison is that bowed bass players

had technical capabilities beyond that which is notated in bass lines in this repertoire,

strengthening the argument that some form of improvisatory bass line realization would

have been accepted as normal performance practice.

The simple nature of many of the bass lines, in comparison to contemporaneous bowed

bass technique, is the perfect vehicle for the accomplished bowed bass player to

embellish, or ‘realize’ without fear of causing any discordant harmonies with a keyboard

player. Bass line realizations consistent with contemporary techniques include occasional

double-stops, one or two note chords played above the written note and placed at main

cadential points. Frequent octave substitution and leaping intervals of fourths or fifths,

208

passing notes and short, fast figurations as discussed in Chapter 7 are characteristics

found within the solo repertoire of the time or the bass lines themselves.

Perhaps it is the addition of passing notes, figurations and occasional chords and double-

stops on a bowed bass instrument, in a way that complements similar activity in upper

parts, that makes a bowed bass instrument more suitable for the accompaniment of these

dance bass lines, as G.M. Bononcini comments in the preface to his Arie, e correnti,

Op.4.

Although remembering that information on title pages and part-books does not document

historical performance practice, neither should this information be disregarded. The

evidence linking the information in title pages and part-books to musical features of the

works with bass lines for bowed bass or keyboard is significant enough to consider

performance of these bass lines by a bowed bass alone. This study argues that ‘realizing’

a bass line from the repertoire of Categories 1 and 5, when played by a bowed bass

instrument alone, is acceptable in modern-day performances. Although the resultant

texture may be more light and transparent than a keyboard realisation, most works

performed in this manner are not only harmonically complete, but also musically

successful.

209

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Appendix A

Category 1 Bowed bass or keyboard (bb or k)

Albergati, P. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe, à violino e violone, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1682e). ---. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe, à violino e violone, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1685o). Alghisi, P.F. Sonate da camera a trè, due violini, e violoncello, ò cembalo Op.1 (Modena: Christoforo Canobi, 1693a). Ballarotti, F. Balletti, arie, gighe, corrente, alemande, sarabande, capricci da camera, a trè instromenti, due violini, e violone, ouero spinetta Op.1 (Milan: Camagni alla Chiesa della Rosa, 1681f). Bassani, G.B. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1677c). ---. Suonate da camera cioè balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Venice: Sala, 1680d). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1684c). ---. Suonate da camera cioè balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ouero spinetta, con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1686i). Bernardi, B. Sonate da camera, a trè, due violini, e violoncello col violone, ò cimbalo Op.1 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1692b). Bononcini, G.M. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini (Venice: Apresso Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1666c). ---. Delle sonate da camera, e da ballo, a 1. 2. 3. è 4. Op.2 (Venice: Apresso Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1667d). ---. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a violino, e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1671e). ---. Ariette, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande, le quali ponno suonarsi à violino solo; a due violino, e violone, a trè due violini, e violone, et à quattro, due violini, viola, e violone Op.7 (Bologna: Giocomo Monti, 1673i).

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---. Arie, correnti, sarabande, gighe, & allemande a violino, e violone, ouer spinetta, con alcune intauolate per diuerse accordature Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1674b). ---. Ariette, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande, le quali ponno suonarsi à violino solo; a due violino, e violone, a trè due violini, e violone, et à quattro, due violini, viola, e violone Op.7 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1677f). Brasolini, D. Suonate da camera à trè, due violini e clauicembalo, o violoncello (Bologna: Pier Maria Monti, 1689n). Colombi, G. Balletti, correnti, gighe, sarabande, a due violini, e violone, ò spinetta Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1674c). ---. Sonate da camera, a tre strumenti, due violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.5 (Bologna: Pietro Maria Monti, 1689g). Corelli, A. Sonate da camera a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Rome: G.A. Mutij, 1685a). ---. Sonate da camera a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Bologna, Giacomo Monti, 1685b). ---. Sonate da camera a trè, due violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Modena, Antonio Vitaliani, 1685c). ---. Suonate da camera a tre due violini, e violone ò cimbalo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1686g). ---. Sonate da camera a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Rome: Mascardi, 1686h). ---. Suonate da camera a tre due violini, e violone ò cimbalo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1687j). ---. Suonate da camera a tre, due violini, e violone, o cimbalo Op.2 (Antwerp, Henrico Aertssens, 1689e). ---. Sonate da camera a tre, dui violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Rome: G.A. Mutij, 1688i). ---. Sonate da camera a trè, doi violini, violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Rome: Mascardi, 1691e). ---. Suonate da camera a tre, due violini e violone ò cimbalo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1692i).

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---. Sonate à tre Op.4 (Rome: G. Giacomo Komareck Boemo, 1694a). ---. Sonate à 3. Op.4 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1694b). ---. Sonate da camera a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò cimbalo Op.2 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1694c). ---. Sonate da chiesa a tre Op.1 (n.p., 1695i). ---. Sonate da camera. a trè Op.2 (Amsterdam: Etienne Roger, 1695j). ---. Sonate da camera a tre Op.4 (Rome: G. Giacomo Komarek Boëmo, 1695m). ---. Suonate da camera a tre due violini, e violone ò cembalo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1697i). ---. Sonate a tre Op.4 (Rome & Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1697k). ---. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome: Gasparo Pietra Santa, 1700a). ---. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Rome: Gasparo Pietra Santa, 1700a bis). ---. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Pasquino: Stella da Filippo Farinelli, 1700b). ---. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (London: John Walsh, 1700b bis). ---. Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger, 1700b ter). ---. Sonate a’ violino e violone o cimbalo Op.5 (Bologna: Marino Siluani, 1700v). ---. Dodici Sonate per violino e basso, o cembalo Op.5 (Venice: Antoni Zatta, 1700 o 1705?). De Castro, F.G. Trattenimenti Armonici da camera a trè, due violini, violoncello, ò cembalo Op.1 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1695b). Degli Antonii, G.B. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande da camera à violino, e clauicembalo ò violoncello Op.3 (Bologna, Marino Siluani, 1677a). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à trè, due violini e clavicembalo o’ violoncello Op.4 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, s.a. post al 1677). ---. Ricercate sopra il violoncello ò clavicembalo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1687a).

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---. Balletti e correnti, gighe, e sarabande da camera à violino, e clauicembalo; ò violoncello Op.3 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1688c). ---. Ricercate a’ violino, e violoncello, o’ clavicembalo Op.5 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1689l). ---. Ricercate à violino, e violoncello, ò clavicembalo Op.5 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1690a). ---. Balletti a violino, e violoncello, o’ clavicembalo Op.6 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1690d). Degli Antonii, P. Arie, gighe, balletti, correnti, allemande, e sarabande a violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1670b). ---. Balletti, correnti, & arie diuerse à violino, e violone per camera, & anco per suonare nella spinetta, & altri instromenti Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1671c). Gabrielli, D. Balletti, gighe, correnti, alemande, e sarabande, à violino, e violone, con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1684a). Grossi, A. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe a tre, due violini, violone, ouero spinetta Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1678g). ---. Balletti, correnti, sarabande, e gighe a trè, due violini, e violone, ouero spinetta Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1679a). Marini, C.A. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e minuetti diversi a trè due violini, violoncello, ò spinetta Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1692g). Mazella, S. Balli, correnti, gighe, sarabande, gavotte, brande, e gagliarde, con la misura giusta per ballare al stile inglese, con la giunta della folia di spagna, passagagli per dui tuoni con molte partite; due ciaccone, una spagnola, e l’altra italiana di molte mutanze; aggiuntaui molte partite sopra la tarantella. a dui, violino, e viola, o cimbalo (Op.1. Rome: G.A. Mutij, 1689a). Monari, C. Sonate da camera a’ trè due violini, e violone, ò cembalo Op.2 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1686 s.a. post. al 1686). Placuzzi, G.M. Il Numero Sonoro, Lodolato in modo Armonici et Aritmetici di balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, sarabande, e capricci a due violini, col suo basso, per spinetta, ò violone, che si possono pratticare anco à violino solo, con una sinfonia à due violini Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1682i).

230

Prattichista, F. Concerti Armonici di correnti, e balletti a tre, cioè due violini, e basso Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1666b). Prioli, M. Balletti, et correnti a due violini, & violone, agionta la spineta (Venice: Magni detto Gardano, 1665d). Ruggeri, G.M. Bizzarie Armoniche esposte in dieci suonate da camera a due, cioè violino, e leuto o tiorba col suo basso per il violone, ò spinetta Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1689j). Taglietti, G. Sonate da camera a trè: due violini, e violoncello, ò cembalo (Bologna: Carlo Maria Fagnani, 1695d). ---. Concerti e sinfonie a tre, due violini, violone, ò cembalo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1696b). Taglietti, L. Suonate da camera à trè, due violini, e violoncello, con alcune aggiunte à violoncello solo Op.1 (Bologna: Marino Siluani, 1697e). Veracini, A. Sonate da camera a violino solo Op.2 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1696 s.a., anteriore al 1696). Vitali, G.B. Correnti, e balletti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Bologna: Marino Siluani, 1666a). ---. Balletti, correnti, alla francese, gagliarde, e brando per ballare. Balletti correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti Op.3 (Bologna, Giacomo Monti, 1667f). ---. Livre Cinqieme due Recuiel [sic] des dances, ballets, allemandes, brandes, courantes, sarabandes, etc. a deux. et aucunes à deux violons avecq. la basse continuel pour les è spinettes ou basse violon, [op.1] (Antwerp: Heritiers de Pietre, 1668d). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1668e). ---. Balletti, e correnti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1670d). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1671d). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1673k). ---. Balletti, correnti alla francese, gagliarde, e brando per ballare. balletti, correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1674e).

231

---. Balletti e correnti da camera a due violini, con il basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Venice: Stampa del Gardano, 1677g). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino à beneplacito Op.4 (Venice: Stampa del Gardano, 1677h). ---. Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e sarabande à violino, e violone, ò spinetta con il secondo violino a beneplacito Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1678d). ---. Balletti, correnti, alla francese gagliarde, e brando per ballare, balletti, correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1679d). ---. Correnti, e balletti da camera a due violini, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò violone Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1680b). ---. Balletti, correnti alla francese gagliarde, e brando per ballare. balletti, correnti, e sinfonie da camera à quattro stromenti Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1680c). ---. Varie partite del passemezo, ciaccona, capricij, e passagalli, à tre, due violini, e violone, o spinetta Op.7 (Modena: Gasparo Ferri, 1682c). ---. Balletti, correnti, e capricci per camera a due violini, e violone Op.8 (Modena: Gasparo Ferri, 1683e). ---. Balletti, correnti e capricci per camera a due violini, e violone Op.8 (Venice: Stampa del Gardano, 1683f). ---. Varie Sonate alla francese, & all’itagliana à sei stromenti Op.11 (Modena: G. Gasparo Ferri, 1684b). ---. Balli in stile francese à cinque stromenti Op.12 (Modena: Antonio Vitaliani, 1685j). ---. Balletti, correnti e capricci per camera, a due violini, e violone Op.8 (Venice: Stamparia Del Gardano, 1685k). ---. Balli in stil francese à cinque stromenti Op.12 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1689-1690).

232

Appendix B

Category 2 Keyboard and bowed bass (k and bb)

Albergati, P. Pletro Armonico composto di dieci sonate da camera à due violini, e basso con violoncello obligato Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1687b).

Albinoni, T. Suonate a tre, doi violini, e violoncello col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1694d).

---. Suonate a tre, doi, violini, , e violoncello, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger, 1697-1698a).

---. Sinfonie, e concerti a cinque, due violini alto, tenore, violoncello e basso Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1700g).

Arresti, G.C. Balletti et correnti, a due violini, & violone, agionta la spineta (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1665e).

Avitrano, G.A. Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Naples: Michele Luigi Mutio, 1697a).

Baldassini, A.L. Sonate à tre, due violini, e violone, col basso per l’organo Op.2 (Rome: G. Giacomo Komarek Bohemo, 1699b).

Bassani, G.B. Sinfonie a due, e trè instromenti, con il basso continuo per l’organo Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1683a).

---. Sinfonie a due, e trè strumenti, col basso continuo per l’organo Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1688f).

---. Suonate a due, tre instrumenti, col basso continuo per l’organo Op.5 (Antwerp: Henrico Aertssens, 1691f).

Belisi, F.C. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande da camera à due violini, e violoncello, con il suo basso continuo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1691c).

Bianchi, G. Sonate a tre, 2 violini e violoncello con organo Op.1 (Modena: Rosati, 1697j).

Bononcini, G. Trattenimenti da camera a trè, due violini, e violone, con il basso continuo per il cembalo Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1685d).

---. Concerti da camera a trè, due violini, e violone, con il basso continuo per il cembalo Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1685e).

---. Sinfonie da chiesa a quattro, cioè due violini, alto viola, e violoncello obligato Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1687d).

233

---. Sinfonie a due strumenti, violino, e violoncello, col basso continuo per l’organo Op.6 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1687e).

Bononcini, G.M. Sinfonia, allemande, correnti, e sarabande a 5. e 6. col suo basso continuo; et aggiunta d’una sinfonia à quattro, che si può suonare ancora al contrario riuoltando le parti, e cambiando il soprano in basso, l’altro in tenore, il tenore in alto, & in soprano il basso Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1671f).

Bonporti, F.A. Suonate a tre, due violini, è violoncello obligato Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1696c).

Borri, G.B. Sinfonie à trè, due violini, e violoncello con il basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1688b).

Brevi, G.B. Bizzarie Armoniche overo sonate da camera a trè strumenti col suo basso continuo Op.3 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1693d).

Buoni, G. Divertimenti per camera a due violini, e violoncello Op.1 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1693f).

---. Suonate a due violini, e violoncello, col basso per l’organo Op.2 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1693g).

Caldara, A. Suonate à tre, duo violino con violoncello, e parte per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1693j).

---. Suonate a tre, due violini con violoncello e parte per l’organo Op.1 (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger, 1698-1699).

---. Suonate à tre, due violini con violoncello, e parte per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1700e).

---. Suonate a’ tre, due violini con violoncello, e parte per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1700s).

Cazzati, M. Correnti e balletti a cinque, alla francese, et all’italiana, con alcune sonate à 5. 6. 7. 8. Op.15 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1667b).

Colombi, G. Sonate a due violini con un bassetto viola se piace Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1676b).

Corelli, A. Suonate da camera, a tre, doi violini, violoncello, e cembalo Op.4 (Antwerp: Henrico Aetssens, 1692h).

Fedeli, C. Suonate a due ea [sic] tre, et una a quattro con ecco col suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1685s).

234

Fiore, A. Sinfonie da chiesa à trè cioè due violini, e violoncello con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.1 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1699a).

---. Sinfonie da chiesa a tre cioe due violini e violoncello con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.1 (Amsterdam: Estienne Roger, 1700u).

Gaspardini, G. Sonate a, trè due violini, e violoncino con il basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1683g).

Grossi, A. sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, con il basso continuo per l’organo Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1685h).

Guerrieri, A. Sonate di violino a 1. 2. 3. 4. per chiesa, & anco aggionta per camera Op.1 (Venice: Francesco Magni Gardano, 1673).

Jacchini, G. Sonate da camera a trè, e quattro stromenti, col violoncello obligato Op.2 (Bologna: Pier-Maria Monti, 1695e).

Legrenzi, G. Sonate a due, tre, cinque, e sei istromenti Op.8 (Venice: Francesco Magni, 1663b).

---. Libro Quarto di sonate a due tre e quattro stromenti Op.10 (Venice: Francesco Magni Gardano, 1673j).

---. Sonate a due violini, e violone, con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.8 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1677k).

---. Suonate dà chiesa, e dà camera, correnti, balletti, allemande, e sarabande à tre, doi violini, e violone, con il basso continuo Op.4 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1682f).

---. Libro Quarto di sonate a due tre e quattro stromenti Op.10 (Venice: Gardano, 1682g).

---. Balletti e correnti a cinque stromenti, con il basso continuo per il cembalo Op.12 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1691h).

Leonarda, I. Sonate à 1. 2. 3. e 4. istromenti Op.16 (Bologna: Pier-maria Monti, 1693e).

Marini, C.A. Sonate da camera a trè strumenti Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1687i).

---. Suonate a tre, et a cinque doi, e tre violini, viola, et violoncello obligato, col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Amsterdam: Etienne Roger, 1697-1698b).

Mazzaferrata, G.B. Il Primo Libro delle sonate a due violini con un bassetto viola se piace Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1674d).

---. Sonate a due violini con un bassetto di viola se piace Op.5 (Venice: n.p., 1678e).

235

---. Sonate a due violini con un bassetto viola se piace Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1688e).

Paolini, A. Suonate da camera a trè due violini, e violoncello obligato col basso per il cembalo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1697b).

Pasino, S. Sonate a 2. 3. 4. instrumenti de quali, una è composta in canone, & un’altra ad immitatione di versi sogliono fare diuersi animali brutti Op.8 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1679b).

Placuzzi, G.M. Suonate a duoi, à trè, à quattro, à cinque, & otto instromenti Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1667a).

Ruggieri, G.M. Suonate da chiesa a due violini, e violoncello col suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.4 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1697f).

Tonini, B. Baletti da camera a due violini, e violetta, & cembalo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1690c).

---. Suonate da chiesa a tre, due violini & organo, con violoncello ad libitum Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1697d).

---. Suonate da chiesa a trè, due violino & organo, con violoncello ad libitum Op.2 (Amsterdam: E. Roger, 1697l).

Torelli, G. Concerto da camera à due violini, e basso Op.2 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1686d).

---. Sinfonie à 2. 3. 4. istromenti Op.3 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1687c).

---. Sinfonie a 2, 3 e 4 istromenti Op.3 (Antwerp: Aertssens, 1689o).

---. Sonate a tre istromenti con il basso continuo (Antwerp: Henrico Aertssens, 1695h).

---. Concerti Musicali Op.6 (Augusta: Lorenzo Kroniger, 1698c).

Uccellini, M. Sinfonici, concerti, brieui, è facili, à uno, à due, à trè, & à quarto strumenti; ogni cosa, con il suo basso continuo, per chiesa, e per camera. con brandi, è corenti alla francese, è balletti al italiana Op.9 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1667g).

---. Compositioni armoniche sopra il Violino e diversi altri strumenti a quattro e cinque (Antwerp: Heredi di Pietro Phalesio, 1668g).

Vannini, E. Sinfonie a tre, due violini, e violoncello col suo basso continuo e la violetta ad libitum Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1691a).

Vinacese, B. Suonate da camera a tre, due violini, violoncello, et cembalo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1687l).

236

---. Armoniche ouero sonate da chiesa à due violini, con violoncello, è parte per l’organo Op.2. Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1692e.

Vitali, G.B. Sonate a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1669f).

---. Sonate a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1677i).

---. Artificii Musicali ne quali si contengono canoni in diverse maniere, contrapunti dopii, inuentionj, curiose, capritii, è sonate Op.13 (Modena: Eredi Cassiani, 1689i).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violoncello, col basso per l’organo (Modena: Antonio Ricci, 1693b).

Viviani, G.B. Suonate a 3. due violini, e viola Op.1 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano).

---. Suonate a tre, due violini, e viola Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1679f).

Zanata, D. Suonate da chiesa à 3. strumenti, due violini, e violoncello, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Pier Maria Monti, 1689h).

---. Concertini da camera e sonate da chiesa a trè, due violini, e violoncello, col basso continuo Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1696i).

Ziani, P.A. Harmonie di strumenti musicali Op.1 (Venice: Stampa del Gardano, 1683b).

---. Sonate a tre quattro cinque, et sei stromenti Op.7 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1678b).

---. Sonate a 3, 4, 5, 6 Voci Op.7 (Freiburg: Giorgio Beuthero, 1691g).

237

Appendix C

Category 3 Keyboard and bowed bass or plucked (k and bb or p)

Albergati, P. Suonate a due violini col suo basso continuo per l’organo, & un’altro à beneplacito per tiorba, ò violoncello Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1683c).

Baldassini, A.L. Sonate à tre, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: Giacomo Komarek Boemo, 1691b).

Bernardi, B. Sonate à trè due violini, e violoncello, con il basso per l’organo Op.2 (Bologna: Carlo Maria Fagnano, 1696f).

Boccaletti, I. Sonate a tre, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1692f).

Bononcini, G. Sinfonie a trè istromenti, col basso per l’organo Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1686c).

Caldara, A. Suonate da camera a due violini, con il basso continuo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1699c).

Cazzati, M. Trattenimenti per camera d’arie, correnti, e balletti, a’ due violini, e violone, se piace. co passacaglio, ciaccona, & un capriccio sopra 12 note Op.22 (Bologna: Antonio Pisarri, 1660a).

---. Varii, e diversi capricci per camera, e per chiesa, da sonare con diuerse instromenti. a uno, due, e tre Op.50 (Bologna: n.p., 1669a).

---. Suonate a due violini con suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.18 (Antwerp: Haeredi di Pietro Phalesio, 1674g).

---. Suonate a due violini, col suo basso continuo per l’organo, & un’altro à beneplacito per tiorba, ò violone Op.18 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1679c).

Colonna, D.M.A. Suonate da camera a due violini, con il violoncello, e cembalo Op.1 (Venice, Gioseppe Sala, 1700f).

Corelli, A. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: G. Angelo Mutij, 1681a).

---. Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1682h).

---. Sonate da chiesa a tre Op.1 (Rome: n.p., 1683i).

238

---. Suonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1684d).

---. Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1684e).

---. Sonate Studiose, e vaghe, a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba, col basso per l’organo Op. 1 (Modena: Antonio Vitaliani, 1685m).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: Mascardi, 1685n).

---. Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò tiorba col basso per l’organo Op. 1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1688d).

---. Sonate a tre, dui violini, e violone ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: G. Angelo Mutij, 1688h).

---. Sonate à tre, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Rome: Giacomo Komarek Boemo, 1689b).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Bologna: Pier’ maria Monti, 1689c).

---. Sonate a trè, cioè duoi violini, e violone, o arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Modena: Eredi Soliani).

---. Sonate a tre, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1691i).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1694e).

---. Sonate a trè, due violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Bologna: Pier-Maria Monti, 1695k).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Rome: Mascardi, 1695l).

---. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: Mascardi, 1696a).

---. Suonate à tre due violini, e violone, ò tiorba col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Bologna: Marino Siluani, 1697h).

---. Sonate a tre, due violini, e violone, ò arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1700t).

239

Franchi, D.G.P. La Cetra Sonora sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: G. Angelo Mutij, 1685i).

Gregori, G.L. Concerti Grossi a piu stromenti, due violini concertati, con i ripieni, se piace, alto viola, arcileuto, o violoncello, con il basso per l’organo Op.2 (Lucca: Bartolomeo Gregori, 1698e).

Mannelli, C. Sonate a tre, dui violini, e leuto, ò violone con il basso per l’organo Op.2 (Rome: G. Angelo Mutij, 1682a).

---. Sonate a tre, doi violini, leuto ò violone, con il basso per l’organo Op.3 (Rome: Mascardi).

Ravenscroft, G. Sonate a trè, doi violini, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Rome: Mascardi, 1695c).

Ruggeri, G.M. Suonate da chiesa a due violini, e violone, ò tiorba con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.3 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1693i).

Sammartini, P. Sinfonie a due violini, e liuto, e basso di viola Op.2 (Florence: S.A.S. alla Condotta, 1688a).

Torelli, G. Sonate à tre stromenti con il basso continuo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1686a).

---. Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1692a).

---. Sinfonie à tre e concerti à quattro Op.5 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1698g).

Veracini, A. Sonate a tre, due violini, e violone, o arcileuto col basso per l’organo Op.1 (Florence: S.A.S. Antonio Nauesi alla Condotta, 1692c).

---. Sonate da camera a due, violino, e violone, ò arcileuto, col basso per il cimbalo Op.3 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1696d).

240

Appendix D

Category 4 Keyboard (k)

Bononcini, G.M. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1666c).

---. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da camera a 2. 3. e 4. col suo basso continuo, & aggiunta d’alcuni canoni studiosi, & osseruati Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1669g).

---. Sonata da chiesa a due violini Op.6 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1672a).

---. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1675b).

---. Suonate a due violini con il basso continuo per l’organo Op.6 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1677e).

Buoni, G. Allettamenti per camera a due violini, e Basso Op.3 (Bologna: Pier-Maria Monti, 1675b).

Colombi, G. La Lira Armonica, sinfonie à due violini, col suo basso continuo Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1673a).

Degli Antoni, P. Sonate a violino solo Op.4 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1676c).

---. Suonate a violino solo col basso coninuo per l’organo Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1686b).

Granata, G.B. Novi Capricci Armonici Musicali in varj toni per la chitarra spagnola, violino, e viola concertati, et alter sonate per la chitarra sola Op.5 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1674a).

Monari, C. Balletti, e correnti da camera a due violini, con il suo basso continuo Op.1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1686e).

Pistochhi, F.A. Capricci Puerli Variamente composti, e passeggiati in 40. modi sopra un basso d’un balletto Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1667c).

Rosenmiller, G. Sonate da camera cioe sinfonie alemande, correnti, balletti, sarabande, da suonare con cinque stromenti d arco, et altri (Venice: Alessandro Vincenti, 1667h).

Uccellini, M. Sonate, correnti, et arie, da farsi con diversi stromenti si da camera come da chiesa, à uno, à due, & à trè Op.4 (Antwerp: Pietro Phalesio, 1663d).

241

---. Sinfonie, boscarecie a violino solo, e basso, con l’agiunta di due altri violini ad libitum, per poter sonare à due, à tre, è à quattro conforme piacerà Op.8 (Antwerp: Heredi di Pietro Phalesio, 1669d).

---. Sinfonie, boscarecie a violino solo e basso, con l’agiunta di due altri violini ad libitum, per poter sonare à due, à trè, è à quattro, conforme piacerà Op.8 (Antwerp: Luca de Potter, 1677d).

Vitali, G.B. Sonate a due violini col suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.2 (Bologna: giacomo monti, 1667e).

---. Sonate a due violini col suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.2 (Venice: Francesco Magni detto Gardano, 1668c).

---. Sonate a due violini col suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1671a).

---. Suonate a due violini con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1682d).

---. Varie sonate da chiesa a due violini Op.9 (Venice: Stampa del Gardano, 1684f).

---. Sonate da chiesa à due violini Op.9 (Amsterdam: Ionno Phillippo Heus, 1684g).

---. Sonate a due violini con il suo basso continuo per l’organo Op.2 (Venice: Stamparia Del Giardano, 1685r).

Vitali, T.A. Sonate à doi uiolini, col basso per l’organo Op.2 (Modena: Christoforo Canobi, 1693c).

242

Appendix E

Category 5 Bowed Bass (bb)

Ariosti, A. Divertimenti da camera à violini, e violoncello (Bologna: Carlo Maria Fagnani, 1695f).

Bononcini, G.M. Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale, ouero sonate da camera a 2. 3. e 4. col suo basso continuo, & aggiunta d’alcuni canoni studioso, & osseruati Op.3 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1669g).

---. Trattenimenti Musicali a trè, & à quattro stromenti Op.9 (Bologa [sic]: Giacomo Monti, 1675b).

---. Arie, e correnti a trè, due violini, e violone Op.12 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1678a).

Cazzati, M. Partitura di correnti, e balletti per sonare nella spinetta, leuto, ò tiorba; ouero violino, e violone, col secondo violino à beneplacito Op.30 (Bologna: Antonio Pisarri, 1662).

Colombi, G. Delle sinfonie da camera, brandi, e corrente alla francese, con corrente, & arie da camera, e suonate per suonare à due, à trè, & à quattro Op.1 (Bologna: n.p. 1668a).

Corelli, A. Sonate a tre Op.4 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1695m).

Fiore, A. Trattenimenti da camera a due stromenti, violoncello, e cimbalo, e violino, e violoncello (Lucca: Bartolomeo Gregorj, 1698a).

Jacchini, G. Sonata à violino è violoncello, et à violoncello solo per camera Op.1 (Bologna? 1695 s.a. (anteriore al 1695)).

---. Concerti per camera à violino, e violoncello solo, e nel fine due sonate à violoncello solo col basso Op.3 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1697c).

Laurenti, G.N. Suonate per camera à violino, e violoncello Op.1 (Bologna: Pier-Maria Monti, 1691d).

Pegolotti, T. Trattenimenti Armonici da camera à violino solo, e violoncello Op.1 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1698f).

Piazzi, C. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande à trè, due violini, e violone Op.2 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1681b).

Torelli, G. Concertino per camera a violino e violoncello Op.4 (Bologna: Marino Siluani, s.a. (post. al 1687)).

243

Vitali, G.B. Sonate da camera a trè, due violini, e violone Op.14 (Modena: Christoforo Canobi, 1692d).

Vitali, T.A. Sonate da camera a trè, due uiolini, e uiolone Op.3 (Modena: Fortuniano Rosati, 1695a).

244

Appendix F

Category 6 Bowed bass and keyboard or plucked (bb and k or p)

Bonporti, F.A. Sonate da camera à due violini, violone, cembalo, ò arciletuo Op.2 (Venice: Gioseppe Sala, 1698d).

Mazzolini, C.A. Sonate per camera à trè, due violini, e clauicembalo ò tiorba Op. 1 (Bologna: Gioseffo Micheletti, 1687g).

Penna, L. Correnti francese a quattro cioe due violini, violetta, e violone, con il basso continuo per il clavicembalo, o tiorba Op.7 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1673f).

Pizzoni, E. Balletti, correnti, gighe, e sarabande per camera a due violini, e violone, col suo basso continuo per spinetta, ò tiorba Op.1 (Bologna: Antonio Caldani, 1669c).

Polarolio, O. Correnti, balletti, gighe, allemande, arie, etc. overo suonate da camera à trè Op.1 (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1673d).

245

Appendix G

Sonata Quarta G.M. Bononcini. Primi Frutti del Giardino Musicale a due violini (Venice, 1666c)218

218 I-Bc x.110/1-8 mf 0456; 1230.

ContinuoBasso

ViolinoSecondo

PrimoViolino

Allegro

6 56

6 56

6v.

6 665 6v.

4

65 6 6

7

v. 665 6 5

656

10

246

6 67

13

665 v. 6 5

666

16

6 5 56

7 6

19

65

22

V. 6 6 6 6 6 6

1

247

V. 6 4 3 4 3 6 6 6 6

5

6 6 4 3

9

6 6 6 6

13

6 6 6V. 4 3 4 3 66

17

6 6 6 6 4 3

21

248

74

25

6 6 7 4 3

29

6 9 8 7 6

adagio e tremolo1

65 9 8 7 6

5

65 9 8 7 6

9

249

65 V. 6

65 V. 6 5

656

allegro13 1

V. 665 V. 6 5

66

7

4

V.

7

53 4

66

7

10

13

250

Appendix H:

Doctor of Musical Arts Recordings

As performed by

Noeleen Wright

BMus UWA

These two recordings are presented in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts of the

University of Western Australia, School of Music, 2012.

251

Recital 1: Ludwig van Beethoven (1771-1827) Sonatas for piano and violoncello performed at the University of Western Australia, School of Music, Eileen Joyce Studio

3 September 2005

Associate artist: Cecilia Sun

Recital 2: Performance Possibilities for bass lines of Italian Instrumental music 1660 to 1700 with bass lines for ‘violone o cimbalo’ performed at University of Western

Australia, School of Music, Eileen Joyce Studio

5 August 2007

Associate artists: Paul Wright and Emily Thompson

252

Appendix I:

Lecture Recital

As performed by

Noeleen Wright

BMus UWA

This lecture recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts of the

University of Western Australia, School of Music, 2012.

253

Lecture Recital and Viva Voce: Performance Possibilities for bass lines of Italian

Instrumental music 1660 to 1700 performed at University of Western Australia, School

of Music, Eileen Joyce Studio 2 September 2007

Associate artists: Paul Wright, Stewart Smith, Gillian Catlow