noah hawthorne how close is too close 2004

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How Close is Too Close:

The Effects of Ecotourismon the Giant River Otter

Noah HawthorneHuman Biology Research Project, Summer 2004

Stanford University

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Abstract

Reserves and national parks coupled with the strategy of ecotourism have beensuccessful responses to the pressures of deforestation and shrinking habitats in the SouthAmerican rainforest. Yet with these new parks has come the problem of tourists, whosedesire to view animals in the most pristine locations conflicts with the needs of the animalsthemselves. The presence of tourists can both help and hurt in the preservation effort,

bringing in money to sustain the local community in a less destructive economic venture, but also having an unavoidable impact on the animals they are coming to see. To look atthis problem, I traveled to the Tres Chimbadas Oxbow Lake, close to the Parque NacionalBahuaja-Sonene in Southern Peru. There, I studied the interactions between tourists and thewild giant river otter population, a much endangered species especially susceptible toenvironmental stressors, and a charismatic species that attracts tourists from around theworld. Specifically, I looked at how different tourist groups and boat types affect the otters,either by eliciting a startle response that forces the otters into other areas of the lake, or changing their behavior in other more minor ways. While the impact of ecotourism is

preferential to many other economic ventures in the Amazon, my research suggests that itstill has a noticeable impact on otter behavior, causing increased levels of tension amongfamily groups and deviations in swimming and fishing patterns.

Theoretical Framework

Balancing the conservation of charismatic species with tourism interests: An Overview

Spectacular animals, endangered species, and unique and fragile biospheres are

some of the most sought-after tourist destinations in the world. One of the fundamental

paradoxes that exists within the field ecotourism is that the number of tourists who come to

see the animals and ecosystems often with the best of intentions are in fact causing some

amount of harm through their presence. And, with the hordes of tourists that flock to the

most beautiful places on earth, the intrusive effects become additive until the tourists

seeking to revere, observe, and often protect, are often harming that which they admire so

much. Attempts to control for these effects through regulations are often hampered by the

fact that the tourism industry brings huge amounts of money to a given economy, and

short-term economics demand that impoverished countries as well as business-minded

areas embrace all of the tourists that they can in order to make money. A balance between

the need for income, appeasement of tourists desires to see animals, and conservation must

be reached in order for a sustainable system to continue into the future. In the case of the

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giant river otter in Tambopata, after decades of hunting and significantly reduced numbers,

throngs of people are coming to see the otters and posing a significant threat to their

tenuous survival.

Conservation and Environmentalism in Context:

Each year, an estimated 13 million hectares of forests are destroyed, and 14,000 to

40,000 species disappear from tropical forests. With fewer trees, less carbon dioxide is

converted to oxygen through photosynthesis. This, in addition to increased emissions of

carbon dioxide, is contributing to the occurrence of global warming. Greenhouse gas

emissions are likely to increase Earths temperature by 1 to 4C in the next century,

leading to the possibility of increasingly severe droughts and floods, enhanced rates of species invasion and extinction, and thus significant economic harm (Kremen 2000).

Why is it important to conserve the giant river otter? With the economic

rationalization for conservation in order to avoid global warming, environmentalism has

gotten a powerful foothold in todays society. However, the value of conservation has

several less dramatic components as well, as conservation of individual species can have a

very specific value. Certain animals, known as keystone species, are indicators of the

general environmental health of their ecosystem. Preservation of these species generally

involves conservation efforts in several diverse areas and when successful generally

signifies an increase in the health of the ecosystem as a whole (Fauth 1999). Preservation

of the giant otter, a keystone species in the Tambopata region would include a preservation

of the waterways and habitat, maintaining water purity, eliminating hunting, and

maintenance of the general health of the surrounding rainforest. Tourism also plays an

important role as a motivator for conservation. With the giant otter as a key charismatic

species that draws tourists to the area, a priority to preserve the otter would improve

tourism revenues in the future. Finally, successful protection of a certain species or

ecosystem can set an example to be followed for more effective conservation attempts in

the future.

With several various definitions and a host of diverse proponents, conservation has

often been juxtaposed with the concepts of preservation. A workable definition for

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conservation was proposed by Redford and Richter who qualified it as the management of

human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to current

generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future

generations (Redford 1999). It is important to remember that Environmentalism is not an

attempt to solve specific problems or protect nature from unnecessary destruction. Rather,

Environmentalism is a political doctrine (Gibson 2002).

Perhaps the first text to introduce the concept of environmentalism was written by

Moritz Arndt, a fanatical German nationalist who connected ideas about nature and the

need to protect German soil. His 1815 essay entitled On the Care and Conservation of

Forests introduced what is known as modern environmentalism with such observations as

the importance of the survival of the cohesive whole living biosphere due to a

connectedness of living things (Arndt 1815, as cited in Gibson 2002). Some authors see theorigins of conservation in political practice first occuring in the colonial practices of the

1800s. Using the example of 19 th century colonial India, author Richard H. Grove suggests

that environmentalism emerged in India as the bureaucracy of the colonial British Empire

became more settled, well established, and powerful, and was able to see some of the

terrible environmental losses occurring in India during the time as a result of the presence

and policies of the British Empire. Grove states that modern environmentalismemerged

as direct responses to the destructive social and ecological conditions of colonial rule

(Grove 1995, as cited in Giblin 1997). This British movement wasnt nationwide, but

instead as an element of upper-class English culture, and therefore reflected to a greater

extent in British governmental policy (Gibson 2002). Regardless of its origins, the idea of

conservation has spread rapidly, becoming a stated objective of national governments, state

agencies, local agencies, and scientific organizations around the world. Billions of dollars

have been spent on preserving biodiversity in the name of conservation, and to date over

150 national governments have signed a treaty committing themselves to biodiversity

conservation (Redford 1999).

Political environmentalism in the United States and its reverberations around the

world has an interesting history. During his presidency, US President Harry Truman made

a call for progress, and encouraged the southern states of the US and the underdeveloped

countries of the world to make an effort to catch up the industrialized North (Sachs 4). This

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call for development has been taken up wholeheartedly in the United States, with

industrialization and consumption reaching very high levels. In the 1950s it became clear

that investments werent enough on their own, and these was supplemented in the with

man-power development, and then with social development in the 1960s. In the

1990s it became clear that impoverished peasants could no longer be overlooked, leading

to the concept of rural development, along with the likes of equitable development and

the basic needs approach guaranteeing everybody certain basic rights. Today the worlds

economy and consumption has outstripped the capacity of the earth to continue to provide.

This was noticed, and produced gradual change until recently, when the United Nations

Conference on Economic Development (UNCED) decreed the current era as the era of

sustainable development (Sachs 9). This brings the process of western consumption to a

new era of sustainability and concern for the environment and for the future. The questionthat now arises is whether governments who support conservation are effectively

implementing strategies to support their political goal.

Conservation Actions and the Usefulness of Ecotourism:

With the importance of protecting the environment through a policy of sustainable

use a strong priority for many, the strategy of ecotourism has been especially appealing.

Conservation can be divided into two categories, consumptive and non-consumptive.

Consumptive use occurs when an organism or any of its parts is deliberately killed or

removed. Non-consumptive use does not involve direct removal and is best typified by

wildlife viewing and photography (Campbell 1998). Consumptive use of habitat is perhaps

the largest current threat to several animal species that depend on those habitats for

survival. Habitat destruction can result in decreasing food sources, toxins in the habitat

area, decreased migration capabilities and a corresponding decrease in genetic diversity.

With certain species already at critically low levels, any type of consumptive use could

lead to a decrease in genetic diversity which leaves the species particularly vulnerable to

infectious diseases (Lafferty 2002).

Wildlife and the allure of striking scenery in many developing nations has lead to a

surge of foreign tourists looking for a respite from the concrete of industrialized western

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cities. These tourists bring in large amounts of money, but complications as well. In 1990,

developing countries attracted 50 million tourists who left revenues of 55 billion US dollars

(Kirkby 2000). In all, tourism receipts were expected to be nearly $3 trillion in 1996,

making travel and tourism the largest industry in the world (Giannecchini 1993).

Ecotourism is a large subset of all tourism travel, accounting for an estimated 55-60% of

the world travel market (Giannecchini 1993).

The powerful driving force behind the model of ecotourism is its combination of

conservation strategy with economic incentives. Ultimately, ecotourism has been touted as

a way for developing countries to achieve self sufficiency without losing their autonomy

(Nixon 1999). It has been also been described as an effective answer to the challenge that

faces many conservationists of protecting biodiversity in economically impoverished but

biologically rich areas in the developing world (Bookbinder 1998). Ecotourism is a twist onthe traditional form of tourist travel, defined by the World Wildlife Fund as Tourism to

protect natural areas, in a form that brings economic benefits along with the preservation of

natural resources (Smith 39). Its principle attributes include 1) Tourist education on

environmental and social issues 2) Conservation of nature through legal government action

supported by responsible and professional guides and 3) Investment in the indigenous

population (Smith 39).

The basic strategy behind ecotourism is the idea that tourism is an economic

force that follows and rewards more pristine locations with increased biodiversity, fostering

their conservation in a self-promoting cycle. Under the concept of ecotourism, revenues

from tourists such as lodging fees, guide costs, food, park fees, local crafts, local travel and

taxes are all distributed among the local population. This population when given the choice

to exploit the region will refrain from destructive activities in an effort to sustain their link

between environmental conservation and individual revenue. This is known as the

Standard Model of ecotourism (Yu 1997). It also hopes to provide an economic

alternative for the native populations that have been known to be prone to liquidating their

natural resources by selling illegal concessions for gold mining and timber harvesting in

their lands (Zimmerman 2001). This standard model of ecotourism and its economic

investment in native conservation strategy is a very different approach from classical

tourism, where many of the services that cater to tourists are based out of first world

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countries. Many of the services that tourists require such as airline transportation and

deluxe accommodations cant be provided by a developing third world countrys native

population with limited resources (Yu 1997). This means that when tourists go to another

country and stay at a resort or lodge very little of their money is going into the community.

The local community is then left without a viable means of steady income except from use

of the local environment, which threatens the effectiveness of conservation strategies.

However a common problem has been the implementation of the standard model of

ecotourism. Many tourism companies will advertise themselves as ecotourism ventures,

while engaging in environmentally unsound policies and failing to invest in the local

community. Such a strategy among tourism companies is common, and known as

greenwashing (Nixon 1999). Companies also find it difficult to employ members of the

native population in the ecotourism venture. This seems to be a flaw that both traditionaltourism and ecotourism both have, as skilled guides and support staff for tourist areas are

difficult to come by in part due to language barriers and a lack of educational experience. A

good example for this shortcoming can be seen in the area surrounding the Royal Chitwan

National Park in Nepal, one of the most heavily visited parks in Asia. In this area 61% of

the hotels were owned by non-locals, and only 4% of households in the district reported

having family members directly employed in the ecotourism industry. In Nepal, various

studies have shown that current economic benefits to local communities from the

ecotourism industry are limited, and provide only limited employment potential

(Bookbinder 1998). This holds true in the Tambopata area of Peru as well, where local

colonists are mostly unable to fill specialized jobs as managers, administrators, guides,

riverboat pilots or cooks. Currently, jungle lodges must hire their guides from a

combination of foreign and Peruvian biology students (Yu 1997).

Yet even in with ecotourism working as it is supposed to, some authors argue that

the Standard Model of ecotourism in an ineffective conservation method on its own.

Assuming that ecotourism increases income to the local population, this cash income may

make the cost of shotgun cartridges and gasoline for chainsaws less prohibitive and

allowing the local population to engage in environmentally insensitive activities that would

not have been possible earlier (Yu 1997). Also, the temporary low-skill employment

offered by lodges makes it less risky for locals to become small-scale agriculturalists, as

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they can easily get work if their farm fails (Yu 1997). This has been the case in the

Tambopata area, especially with such lodges as the Cusco Amaznico Pueblo Hotel, and

Sachavaca Inn (Kirkby 2000). Such environmentally destructive behaviors arent necessary

prohibitive to income as the Standard Model of Ecotourism suggests. In fact, most visitors

to rainforest lodges are on package tours, and would be unable to effectively judge the level

of ecological damage to an area, and unlikely to pass information on to other tourists

effectively enough to decrease visitation unless significant ecological harm occurs (Yu

1997). This provides less of an incentive for companies to maintain the purity o their

surrounding forests, as an effective marketing strategy to travel agencies and tour

companies can prove more effective than expensive and complex conservation strategies.

Not all communities see the economic value of tourism either. In Western Uganda a

revenue sharing system has been put in place that distributes tourism revenues to buildschools, clinics, bridges and roads in the communities surrounding the national parks.

However, while nearly all of the residents listed revenue sharing as an advantage to living

next to a national park, and 72% said that it had improved their attitudes towards

conservation, only 53% thought that revenue sharing from tourism was more important that

sustainable use of non-timber forest products (Archabald 2001). With attitudes like this, a

significant number of individuals seem bound to continue consumptive use of forest

products.

So what about ecotourism has worked towards the end goal of conservation? For

some authors, ecotourism has been most effective with conservation because of its large

economic pull. Bringing large amounts of money into a country has influenced those

countries respective governments to enact legislation protecting the companies that are

bringing in so much money. In the case of ecotourism, that means the establishment of

national parks and reserves, along with enforcement of new laws. This has been the case

with Peru especially, where ecotourism exerts a growing and significant influence on

national policy (Yu 1997).

Encroachment on Charismatic and Keystone Species by Tourists: The Tambopata Case in

Context

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The giant river otter is definitely not alone in its sensitivity to human encroachment

and the effects of tourism. In fact, there are myriad examples of charismatic species that are

at risk of being exploited by tourism industries for the cash that they bring in. In the Gulf of

St. Lawrence, Canada, the harp seal is a major tourist attraction. However, the presence of

tourists in their habitat has forced a change in behavior for the seals. In this particular case

the interaction between mothers and pups was significantly altered by the presence of

tourists. Female harp seal attendance to their pups was significantly reduced with tourists

present and those females that remained with their pups when tourists were present spent

significantly more time alert and less time nursing their pups. Pups were more active with

tourists present, resting less and changing location more frequently. Pups also spent

significantly more time alert and engaged in agonistic behavior (Kovacs 1990).

In Patagonia, one of the largest remaining groups of the southern right whales isunder stress from the high incidence of tourists. 8,000 boat trips were required to satisfy a

demand of 125,000 people who brought over one million dollars direct revenue and fifteen

million in indirect revenue to the local economy over a period of only four years. Most

whale watching involved pregnant animals or mothers and calves that often attempted to

avoid the boats, stressing the animals and altering the animal behavior (Rivarola 2001).

Numerous tourists have also had an impact on the giant river otter in Tambopata. In

this case otters have been seen exhibiting defensive territorial behavior, avoiding tourist

boats, and stopping feeding and grooming behavior (Dauphine 2001). Such behaviors

indicate that the tourists have crossed a comfort barrier for the otters. Repeated exposure to

this stressful intrusion can be harmful for the otters, especially with disease. Already highly

endangered, the limited number of remaining otters has lead to a more limited gene pool,

and a corresponding lack of immunity to infectious disease (Lafferty 2002). However, it

has also been shown that stress leads to a decreased immune system response among

animals and an increased susceptibility to disease (Lafferty 2003). Yet even causing stress

and harming the environment through trail cutting and other typical touristic activities,

ecotourism is a far better in the face of alternatives like farming, logging and oil drilling

(Yu 1997). The key is to understand that tourism has its flaws, and is not a perfect system

for the environment. Once that vital fact is recognized, it is only a matter of research and a

desire for change that is needed to reduce the impact of tourism and create an optimal

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compromise that is both best for the enjoyment of the tourists and best for the conservation

of an ecosystem in perpetuity.

Background Information

Study Species Overview: Tambopata Giant River Otter

Morphology:

The Giant River Otter ( Pteronura brasiliensis ) is a member of the Mustelidae

family which also includes badgers, minks and weasels (Frankfurt Zoological Society

2004). Its length varies between 1.5 to 1.8 meters in males and 1.5 to 1.7 meters in females.The animals can also weigh up to 75 pounds (Carter 1997). The Giant Otter has a very

distinctive appearance characterized by a paddle-shaped tail, a hairy nose pad, and large

webbed feet. Giant otters also have a unique irregular pattern of whitish or cream-colored

hairs on their chins and throats that can be used to identify individuals (Carter 1997). With

the local name of lobos de rio or river wolves, the giant otter hunts in packs primarily

feeding on fish (FZS 2004). Otters have also been observed hunting in the same area as

fresh-water dolphins, driving fish from the shoreline to the feeding dolphins and possibly

enjoying predator protection from their association (Defler 1983).

Vision has not been studied in the Giant Otter, but studies of the North American

River Otter and Sea Otter have found that these species are slightly myopic in both air and

water (Carter 1997). When they are above the water, otters have been seen to recognize

observers and intrusions at distances of greater than 50 meters (Duplaix 1980, Dauphine

2001). Underwater, the otters hunt using a combination of sight (Carter 1997) and sensory

information gathered from their long facial whiskers (Schweizer 1992). It has also been

indicated that otters have an excellent sense of smell (Duplaix 1980).

Distribution and habitat:

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The Giant Otter can be found in a wide variety of habitats, including in slow-

moving rivers and creeks as well as oxbow lakes, swamps and marshes. They were once

very plentiful, inhabiting most of South America and ranging from the Guyanas across

Venezuela and Colombia, south to northern Argentina and west to the Andes. Due to

intense pelt hunting, their numbers have been greatly reduced, completely eliminating

populations in many areas. The current population of Giant Otters may be as low at 1000-

3000 individuals (Brecht-Munn & Munn 1988). In Peru, the otters are no longer present in

much of their previous territory and are now confined to secluded and protected tributaries

to the Amazon (Chehbar 1990). Specifically, giant otters are mostly found in the Manu

and Tambopata regions of south eastern Peru (Brecht-Munn & Munn 1988, Dauphine

2001).

It has been discovered that the key factors influencing otter habitat choice are low,sloping banks with vegetation for cover and easy access to forest creeks or swampy areas,

as well as an abundance of vulnerable prey in relatively shallow waters (FZS 2004). Slow

moving rivers and streams as well as oxbow lakes have been observed as preferred habitats

conforming to these features (Duplaix 1980). However, with the change in seasons in the

Amazon region, and a corresponding change in fish density in many locations, it is not

uncommon for the Pteronura habitat choices to depend mainly on a steady, year-round food

supply. Pteronura habitats have been characterized into two categories, blackwater and

whitewater bodies. The blackwater bodies get their name from that water that is stained

dark brown with humic materials derived from decomposing vegetation (FZS 2004). In all

habitats a preference is shown for clearer waters with visibility between 1.0-4.3 m,

however in habitats with less visibility, otters have been seen to move to isolated areas of

clearer water to hunt (Carter 1997). This was seen in Suriname, where it was found that

Pteronura brasiliensis particularly favored this type of habitat with water visibility of only a

few centimeters due to a heavy silt load, but a dependable food source (FZS 2004). The

otter population of South-Eastern Peru, in the Tambopata and Manu regions has been

shown to prefer the whitewater oxbow lakes or 'cochas' of the region which

characteristically have no current, water depth that is less variable, and a plentiful supply of

fish that results from a high concentration of nutrients in the lakes. Moreover, the

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sediments eventually settle to the bottom of the oxbow lakes so that the water is clearer

than that of the parent river (FZS 2004).

Behavior and Development:

A typical Giant Otter population usually includes both resident family groups as

well as solitary individuals seeking a mate and territory of their own. Giant otters generally

live in groups of three to nine consisting of a mated pair and one or two litters.

Occasionally very large groups of 12-20 individuals have been observed around especially

plentiful food sources (Duplaix 1980). In addition to the family groups, there can be a

transient which lacks established territory and a set group. This otter is normally either a

sub-adult which has left its family unit as it approaches sexual maturity or an adult which

has lost its mate. In either case, the transient otter no longer has a link to a family group,and has been forced into a nomadic way of life, migrating over large distances in order to

seek a mate and establish its own home range (Carter 1997).

Otters are mainly diurnal, and may travel extensive distances of over 17km a day

fishing and patrolling their territory (Carter 1997). During the day, they often groom one

another, which according to scientists, promotes group unity. At night, they retire to

communal dens, dug ten feet into the ground along cocha shorelines. The dens provide

safety as well as warm birth quarters for new pups. There is no obvious hierarchy within

the Giant Otter groups, and aggression is rare between individuals (FZS 2004).

Much of the data on otter reproduction has been derived from captive individuals.

In general, Giant Otters become sexually mature after about 2 years and adult females are

receptive for 3 to 10 days within a 21-day oestrus cycle. Otter copulation takes place in the

water and breeding is possible year-round although in the wild it usually occurs only once

during the dry season, when fish are particularly abundant. This abundance of food insures

adequate nutrition for the developing pups and therefore a higher survival rate. An average

of 2 to 4 cubs that come from litter sizes ranging from 1 to 6 are born following a gestation

period of 64 to 71 days. The reason for this discrepancy between litter sizes and the number

of cubs being reared in the wild is due to fairly high rates of infant mortality among the

otter pup population. The newborn cubs are cared for by parents as well as their more

mature siblings and stay within the family den for 2 to 3 weeks before being introduced to

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the water. There, they are taught to swim and acclimatize to their new environment. Born

with their eyes shut, otters open their eyes and are able to swim after about 1 month (FZS

2004).

By 6 weeks, cubs are much more active and can be observed playing near their den

entrance. In the wild, it was found that after two months the cubs begin to beg noisily for

their fish. This begging provides them with their primary food source, as they are not

developed enough to travel and hunt with the family unit until they are 3 to 4 months old.

Cubs are weaned by 9 months and after 10 months they can no longer be distinguished

from adults in the wild. Juveniles remain with the family unit until they reach sexual

maturity (FZS 2004).

Threats to the Giant Otter:The giant otter has no known predators, though its young have been known to be

vulnerable to caiman, anaconda and jaguars (Carter 1997). One of the largest current

threats the otter is mankind. Hunting remains one a major threat, with a typical otter pelt

fetching $27-90 USD on the black market (Carter 1997). Deforestation and habitat loss is

also a major concern, as areas of the Amazon rainforest are being rapidly consumed

(Kremen 2000). In the south eastern area of Peru gold mining by dredging produces large

amounts of suspended particulate matter in the water with interferes with light penetration,

buries algae and asphyxiates fish (Carter 1997). After dredging mercury is used to separate

the gold particles, leading to an elevated amount of mercury released into the surrounding

environment. This is a toxic chemical which is absorbed by all of the surrounding life

forms. Predators, such as the giant otter are especially susceptible to this threat because of

the process known as bioaccumulation, where they absorb all of the mercury from the prey

that they eat, until their mercury levels have become toxic. This has been observed in

Tambopata otters, though the exact extent of this effect is not yet known (Gutleb 1997).

Background: Tourism in Peru

Wildlife and the allure of striking scenery in many developing nations have lead to

a surge of foreign tourists. These tourists bring in large amounts of money, but

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complications as well. Peru has seen great benefits from tourism. Boasting an impressive

variety of tourist attractions including pristine Amazon rainforest, the Andes Mountains,

Lake Titicaca, and the infamous Inca city of Machu Picchu, Peru has seen a consistent

increase in tourism. After the sensationalized discovery of Machu Picchu in 1911 by a Yale

University expedition led by Hiram Bingham, and its publication in National Geographic

magazine, Peru was made famous. But tourist flow remained slow, with Cuzco receiving

only 6, 903 tourists as late as 1954, or whom only 421 were foreigners (Berghe 2000).

With the advent and spread of jet travel in the 60s, the tourism business in Cuzco and

around Peru began to grow rapidly. Between 1963 and 1971 tourist numbers ranged

between 35,000 and 48,000, reaching a peak of 144,000 in 1986 (Berghe 2000).

However, Peru saw a major drop in its tourism numbers with increasing activities

by the Shining Path terrorist group. Their most infamous activity was the bombing of a SanPedro railway station in 1983, as the tourist train to Machu Picchu was about to depart. The

blast killed six tourists, and created the possibly quite justified international impression that

tourism to Peru could be quite dangerous (Berghe 2000). Since the arrests of the Shining

Path leader in 1992 and government suppression of the guerilla terrorist movement, Peru

and Cuzco have experienced a huge boom in tourism, with current totals for Cuzco

estimated at 250,000 a year (Berghe 2000). These trends held true for tourism into Puerto

Maldonado and the Tambopata area as well, with Shining path activities undercutting the

burgeoning tourism industry, followed by a tremendous increase in the later 1990s. (See

fig. 2.2).

The huge influx of money that this brings has also created a tourism culture among

places frequented by foreign tourists willing to part with their dollars for an ethnic

experience. One particular example is Cuzco, Peru, known as the gateway to the Lost City

of the Incas, Machu Picchu (Berghe 2000). However, the now common use of jet airliner

has lead to an influx of tourism, and made the lost city quite accessible. However, this

influx of hundreds of thousands of tourists has lead to a city of Cuzco that is often

epitomized by the word touristy, with the center square knows as the Plaza de Armas

contains dozens of street vendors hawking authentic craft items, shoe-shiners, beggars,

women and children in traditional homespun clothes posing for pictures with their llamas

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or lambs, and numerous hotels and restaurants and hotels catering to tourists (Berghe

2000).

In addition to being a gateway to Machu Picchu, Cuzco is also a stopover point for

tourists wishing to go into the rainforest region of South-Eastern Peru. These regions, the

Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone (TCRZ), and the Manu Biosphere Reserve attracted

approximately 14,000 and 2,500 tourists each (Kirkby 2000). The annual growth rate in

these locations, located within the department of Madre de Dios, has been 22% percent

over the last five years, with the vast majority of growth occurring within the TCRZ

(Kirkby 2000). Tambopata became a major tourism destination in 1975, however it has

only begun to see significant tourism increases Peru regained its political stability in the

mid 1990s. For example, in 1990 there were just 3 lodges operating in and around the

TCRZ hosting approximately 3,000 tourists per year. By 1998 that number had jumped to14 lodges and 5 rural guest houses, for a total of 14,000 tourists per year (Kirkby 2000).

Recent years have not only seen a growth in tourism in the Tambopata area, but

also a new subset of travel known as ecotourism among the lodges in the TCRZ. The

conservation aspect of ecotourism has been justified not only as a means to form a

sustainable source of income for tourism related businesses, but also as a general action

that should be promoted for the good of human kind. One of the most commonly cited

examples is that fully one fourth of the drugs sold in the U.S. come from natural sources,

with about 50 important drugs coming from flowering plants in the rainforest. In addition,

based on the number of plants that havent yet been catalogued and screened for drug

potential, it is estimated that about 300 drug producing plants remain undiscovered in the

rainforest (Pearson 2001).

In order to keep the money from tourism in the country, lodges in the Tambopata

region such as the TRC and Posada Amazonas lodges operated by Rainforest Expeditions

have developed an ecotourism approach to showing foreign tourists the amazing diversity

of wildlife in the Tambopata biosphere. In their plan for involving the community is the

arrangement for 60% of their profits to the local EseEja population, with the intention that

they will learn to manage the ecotourism trade and take over operation of the lodge

sometime in the next 10-20 years, with Rainforest Expeditions only role being in

marketing and advising (Rainforest Expeditions, 2004).

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The Tambopata Biosphere: An Overview

The Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone, is located in south-eastern Peru, and was

originally set out as a protected area in 1990, while in 1996 part of it was further protected

by the declaration of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park within the reserved zone (Kirkby

2000). It is situated in a unique location, below the towering Andes mountain range, as they

plunge down into a sea-level rainforest. This location in a transitional zone between humid

tropical and subtropical rainforest and an altitudinal gradient of more than 3,000 meters

creates several microclimates whose biodiversity is arguably unequalled anywhere else in

the Amazon (Kirkby 2000). It is home to about 600 different bird species (7% or the world

population), and about 160 different mammalian species (4% of the worlds population).Whats more, this diversity is packed densely, in a zone of only 14,000 square kilometers

(Kirkby 2000). The Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone is also home to thirteen local

vertebrates that are lists in the IUCN Red Data Book and are considered highly

endangered. These include the Giant anteater, Giant armadillo, Bush dog, Small-eared dog,

Giant river otter, Jaguarundi, Ocelot, Jaguar, Crested eagle, Harpy eagle, Black caiman,

Spectacled caiman, and Yellow-spotted side necked turtle (Kirkby 2000).

Regional History

The Tambopata Province covers 36,629 km 2 in the Department of Madre de Dios, a

remote region with incredible biodiversity in the country of Peru. Prior to European

colonization and European contact the native Eseeja and Harakmbut people farmed,

hunted, fished, and traded in the region. Spanish explorers then entered the region in 1566,

but the area remained virtually untouched by the hand of colonization until the late 1800s

(Naughton 2002). During this time, between 1890 and 1920, the area experienced a huge

boom in the rubber industry, as companies imported more than 6,000 workers to

Tambopata from Bolivia, Brazil, Japan, and other parts of Peru while enslavement and

infectious disease epidemics devastated the native populations (Naughton 2002). When the

international rubber market collapsed in the 1920s, immigration rates slowed dramatically.

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Those remaining changed their method of subsistence, planting crops, panning for gold,

harvesting forest products such as Brazil Nuts and game (Naughton 2002). Approximately

fifteen large landholders in the area exported animal skins, principally targeting the Giant

River Otter, spotted cats, and caiman (Naughton 2002). The giant river otter population

was especially hard hit. From 1946 to 1973, 24,000 otter skins were exported from Peru,

while in the 1960's 20,000 skins were exported from Brazil (PBS 2004). All of these

species were hit hard by the hunting, and are now listed as endangered species, with some

such as the otter becoming especially rare (Kirkby 2000).

In the 1960s the Interoceanic Highway was constructed, connecting Madre de Dios

to the Andes (see fig 2.2). This highway led to a second major wave of immigration, as the

Peruvian government offered colonists the benefits of easy credit and land parcels as

enticements for new settlers. This was part of a larger Peruvian government strategy toassert control over the remote regions of the country (Naughton 2002). New settlers cleared

forest and began farming operations. As is typical in the Amazon environment, many

settlers found the soil becoming unfertile after two or three planting seasons, causing a

movement to livestock production which became especially popular and profitable during

the 1980s (Naughton 2002). In spite of these economic opportunities and continuing

population growth the department of Madre de Dios continues to have the lowest

population density for Peru at 0.9 inhabitants per square kilometer (Naughton 2002). This

is much lower than the overall average for Peru of 20 people per square kilometer (Pearson

2001).

Preservation and Prohibition: Establishing the TCRZ and BSNP

With a spectacular array of wildlife, the Tambopata region has set itself apart as a

key destination for tourists around the world. In an effort to promote this priceless

biodiversity, a number of conservation focused NGOs and ecotourism companies lobbied

for the protection of the Tambopata region, resulting in the Peruvian government creating

the nearly 1.5 million hectare region known as the Tambopata-Candamo Reserve Zone

(TCRZ) in 1990 (Pearson 2001). By granting the area a Reserve status, the TCRZ was

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awarded only impermanent protection status, with further study and planning determining

whether portions of the park would be upgraded to the full protection of Park status or

sectioned off into managed multiple-use zones or open free resource use (Naughton 2002).

Since 1990, the organization Conservation International has collaborated with the

Peruvian government, in conjunction with other private research groups in order to carry

out ecological and social studies to assess current and potential land uses for the region

(Foster 1994). Roughly 3,200 people lived inside the northern border of the newly created

TCRZ, with another 3,800 residing in the southern extreme of the reserve. Officially, all

forest extraction activities are illegal in the reserve unless special permission was given by

the government. However, the impermanent nature of the TCRZ and the limited reach of

Perus National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA) to effectively manage the area,

rules governing resource use are poorly communicated and enforced only sporadically. Asa result illegal mining, logging and livestock production have been allowed at a small scale

under concession from INRENA (Naughton 2002).

Many citizens were initially opposed to the establishment of the TCRZ because

they felt that this could potentially cut off their access to resources and land. However

support from Conservation International, the MacArthur Foundation, USAID, and Peruvian

conservationist NGOs, the TCRZ was finally accepted. Following, in 1995, a third of the

TCRZ was combined with The Pampas del Heath National Sanctuary, an area of unique

grasslands habitat, to form the 537,053 hectare Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Pearson

2001). However, by the time the national park was legally established in 1996 it was only

325,000 ha, a third of the originally proposed size because of a deal the Peruvian

government had made with an international consortium led by Mobil Oil for an exploratory

oil and natural gas concession. This caused an outcry among the local population who had

previously agreed to give up future access to resources in the pristine area (Naughton

2002).

The Study Site: Cocha Tres Chimbadas

The Tres Chimbadas Lake is located about two hours upriver from the town of

Puerto Maldonado. This lake is an oxbow lake, known as a cocha in Spanish. This means

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that the lake was once a part of the Tambopata River, and was formed when the river

changed course, leaving a stretch of standing water in the form that resembles the path that

the river once took. Tres Chimbadas is located about a mile (a 30 minute walk) from the

rivers current bank and follows the rivers long and narrow form, measuring between 260-

280 meters wide, by 3 km long.

Tres Chimbadas has a very diverse ecosystem, providing a home for the

endangered black caiman, giant river otter, and occasionally macaws along with many

species of plants, trees and fish. Little is known about the history of the lake before 1999.

However some reports indicate that it was a site for fishing and trapping for the local

people and loggers in the region.

During the 1990s the family group on giant river otters in the lake was small,

numbering only 4 in 1991 (Hajek et al 2003). Prior to 2000 there was no plan in place for the maintenance and conservation of the Tres Chimbadas Lake. Until 2000 boats would

travel throughout the lake to view the otters, stopping at various points to fish (Hajek et al,

2003). Swimming and other recreational activities were also provided by the servicing

ecotourism companies. In 2000 the Frankfurt Zoological Societys Giant River Otter

Project proposed a strategy for conserving the lakes in the region and their families of giant

river otters. Included in this plan is the plan for distribution of information about the otters

and other key animals to ecotourism companies and local populations. Implementation of

open and frequent communication between researchers, tourism companies, locals, and

governmental authorities has been established to better understand the priorities, goals, and

limitations of the different actors in the area. Finally, specific guidelines for the use of the

Tres Chimbadas Lake were proposed. Suggestions for minimized impact included the

implementation of a limit line, which isolates half of the lake from tourist boats (Hajek

2003). This step has had some success, limiting the number of alarm calls and alarm

behavior. This is a positive sign considering that tourism to the lake has continued to

increase to an estimated 5000 visitors in 2003 (Notin 2003). In spite of this the family of

otters has reproduced consistently, averaging two newborns from 2000-2002 (Notin 2003).

These trends continued into 2003, with two newborns (Dauphine 2003), and into 2004 with

another 2 cubs while I was conducting my research. Total family size is up from 4 in 1991

and has varied between 7 and 9, with 7 in 2004.

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One of the main concerns for the future of the lake is that it does not legally

protected, and is currently being sustained only through an agreement between to the

ecotourism lodges who operate there and the local populations. One area of particular

concern is the farms on the north side of the lake which could present a threat to several

lake species in the future (Notin 2003). There is also a lot of concern about the feasibility

of ecotourism lodges or other entities engaging in potentially harmful activity with

impunity as there are no legal protections for the lake should this occur.

Tourist Lodges Serving the Tres Chimbadas Lake

Posada Amazonas Lodge:

This Posada Amazonas Lodge is located in the Zona Reservada Tambopata-Candamo, a reserved section of land close to the Tres Chimbadas Lake Oxbow Lake, and

on the outskirts of the Parque Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene. Because of this location, the lodge

is able to provide close access to the wildlife diversity from the nearby national park, and

also enjoys the inhabitants of the nearby oxbow lake, a group of Large River Otters.

Rainforest Expeditions provides tourists with access to the Tres Chimbadas Lake by

running a boat shuttle from the lodge to the lake, and operating two catamarans that are

used for tours around the lake itself (RE 2004). Rainforest Expeditions opened both of

these lodges as a joint venture with the native community of Infierno, in a partnership that

trains the local community in rainforest management and ecotourism business methods,

and will eventually hand control of the lodges to them (RE- The Eseeja 2004).

Tambopata Research Center (TRC):

The TRC is located on the western bank of the Tambopata River in a relatively

isolated position 75 km SSW from Puerto Maldonado (Kirkby 2000). It is adjacent to the

BSNP and within 200 m of a macaw claylick where spectacular amounts of parrots and

macaws come congregate. It has evolved over the last several decades. Originally a

research center devoted primarily to the study of macaws in 1989 it was modified in 1994

to accommodate tourists as well. Tourists usually stay at the TRC for an average of 4 days

as part of a package with the Posada Amazonas Lodge, also owned by the Rainforest

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Expeditions Company (RE, 2004). Tourists will stay at Posada Amazonas Lodge and go on

a trip to the Tres Chimbadas Lake before continuing up the Tambopata River to TRC. A

significant amount of research has been done concerning the area, and significant amounts

of data are available (Kirkby 2000). Rainforest Expeditions has agreed to abide by the FZS

suggestions for the Tres Chimbadas Lake preservation, and does respect the suggested limit

zone.

Inotawa Expeditions:

The Inotawa Lodge is located 15 minutes upriver from the Tres Chimbadas Lake,

and has a 30 guest capacity. They have a local network of trails surrounding their lodge,

and also offer trips to the oxbow lake. Not all tourists from this lodge visit the lake, only

those on select 4 day/3 night, and 6 day/5 night tours who select to go on lake trips(Inotawa 2004). Inotawa brings fewer guests to the lake than Rainforest Expeditions, and

has agreed to follow the Frankfurt Zoological Society conservation suggestions for the

lake, including the limit zone in the middle of the lake.

Albergue Tambo Tres Chimbadas:

This simple lodge is set back about 10 meters from the edge of the Tres Chimbadas

Lake and is an addition to a plot of farm land by owner Sr. Bocangel. The lodge consists of

a covered platform overlooking the lake with several beds. Tourists usually stay for around

2 nights. Lodge use of the lake is limited, with occasional tourist groups of usually less

than 5 visiting the lake. The Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge has chosen not to follow the

conservation suggestions of the FZS and regularly uses the Northwest portion of the Tres

Chimbadas Lake across the limit line.

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Methodology and Research Design

Objectives:

The purpose of my research in the Tambopata region of Peru was to observe the large

river otters of the Tres Chimbadas Lake and investigate how different boats from the tour

companies serving the region affect the otters, either by changing their behavior, or

eliciting a startle response that forces the otters into other areas of the lake. In order to

study the effects that ecotourism in the Tambopata region has on the river otter population I

will focus my research on three specific questions:

1) Who are the tourists visiting the otters, and what characteristics do they have?

2) What are some of the standard behavioral patterns of the giant river otters?

3) What is the relationship between these observed behavioral patterns, and thetourists?

With patterns that develop from my data, I am attempting to find a quantifiable relationship

between either the number of people in the tourist boats or the size of the boats, and

distance that the boats can approach the otters before causing a notable behavioral change

in the animals. I have described this interaction as a zone of tolerance, in other words, the

distance at which the otters will tolerate the presence of tourist boat without significant

impacts in their behavior. With this relationship, I will then develop a set of guidelines that

guides from ecotourism companies could use, where they would input their number of

guests, and boat type, and get a recommended distance for observing the otters. This would

allow them to get as close as possible to the otters, appeasing the tourists desire to see the

animals, while still respecting the otters need for space.

Methodology & Procedure:

Because of the limited duration of my study, and the intrinsic variability in animal

behavior, I decided that it would be best to limit my study group to one specific river otter

population in the Tambopata region. This would allow the behavior of the one otter group

to be studied more fully, and therefore provide more relevant conclusions than a

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widespread rapid assessment behavioral survey. For my focus family group I looked to the

Tres Chimbadas oxbow lake, with a resident otter population of seven individuals. I will be

basing my research out of the Rainforest Expeditions ecotourism lodge, which provided

daily tourist trips to the Tres Chimbadas Lake that contains that otters. I worked in the

region for eight weeks, and went on 35 of the lodges trips to the lake. Every morning I took

a small transport boat with 20-40 of the tourists who would be visiting the lake on that

given day. Once at the lake I got on board the tourist catamaran that was used to take the

group around the lake. I placed myself in the front right corner of the catamaran, which I

had determined to be the closest position to the otters, based on their typical behavioral

patterns as they moved around the lake. Once in position on the catamaran I divided up my

time and research methods in order to address the main questions set forth in the objectives

section in the following manner:

1) Who are the tourists visiting the otters, and what characteristics do they have?

a. Observations in this area consisted of general behavioral trends that I

observed during my time interacting with the tourists on the boat. After I

was introduced as a researcher to the tourists on the boat, many of them

asked me questions. I later recorded some of these questions, comments,

and interesting facts and trends that came up during the conversations in my

notes. I also took notes on the behavior of the tourists before, during, and

before the otter interaction and did my best to gauge their reaction in a

qualitative manner.

b. Characteristics that I examined for the tourists included whether or not they

were a part of a tour group or had arranged for their visit privately, country

of origin, age, and education levels. Towards the end of my research I also

distributed a pilot survey to more than 50 tourists in order to get a

preliminary look at countries of origin, level of education, and also a

quantifiable look at how the various tourists had evaluated their experiences

with the otters.

2) What are some of the standard behavioral patters of the otters?

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a. To answer this question I kept a chart running for the entire time that the

otters were visible on the lake. Every five minutes I logged the location of

the otters, the location of the catamaran, the distance between the two

groups, and the behavior of the otters at that particular time. I divided the

behavior into five distinct categories: swimming, fishing, eating, relaxing,

and alarm behavior.

b. I then compared my observations to published data on giant river otter

behavior both on the Tres Chimbadas Lake, and in other regions as well.

3) What is the relationship between these observed behavioral patterns, and the

tourists? And more specifically, at what distances do these changes occur?

a. This was the main focus of my research, in which I attempted to determine

how much of an effect the tourist catamarans were having on the otter behavior on the lake, and at what distances those changes would occur.

b. In order to measure these changes, I placed myself on the side of the

catamaran closest to the otters location, taking distance measurements

every five minutes with Bushnell YardagePro Binoculars. For general

measurements I measured the distance to the most central member of the

otter groups. When I was expecting a zone of tolerance violation, I began

continuously measuring the distance to the otter closest to the boat, taking

the closest reading before a change in behavior as a data point. In order to

measure the distance to the otters, which were usually swimming in the

water with little of the bodies exposed, I had to be able to bounce the laser

off of the otters heads while they were above the water. I could reliably do

this at distances closer than about 250 yards. When the group was farther

than 250 yards I attempted to take a direct measurement to the otters, and

when I couldnt successfully do that I measured the distance to the bank of

the lake closest to the otters, getting a reading with about +/- 20m accuracy.

I deemed this to be acceptable because there were never any zone of

tolerance violations that I was unable to measure because of their distance.

c. When the catamaran was approaching the otters, I made no effort to suggest

certain actions to the guides who were in charge of moving the boat.

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Instead, I monitored the distance and took notes on the different strategies

that the guides used to approach the otters.

Instrumentation

- Binoculars with laser rangefinder

- Recording data sheets

- Digital Camera

Significance:

I am particularly drawn to this topic because of its relationship with conservationecology and the possibility to help find a balance between the tourism that brings a large

amount of money to the Peruvian economy, and the need to conserve and protect the

animals in the rainforest. I have decided to use the large river otter as a sample for this

conflict because the otters are a key charismatic species of Tambopata and are also one of

the most easily threatened by the human presence. The river otters are also highly

endangered because in the past the native population would kill the otters for their pelts,

which were very valuable as trade items. Today the pressure continues from tourism,

increased boat traffic on rivers, pollution, and also from local fisherman who view the

otters as prime scapegoats for the diminishing productivity of their fishing grounds. In the

course of this project I have observed various otter behaviors, tourist interactions with the

otters, and talked to guides about approach strategies in the effort to produce some

preliminary recommendations that once supplemented by further study could prove to be

very helpful in maintaining a good equilibrium between the needs of tourists and the needs

of the otter population on the Tres Chimbadas Lake.

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Results and Discussion

Overview of Tourism use of Tres Chimbadas Lake

Rainforest Expeditions Lodge had the largest presence in the Tres Chimbadas Lake,

running trips there every day. The only exceptions when trips were not offered were in

cases of severe weather. During my stay in the months of July and August, the high season

for tourism in Peru, there were only three days in which a boat trip to the lake was not

offered. A trip to the oxbow lake was the standard activity for the morning on the second

day of tours for all tourists, regardless of their particular package. Most people would have

arrived the afternoon before, had a short walk in the rainforest, and possibly a view of the

surroundings from the RFE canopy tower followed by dinner. In some cases because of delayed arrivals, tourists did not get the chance for any rainforest activities before their trip

to the lake. I found that for many of the people the trip to the oxbow lake served as a sort of

first look at the rainforest, shaping their perspective on the rainforest in many ways.

Trips for the tourists began at 4:30 am when the boat/s would leave from the dock

at the Posada Amazonas Lodge, and travel about 10 minutes up the river to a trailhead.

From that trailhead tourists and guides walked 30-40 minutes to the oxbow lake. Group

sizes varied considerably for each trip, and were highly dependent on number of new

reservations at the lodge. Groups for the lake during my stay ranged between 11 and 48

passengers, with an average of 25 tourists visiting the lake on any given day. Groups

started their tour of the lake at an average time of 6:29, and median time of 6:12. Boats had

completed the lake activity by an average time of 9:17 and median time of 9:04. The total

time on the lake for a given RFE group averaged slightly less than three hours.

For the first part of my research there was only one catamaran operational, and all

tourists had to fit onto the one boat for their tour of the lake. This lack of a second boat led

at times to groups as large as 29 on the one operational catamaran. However group sizes

did remain high throughout the summer mainly because it was the tourist high season, with

tourists and their guides numbering over 70 for some nights at Posada Amazonas. Posada

Amazonas did follow the proposed circular route around the lake, and would typically start

that route looking primarily for birds, caiman and the giant river otters. By 8:30 the boat

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would stop near the limit zone and fish for piranha. This fishing break served as a way to

occupy tourists if the otters hadnt been spotted on a given day, and provided an alternate

activity for some tourists who werent as interested in the animals.

Rainforest Expeditions use of the lake constituted the majority of tourist visits to

the lake. Two other lodges also ran services to the lake, though they were less frequent and

had fewer passengers. Inotawa Expeditions was the second most frequent user of the Tres

Chimbadas Lake, and would arrive some days between 9:30 and 10:00 am, right as the

RFE group was leaving the lake. Their groups consisted of 10 or fewer passengers,

averaging around five. Inotawa would use the same boats and port as RFE, and followed

the FZS suggested circular route around the lake. The Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge also

ran tours to the lake. This lodge had the fewest tourists, and as such, did not run trips to the

lake as frequently. Over two months Tambo Tres Chimbadas visited the lake only four times between the hours of 6 am and 10 am. They used a long canoe, and typically had 4-6

passengers with two guides. This lodge did not repect the limit zone and crossed it on three

of their four visits to the lake. The one day that the limit line was not crossed was because

the tourists were visiting the lake for the second day in a row and were not looking for

birds and animals, and instead headed to another part of the lake for a fishing activity.

Tourists who visit Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lake

One of the key aspects to the lake use includes understanding the tourists who are

visiting the lake. It is interesting to note that the people who generally use Posada

Amazonas are very well educated. Of the people I surveyed 89% had a college degree or

more. 57% of the Posada Amazonas visitors to the lake whom I surveyed had postgraduate

degrees. Only 2% of the visitors had not attended at least some college. All of this presents

the clear case that the tourists who visit of the Tres Chimbadas Lake are very well

educated, at least compared to the general populace. Tourists were generally from the

United Stated, Britain, Germany, and Australia, with others from Italy, Spain, Peru, and

New Zealand. Tourists had an averaged 42 years of age.

Despite the common tie of being well educated and well into their careers,

there were definite differences between how the tourists approached their visits to the Tres

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Chimbadas Lake, and how they viewed their experience with the otters. One of the main

differences that I observed, and was a common sentiment echoed among the guides and

staff at the Posada Amazonas Lodge, was the large difference between the tourists who had

arranged their trip to Posada Amazonas on their own and those who had come with a tour

group. Tourists who were part of a tour group had generally arranged for their trip out of

country and had a tour guide escorting their group throughout their trip in Peru. Most of the

tour group people who I talked to had come to Peru to see Machu Picchu especially, along

with some other Inca ruins. For most of them the trip to the rainforest was purchased as an

add-on, and generally consisted of a 3 day/2 night excursion. 35% of those I surveyed were

a part of these tour groups. The distinction between the tour groups who visit the lodge and

those who come on their own is something that I believe is very important. My

observations, combined with those of the guides seems to indicate that those who comefrom the tour groups generally (not always) are there on an extension to their planned trip

and are less interested in the content of their visit then on saying that they had been to the

rainforest itself. In looking at tourist behavior on the lake it was clearly apparent that there

were tourists with very different expectations for their experience on the lake, with the

otters, and with different levels of interest in the natural world. A part of this was definitely

tied in with the tour groups, who had come to the rainforest with very few expectations,

little to no knowledge of the place, and who were there only for a very short time. For these

people there was generally less of a general idealistic interest in the preservation of the

environment, and less involvement and interest in the otter activity at the Tres Chimbadas

Lake. This group remains an untapped resource for change that has thus far been

underutilized by the Posada Amazonas Lodge. Currently there is a problem in the

education of the tour group members who are coming to Posada Amazonas. They have

generally come to the rainforest without any significant exposure to what the rainforest has

to offer and without any particular interest in conservation and ecology. To this end, a

better program educating the tourists about what they could expect and why certain aspects

of the rainforest are important could be highly effective in increasing the average tourist

interest in their respective rainforest experience and increase tourists interest in

conservation and conservation activities after they leave Posada Amazonas for their home

countries.

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In another area of distinction, there were a variety of responses to the observation

of the otters that should be examined in order to form a better formula for interaction

between otters and tourists in the future. In general there was not a clear explanation of

what the tourists could expect regarding the quality and nature of their interaction with the

otters before the activity started. On a given day the tourist catamarans only came within a

few hundred meters of the giant river otters, and then stopped. Some tourists were clearly

disappointed that the boats were not approaching the otters as close as they would have

liked. In general they were appeased by the explanation that this strategy was in the otters

best interest. However while the tourists might have been satisfied with the boat not

approaching the otters more closely, they did not always feel as much of a connection to

the giant otters, interest in their conservation, or as satisfied with their overall tour. It would

make sense then for the companies bringing people to Tres Chimbadas to maximize thetourists level of engagement and enjoyment of their interaction with the otters while still

having a minimal impact on the otters. This would keep the otter population stable for the

future, but will also increase tourists interest in otter conservation, and willingness to

recommend their trip to their friends as well. This makes sense for both conservation and

for business. The question is: How can this balance be maintained between the tourists

desire to come as close as possible to the otters and the needs of the otters to have a certain

degree of free space?

Influence of Ecotourism on Otter Behavior

The primary goal of my study was to observe the effect that the boats servicing the

Tres Chimbadas Lake had on otter behavior in order to determine how much space the

otters needed to have uninterrupted behavior. I also tried to determine the distance at which

the boats had this impact on behavior so that impact could be minimized in the future. This

is especially important since it has been clearly observed that giant otters are especially

sensitive to the human presence, which happens to be quite significant at the Tres

Chimbadas Lake which draws at least 5000 visitors each year (Notin 2003). In all I found

that the main impact of boats on the lake was with otter fishing behavior and success.

There was very little impact on otter behaviors such as relaxing and swimming that

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occurred as a result of ecotourism boats operated by Posada Amazonas and Inotawa. Otters

that were swimming to another portion of the lake would encounter the catamarans, deviate

from their swimming pattern and continue on. Boats never came close enough to the otters

that were sunning or eating on logs to cause them to leave and move to another portion of

the lake.

The majority of tourism impact was seen in variations in otter fishing behaviors.

Otters that were fishing on the lake would generally not stay in the same spot. They would

fish in on particularly productive area for a time and then move around the lake diving for

fish as they swam. When the otters would find fish on their dives, the group would stop and

begin fishing again. It was common for the otters to be diving in their moving fishing

pattern and have to deviate from their chosen route to avoid the catamaran. As the otters

neared the zone of tolerance point they sped up their swimming, regardless of whether theyhad been swimming or fishing before. When the group was fishing they dove more

frequently, and with some exceptions were less willing to eat fish that they had caught

within 100 meters of the catamaran. Previous research has shown that this change in

fishing patterns could be one of the larges effects that ecotourism has on the otters relating

to their overall fitness and ability to thrive in their environment in the future. In 2003, the

Tres Chimbadas otter group caught significantly fewer fish in the hour following an alarm

call, compared to normal catch rates (Dauphine 2003). While I did not have the capacity to

measure catch rates during the course of my research I was able to observe that the otter

family group never caught a large catfish while fishing within 150 meters of the

catamarans. Fishing in this distance was sporadic and catch consisted mainly of white and

yellow piranha both relatively small fish. This lack of success could be mainly a result of

the otters increased speed and lack of time to practice sufficient hunting strategies. The

decline in the catch of larger catfish which weighed several kilograms each could prove to

be a significant negative impact in the future. However, if care is taken to keep the tourist

boats outside of the otters zone of tolerance then such an effect could be kept to a

minimum.

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The distance at which otters

would not enter varied greatly, and

depended on a variety of factors.

Through my study I found some

consistent points at which the otters

would stop their fishing behaviors,

altering their swimming patterns to

move farther from the boats. I categorized alterations in fishing routes and swimming

routes as a violation of the otters zone of tolerance. The average zone of tolerance

violation where the otters would

stop approaching the catamaran

was 148 meters, with a median of 147 meters and a standard

deviation of 53 meters. In my

view this large deviation is due to

the wide variety of tourists

present on the catamaran, both in

their number and in the noise

level that they create. To test this

theory I measured the average zone of tolerance between the otters and my single person

canoe. With fewer passengers (1) and a carefully controlled noise level I observed an

average zone of tolerance of 55.5 meters with a standard deviation of only 6.6 meters.

Closer analysis shows a clear relationship between the number of tourists on the catamaran

and the distance at which the otters are willing to approach. By looking at the graph to the

left we can see the impact that noise level and the behavior of the tourists can have on the

otters zone of tolerance. For a given number of passengers there are a number of different

distances that the otters considered too close, and decided to leave the area. This difference

could be due to the fact that some boats with the same number of people were just noisier

than others, limiting the distance that the otters are willing to approach.

This correlation between number of passengers and zone of tolerance can also be

seen when we look at the closest distance that the otters were willing to approach. This data

31

Passenger number effect on Zone of Tolerance

y = 4.3373x + 65.142R 2 = 0.4232

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 10 20 30 40Number of passengers

Z o n e o

f t o l e r a n c e

( m e t e r s )

Closest Distance all types of Boatsy = 4.98x + 43.571

R2

= 0.6442

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Number of Passengers

Z o n e o

f t o l e r a n c e

D i s t a n c e


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set counts only one boat/otter interaction per day and could be a more relevant measure of

tourist effect on the otters as it controls for acclimatization when the otters approached the

boat to different distances throughout the day, coming closer each time as the boat became

more familiar. This trend of gradual decrease in zone of tolerance data held true for 2/3 of

the days where there were multiple zone of tolerance violations. In this analysis we again

see an increase in the distance necessary between the otters and the boat changing at 4-5

meters per passenger added.

Zone of tolerance data was entirely determined by the dominant female (mother) of

the group. She would consistently be the one to lead the family between destinations. When

swimming, the family group would form a straight line behind her and follow her positions

exactly. During the course of my research, when the mother was leading the family in a

circular pattern around the lake the family group took careful note of the distance that themother determined safe. When the family group was deviating in an arc around the

catamaran the breeding male and rest of the group varied from the mother in their distance

from the boat by an average of only +/- 3 meters. During fishing behavior the mother

would generally lead the group in a given direction while they were all intermittently

diving underwater searching for fish. The family group was more spread out and not in an

exact line. It was in these situations that the closest otter approaches occurred, as the

younger otters became curious and approached the boat slowly before the fishing mother

took notice and called them back. This coincides exactly with what is known about giant

otter behavior where the breeding female is usually the head of the family group and

controls much of the family group behavior.

Previous research by David Dauphine on the same family group in 2003 showed

the average alarm call in response to catamarans occurred at 165 meters with a standard

deviation of 86 meters. He found the average distance between the otters and boats

throughout their time together on the lake to be 721 meters, with a standard deviation of

518 meters (Dauphine 2003). To date this is the only other catamaran to otter distance data

available. This data was taken a GPS mapping system and is probably less accurate than

the line-of-sight laser rangefinder used for my data. However there are some valuable

comparisons that can be made from the data surveying the family group over two

subsequent years from 2003-2004. In 2004 the average alarm call distance had decreased to

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58 meters with a standard deviation of 18.4 meters. This result is encouraging, indicating

that severely disturbing activities from the catamarans eliciting an alarm call at distances

greater than 100 meters had ceased. Behavior on the boat has then become more constant,

with less variability seen in the distance of alarm calls and only a more static baseline of

human interference.

Current alarm calls mainly stemmed from the younger members of the otter family

coming closer to the catamarans out of curiosity, and then being called back by the mother

of the family group with an alarm call. Alarm calls decreased to from 15 in 2003 to 7 in

2004. Six calls were from the mother calling her family back to a distance she deemed safe

and the previous fishing behavior quickly resulted, indicating that there had been a minimal

overall negative effect from the human intrusion. One alarm call was prompted by a tourist

using flash photography while the otters were within 50 meters of the catamaran. The ottersfled to the other side of the lake and did not resume fishing behavior for more than 20

minutes. In addition to fewer alarm calls, otters generally were closer to the tourist

catamarans, with the average distance of 520 meters (std dev 226 meters) much lower than

the 2003 number of 721 meters.

Otter distance and behavior also had a significant interaction with the weather.

Otter sightings were rare around time of the cold spells that swept through the region on

occasion. There were times when the otters had been absent from the lake for several days.

Once they returned they were observed fishing very intently, and had a larger zone of

tolerance, as they were less likely to approach the boats. Especially noticeable was a total

absence of curiosity, as the otters spent their entire time on the lake fishing. Conversely

there were times when the otters had had several successful days of fishing in a row. When

this happened they would come closer to observe the catamaran before the mother felt

uncomfortable with the distance and lead them away.

There also seems to be significant evidence that a single zone of tolerance for all

giant river otters does not exist. While my research of the Tres Chimbadas family group

showed an aversion to distances closer than 147 meters, different family groups in other

areas have a different tolerance for a human presence. In some areas of Manu otters have

been recorded coming as close as five meters from tourist boats, and show no fear of the

human presence (Brecht-Munn and Munn 1988). It is standard for recommended distances

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for observation by researchers to vary by territory and otter family group (Groenendijk

2004). Because there are very few interactions between otter family groups, due mainly to

the fact that otter territories are separated by great distances, it is likely that there is a

vertical transmission of behavioral patters from one generation to the next. In this model

the mother of one family group will set the norms for behavior that will be followed by her

subsequent descendants. This could also be the case with a family groups tolerance for

humans. Evidence for this could perhaps be found in the zones of tolerance that differ

based on family group. The family group on the Tres Chimbadas Lake has seen at least

some sporadic forms of human activity on the lake since the mid 1900s, with heavy

tourism use starting in 1999. Now, even with upwards of 5000 tourists visiting the lake

every year, the Tres Chimbadas otters do not seem to have acclimatized significantly, and

are nowhere near approaching the five meter tolerance level seen in other family groups.This could indeed indicate a baseline behavioral standard that has been followed over time

with any variations occurring very slowly. Further studies tracking the change in tolerance

levels over time would be needed to validate this hypothesis.

Suggestions for Change

Since it seems as though the primary otter reaction to the catamarans on the lake is

based on the number of people on board, there are a number of possible changes that can be

made to either decrease the number of people, or decrease the effects that a large number of

people can have such as noise. There is currently a possibility that the Posada Amazonas

Lodge would build an observation tower on the side of the Tres Chimbadas Lake. This

would allow the otters to freely travel throughout the lake without having certain fishing

spots limited by tourist presence. While this tower would be a good step there would still

be a problem with tourists making noise, even if they would be in a tower.

One of the reasons that there were times with high noise levels was because there

was not a consistent expectation for tourist behavior as they went to the lake. For Posada

Amazonas tours, expectations for the tourists were given in a quick speech by the guides as

the catamarans pushed off into the lake and varied significantly based on the guide who

was giving the instructions. The fact that the tourists should remain silent when the otters

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were in sight was always included, but rarely emphasized. Also, when going to the lake

tourists had often heard very little about the giant river otters, only that they were

endangered and could possibly be seen during their trip to the lake. For this reason tourists

were not as informed or excited about the otters as they could be when they first went to

the lake. Lake visits always included a short talk on the river otters, but only at the end of

the visit as the catamaran was returning to the port after the otter observation had been

completed. This isnt the best way to organize the Tres Chimbadas visit as tourists are

uniformed during their visit and unable to fully appreciate the otters that they are seeing on

the lake. This means that they dont fully appreciate the sensitivity of the otter family, their

incredibly sensitive nature and endangered status, and the full importance of remaining

silent during the visit. I found that for most visits tourists would be quiet and cooperative

when the otters would first come into sight, and would be less quiet and less interested ininteractions later in the lake trip. In order to allow the tourists to appreciate the otters and

lake ecosystem more I recommend that tourists have an educational program before they

come to the lake or at least before they see the otters. This could consist of a quick talk

after dinner for all of those who will be going to the lake the next day, or giving the talk

about the otters as the boat is leaving the port and before the otters appear.

There are also no clear guidelines for tourist behavior on Tres Chimbadas Lake.

This presents a dilemma, as the guides are put in the position of enforcing vague rules and

run the risk of alienating their group. This is something that they are less willing to do since

a sizable portion of their salary can be based on tips. In order to take the burden off of the

guides and ensure greater cooperation by tourists there should be a clearly defined set of

rules that is posted in the lake area. One set of the rules should be at the entrance to the

trail, and the other should be placed as a plaque on the catamaran itself to remind tourists

throughout the trip of correct behavior without forcing the guides to assume a policing role.

A suggestion for the sign on the catamaran would be as follows:

The giant river otters are highly endangered and sensitive animals. Please observe the

following guidelines while the otters are present on the lake. Your cooperation will help

noah hawthorne how close is too close 2004

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