no-tillage and conventional tillage effects on durum wheat yield, grain quality and soil moisture...
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Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–78
No-tillage and conventional tillage effects on durum wheat yield,
grain quality and soil moisture content in southern Italy
P. De Vita a,c,*, E. Di Paolo b, G. Fecondo b, N. Di Fonzo c, M. Pisante d
a ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy & Environmental, Trisaia Research Center,
S.S. 106 Jonica, Km 419.5-75026 Rotondella, MT, Italyb CO.T.IR., Consorzio per le Tecniche Irrigue, 66054 Vasto, CH, Italy
c Experimental Institute for Cereal Research, Section of Foggia, 71100 Foggia, Italyd Department of Food Sciences, Crop and Soil Sciences Section, University of Teramo,
Via Spagna, 1, 64023 Mosciano S. Angelo, TE, Italy
Received 28 May 2004; received in revised form 10 January 2006; accepted 27 January 2006
Abstract
No-tillage (NT) is becoming increasingly attractive to farmers because it clearly reduces production costs relative to
conventional tillage (CT). However, many producers in southern Italy are reluctant to adopt this practice because NT can have
contrasting consequences on grain yield depending on weather conditions. The effect of NT and CT on continuous durum wheat
(Triticum durum Desf.) under rainfed Mediterranean conditions was studied, over a 3-year period (2000–2002) at two locations
(Foggia and Vasto) in southern Italy. Yield, grain quality [thousand kernel weight (TKW), test weight (TW) and protein content
(PC)] and soil water content were assessed.
Higher yield was obtained with NT than CT in the first 2 years at Foggia. In contrast, mean yield and quality parameters at Vasto
were similar for the two treatments, except in the third year in which CT produced more than NT (4.6 Mg ha�1 versus 2.9 Mg ha�1).
At Foggia, TW and TKW were higher in NT than CT in all years. Highest PC was obtained under CT (19.6% and 15.5% for CT
versus 14.7% and 11.4% for NT, respectively, in the growing season 2000–2001 and 2001–2002) indicating that grain was shriveled
with low starch accumulation.
At Foggia, where this study was part of a long-term experiment started in 1995, a strong correlation was observed between yield
and rainfall during the wheat growing season. The coefficient of determination (R2) values for CT and NT were 0.69* and 0.31 ns,
respectively, and the regression straight line crossed around 300 mm of rainfall. These results indicate that NT was superior below
this rainfall value, whereas more rainfall enhanced yield in CT. We conclude that NT performed better at Foggia with limited
rainfall during the durum wheat growing season. The superior effect of NT in comparison to CT, was due to lower water evaporation
from soil combined with enhanced soil water availability.
# 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: No-tillage; Conventional tillage; Durum wheat; Yield; Grain quality; Soil water content
1. Introduction
Durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) is the main
cereal crop in Italy, with >1.6 Mha producing about
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0835 974541;
fax: +39 0835 974749.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. De Vita).
0167-1987/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.01.012
4 Tg per year. Production is concentrated in southern
and central Italy (the two Italian macro areas under the
European cereal subsidy regime) and it has high
variability in terms of yield and grain quality. The
factors most strongly influencing crop yield, particu-
larly grain yield, are soil moisture and N, the former
of which depends on rainfall and its distribution during
the growing season (Cooper et al., 1987). Typically in
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–7870
the past, durum wheat-fallow (one crop in 2 years) has
been the cropping system used extensively in a rainfed
farming system. This management system was designed
to enhance water storage, in order to ensure emergence
and establishment of the wheat seedling. This ancient
agronomic practice, involved the use of moldboard
plowing as primary tillage followed by repeated
secondary shallow tillage, aimed to control weeds
and water consumption. Tillage operations necessary to
remove weeds and prevent crust formation cause moist
soil to move to the surface increasing soil evaporation
(Aase and Siddoway, 1982). Still today, farmers
continue to use intensive conventional tillage (CT)
(i.e. moldboard plowing) for continuous wheat produc-
tion in these areas. However, the European Community
agricultural policy has strongly encouraged conserva-
tion tillage practices (and in some instances the
conversion of cropland into set-aside land) in order
to decrease soil loss (European Union, 2000).
The first no-tillage (NT) trials in Italy were
conducted in 1968, but it is only in the last decade
that NT technology has experienced a substantial
expansion. This has been based on the need to reduce
crop costs, greater availability on the Italian market of
equipment for sowing on untilled soil, and progress in
the availability of adequate herbicides (Sartori and
Peruzzi, 1994; Sandri and Sartori, 1997).
Conservation tillage, defined here as NT with a crop
residue mulch cover, has considerable potential for
stabilizing production in semiarid zones, but can have
contrasting consequences on water conservation and
yield. Lal et al. (1978) and Osuji (1984) demonstrated
positive effects, whereas Chopart and Kone (1985) and
Wilhelm et al. (1987) found negative effects. This
variability could be due to variations in water balances
both across fields and between different cropping
seasons, leading to positive effects on water storage
and negative effects on water uptake by plants, in
different years.
NT management can increase both water use effi-
ciency and wheat grain yield under dryland conditions
(Bonfil et al., 1999). Clean fallow was also shown to
generally increase soil water storage (Bonfil et al., 1999).
Covering of the soil surface with straw mulch is
another agronomic input with the potential to alleviate
stress by both reducing water evaporation and increas-
ing infiltration (Lal, 1975; Fisher, 1987; Unger et al.,
1991; Rinaldi et al., 2000). In addition, surface
mulching with crop residues reduces temperature,
evaporation, and wind speed gradient and activity at
the soil-atmosphere interface (Hatfield et al., 2001).
However, it is recognized that the production of residues
in semiarid environments may be insufficient to
produce these desired effects. Temperate soils under
NT generally contain greater concentrations of orga-
nic C and microbial biomass, especially in the upper
layer (Cereti and Rossini, 1995; Dick, 1983; Unger,
1991; Potter and Chichester, 1993; Christensen et al.,
1994; Campbell et al., 1989; Arshad et al., 1990;
Logan et al., 1991; Basso et al., 1993). Many
researchers (Hill, 1990; Logsdon et al., 1990; Vyn
and Raimbault, 1993; Cassel et al., 1995) have
reported greater bulk density and soil penetration
resistance and lower total porosity in NT compared
with moldboard plow and chisel plow.
However, the effect of conservation practices is
sometimes contradictory and depends on soil type,
climate and previous management history (Prasad and
Power, 1991).
The long-term effects of CT and NT, under
Mediterranean conditions, have scarcely been studied.
By contrast, NT practices in other areas such as USA,
Australia, and Canada are well documented (Baker
et al., 1996). Tillage effects on wheat yield under
rainfed conditions have been thoroughly studied in the
Great Plains of the USA (Halvorson and Reule, 1994;
Norwood, 1994; Unger, 1994; Wiese et al., 1994).
Furthermore, there is little information in the literature
concerning the effects of tillage systems on durum
wheat grain quality after several years of reduced and
NT practices in Mediterranean dryland conditions.
Several studies have reported that wheat quality is also
influenced by the interaction of a number of other
factors, including cultivar, soil, climate, cropping
practices and grain storage conditions (Randall and
Moss, 1990; Blumenthal et al., 1991; Borghi et al.,
1997). Water stress is associated with increased grain
protein content (Terman et al., 1996), while an excess
of soil moisture can lead to a decrease in grain protein
content (Robinson et al., 1979). Grain protein content
is the result of complex interactions between N and
water availability, yield and temperature, which in
many cases hinder their investigation. Some studies
have analyzed wheat grain protein content as a
function of tillage system, reporting no significant
differences (Baenzinger et al., 1985; Bassett et al.,
1989; Cox and Shelton, 1992). In contrast, Lopez-
Bellido et al. (1998) reported higher grain protein
content for CT than for NT; they also recorded
differences in alveograph parameters between the two
tillage systems. Our objective was to determine the
effects of NT and CT practices on durum wheat yield,
grain quality, and soil water content during several
Mediterranean growing seasons.
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–78 71
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study sites
Experiments were conducted at two locations in
southern Italy, Foggia and Vasto, during three growing
seasons (1999–2000, 2000–2001 and 2001–2002). At
Foggia (418280N, 158320E and 75 m a.s.l), the study was
part of a long-term experiment started in 1995 and
conducted at the Experimental Institute for Cereal
Research on a clay-loam soil (Typic Chromoxerert). At
Vasto (428100N, 148380E and 40 m a.s.l.), the study was
conducted at the Experimental Station for Land and
Irrigation Techniques (CO.T.IR.) on a silty clay-loamy
soil (Aquic Haploxerert). A datalogger was installed to
collect the following daily weather data: solar radiation,
minimum and maximum temperature and rainfall at
each location. Soil characteristics of both sites are
reported in Table 1.
2.2. Experimental design and crop management
Two tillage treatments in a continuous durum wheat
system were compared: (i) conventional tillage (CT),
consisting of moldboard ploughing to 30 cm depth
followed by secondary tillage with a soil grubber and
harrow for seedbed preparation, and (ii) no-tillage (NT)
with residue retained on the surface. In NT, crop
residues cut by the combine were chopped and spread
evenly with a combine-attached chopper. NT plots were
seeded with a NT seed drill. Weed were controlled with
glyphosate [isopropylamine salt of N-(phosphono-
methyl)glycine] at a rate of 93.4 g a.i. ha�1 before
planting. At each site, treatments were arranged in a
complete randomized design replicated three times with
plots of 1,500 m2 size. At Vasto, the experimental trial
followed a continuous durum wheat system under CT,
Table 1
Soil characteristics of the two experimental sites (Vasto and Foggia,
Italy)
Soil characteristics Vasto 0–60 cm
depth
Foggia 0–45 cm
depth
Clay (%) 40.7 36
Silt (%) 52.9 17
Sand (%) 6.4 47
pH 8.2 7.8
Exchangeable Ca (g/kg) 122 19
Available P (mg/kg) 14 19
Exchangeable K (mg/kg) 375 111
Total N (g kg�1) 1.4 1.5
Organic C (g kg�1) 16.0 17.3
Bulk density (Mg m�3) 1.25 1.29
while at Foggia site the study was part of a long-term
experiment started in 1995 with the same experimental
design adopted in the present study. During the 1995–
1999 period, only yield data were collected. At each
site the experimental treatments were repeated every
year on the same plots; durum wheat cultivar
‘‘Ofanto’’ was sown on December 10, 12, and 12, in
1999, 2000, and 2001, respectively, at Foggia and
December 3, November 21, and December 2, in 1999,
2000, and 2001, respectively, at Vasto. The seeding
rate was 200 kg ha�1 at Foggia and 230 kg ha�1 at
Vasto. Durum wheat cultivar ‘‘Ofanto’’ was adopted in
these trials for two reasons: (i) it is the most common
cultivar in the experimental areas, and (ii) it is well
suited to the local climate in soils with low N
availability. Nitrogen (90 kg N ha�1) was split applied,
at the rate of 1/3 before sowing (incorporated by disk
harrowing in CT and surface broadcast in NT) as
ammonium phosphate, and 2/3 N top-dressed applied
at the beginning of wheat tillering, corresponding to
Stage 21 of the Zadoks scale (Zadoks, 1974) as
ammonium nitrate. Weeds within the growing season
were controlled by means of specific herbicides:
Tralcossidim (1.7 l ha�1) + Clopiralid + MCPA + -
Fluroxypyr (2.0–2.5 l ha�1).
2.3. Yield and grain quality analysis
Whole plots were harvested mechanically early in
June each year and grain yield determined at 13%
moisture content. Several commercial and technologi-
cal quality parameters were determined. Thousand
kernel weight (TKW) was calculated as the mean
weight of three sets of 100 grains per plot. Test weight
(TW) was measured on three samples of 250 g per plot
and expressed as kg hl�1 obtained with a Shopper
chondrometer. Grain N content was determined by
means of the standard Kjeldahl method. Grain protein
concentration (PC) was calculated after multiplying
Kjeldahl N by 5.7 and expressed on a dry weight basis.
2.4. Soil analysis
For each location and during two growing seasons
(2000–2001 and 2001–2002) soil water content was
measured on a monthly basis using the gravimetric
method, based on the conventional oven-dry weight and
multiplied by the bulk density (Qiu et al., 2001). At
Vasto, soil samples were taken at five depths (0–5, 5–10,
10–20, 20–40 and 40–60 cm), while at Foggia, soil
samples were taken at a depth of 0–15, 15–30 and 30–
45 cm. Only water in the profile as a whole is discussed,
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–7872
not the individual increments. Soil physical properties
(bulk density, sand %, silt % and clay %) and soil
chemical properties (pH, total N and organic C) were
determined on each plot at the beginning and end of
the study.
2.5. Crop water use
On the basis of measured soil water content, seasonal
crop water use (WU) was estimated according to the
following water balance equation:
WU ¼ �DSWCþ R� D (1)
where ‘‘DSWC’’ is the variation, between seedling and
harvest date, of the volumetric soil water content at 0–
0.60 and 0–0.45 m depth layer, respectively, at Vasto
and Foggia, R the amount of rainfall, and D is the water
lost due to deep percolation, all expressed in mm. The D
term was calculated according to a water balance
approach, using daily values of evaportranspiration
(ET) and rainfall, and starting from measured soil water
content at sowing. Whenever field capacity was
exceeded, deep percolation water was calculated.
Water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated as the ratio
of grain yield and water used by the crop (Roygard
et al., 2002).
Table 2
Monthly rainfall and mean maximum and minimum temperature for three g
Foggia (1955–1994) and Vasto (1965–1993), Italy
1999–2000 2000–2001
Tmax
(8C)
Tmin
(8C)
Rainfall
(mm)
Tmax
(8C)
Tmin
(8C)
Rain
(mm
Foggia
November 17.8 8.5 55 20.9 10.3 36
December 14.8 6.6 31 17.4 7.5 16
January 12.8 2.8 12 15.6 7.4 27
February 15.0 4.2 30 15.8 5.3 18
March 18.5 5.4 33 22.4 12.1 11
April 22.7 10.8 64 20.8 8.6 77
May 29.1 14.6 61 27.5 13.7 16
Sum 286 201
Vasto
November 15.7 6.5 105 19.1 7.8 26
December 12.7 3.8 53 14.7 4.5 55
January 10.2 1.5 41 13.3 3.8 104
February 11.8 2.4 50 13.0 2.5 23
March 15.2 3.0 24 20.4 7.5 16
April 19.0 8.0 59 17.3 6.1 61
May 23.8 12.8 24 22.4 11.8 43
Sum 356 328
2.6. Statistical analysis
Data from individual years and from combined years
were analyzed using ANOVA using Fischer’s protected
least significant difference at P < 0.05. All data were
statistically analyzed using a statistical software
package (Statistica, StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Weather conditions
Weather conditions are summarized in Table 2.
Vegetative growth of durum wheat occurred from
November to the end of February and the reproductive
period (stem elongation, heading, grain filling, and
maturation) occurred from March to May. As is typical
of the Mediterranean climate, quantity and distribution
of rainfall were highly variable, but concentrated from
the end of autumn (fall) to the beginning of spring.
Rainfall (November–May) varied among the 3 years
(Table 2), with ranges from 201 to 362 mm at Foggia
and 328 to 417 mm at Vasto.
The second study-year (2000–2001) was character-
ized by a long drought stress period. The first year
(1999–2000) was almost normal and the third year was
rowing seasons (2000–2002) compared to long-term data recorded at
2001–2002 Long-term data
fall
)
Tmax
(8C)
Tmin
(8C)
Rainfall
(mm)
Tmax
(8C)
Tmin
(8C)
Rainfall
(mm)
17.7 8.6 56 16.7 6.9 61
11.9 4.3 55 12.8 3.9 60
12.6 4.8 47 11.3 2.5 48
17.8 7.6 11 12.5 2.7 43
19.4 8.3 22 15.4 4.1 46
21.0 9.1 110 19.1 6.2 47
25.9 12.8 61 24.7 10.4 37
362 342
14.7 7.6 96 15.3 9.5 70
9.5 2.6 51 11.4 6.2 87
9.9 0.0 29 10.0 4.9 51
13.9 3.9 52 10.8 5.2 48
15.6 5.8 26 13.4 7.2 53
17.1 7.9 111 16.9 10.2 51
22.2 12.3 52 21.6 14.6 38
417 398
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–78 73
Table 3
Grain yield and qualitative parameters obtained at Vasto (Italy) during three growing-seasons (2000–2002)
Growing season Treatment Yield
(t ha�1)
Test weight
(kg hl�1)
Thousand kernel
weight (g)
Protein
content (%)
1999–2000 No-tillage 4.5 75.2 39.8 14.0
Conventional tillage 4.2 77.5 39.6 12.9
F value n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
2000–2001 No-tillage 4.5 71.5 45.1 13.8
Conventional tillage 4.7 73.8 43.7 13.4
F value n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
2001–2002 No-tillage 2.9 b 65.8 b 30.2 16.3 a
Conventional tillage 4.6 a 72.3 a 37.7 13.5 b
F value ** ** n.s. **
n.s.: not significant.** Values significant at P < 0.01 level probability.
normal (2001–2002) compared with long-term rainfall
data. During the grain filling period (April–May),
temperatures varied widely for each site and study-year
(Table 2). Mean temperature at Foggia was always
higher than at Vasto. For each location, the second
study-year was characterized by above average tem-
perature with an unexpected increase in March (Table 2)
leading to a significant shortening of the durum wheat
production cycle.
3.2. Yield and grain quality
At Vasto, there were no effects of tillage treatment
during the first 2 years (1999–2000 and 2000–2001) in
Table 4
Grain yield and qualitative parameters obtained at Foggia (Italy) during th
Growing season Treatment Yield
(t ha�1)
1999–2000 No-tillage 3.34 a
Conventional tillage 2.94 b
F value *
2000–2001 No-tillage 1.65 a
Conventional tillage 0.90 b
F value **
2000–2002 No-tillage 2.13
Conventional tillage 2.65
F value n.s.
n.s.: not significant.* Values significant at P < 0.05 level probability.
** Values significant at P < 0.01 level probability.*** Values significant at P < 0.001 level probability.
either wheat yield or quality (Table 3). In contrast,
grain yield during the same period at Foggia was
greater under NT than CT (Table 4). In the third year
(2001–2002), wheat yield was lower under NT than
CT at Vasto and not different between tillage systems
at Foggia. The low yield under NT in the third year
may have been associated with the development
of fungal disease, like powdery mildew (Blumeria
graminis f. sp. tritici) and leaf rust (Puccinia recondita
f. sp. tritici), that caused senescence during grain
filling stage with low values of TW and TKW. This
discrepancy among years was due to high precipitation
(111 mm versus 51 mm for the long-term average) in
April 2002.
ree growing-seasons (2000–2002)
Test weight
(kg hl�1)
Thousand kernel
weight (g)
Protein
content (%)
78.8 a 41.5 a 12.8 a
76.5 b 38.3 b 11.6 b
** ** **
77.2 a 40.5 a 14.7 b
73.6 b 30.2 b 19.6 a
* *** *
73.9 a 35.5 a 11.4 b
70.1 b 29.3 b 15.5 a
* * *
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–7874
For the 1999–2000 and 2000–2001 growing seasons
at Vasto, grain quality parameters were similar between
the two tillage systems (Table 3). Test weight values
were less than market requests (TW � 80 kg hl�1),
while PC values met the industry’s standards
(PC � 12.5%). No relationship was found between
TW and PC, confirming that TW was mainly affected
by shape and size of the kernels (Troccoli and Di
Fonzo, 1999) in response to the climatic conditions
during grain filling stage. In the third year, lower yield
under NT than under CT was also associated with
lower grain quality. Low values of TW and TKW
indicated that grain was shriveled with low starch
accumulation (Troccoli et al., 2000), resulting in
higher PC in NT than CT.
Grain quality at Foggia was affected by tillage
treatments during all three growing seasons (Table 4).
Specifically, TW and TKW were greater under NT than
CT each year. Protein content, in contrast, was similar
between tillage systems during the first year (1999–
2000), but lower under NT than CT in the second and
third years. The high value of PC under CT during
2000–2001 indicated that the grain was shriveled with
low starch accumulation (Troccoli et al., 2000).
At Foggia, where yield data were available since
1995, a strong correlation was observed between yield
and precipitation during the wheat cycle (Fig. 1).
Regression lines crossed at 300 mm of rainfall, a point
at which below NT was superior to CT and at which
above CT was superior to NT. The lower yield under NT
than CT at Vasto in 2001–2002 with high rainfall
confirmed this relationship. Similar results were found
under barley by Azooz and Arshad (1998), where in a
dry-year barley yield increased with NT, while in a wet
year yield was greater with CT. Again our results agree
well with the data of Lopez-Bellido et al. (1996) and
Lopez-Bellido and Lopez-Bellido (2001) for similar
environmental conditions; in fact, we found higher
Fig. 1. Correlation between grain yield and rainfall during durum
wheat cycle (November–May) at Foggia, Italy.
durum wheat yield under NT than CT in dry seasons,
while the opposite was true in wet seasons. In
northwestern Canada, barley grain yield was greater
under NT than CT in drier years, but lower in wetter
years (Arshad et al., 1999). Bonfil et al. (1999) found no
difference among tillage techniques with seasonal
rainfall (from wheat planting to harvest) of 320 mm
in Israel. At Vasto, where the precipitation during the
wheat cycle was always around 400 mm, no correlation
was found between yield and precipitation.
3.3. Soil water content
At Foggia, soil water content was significantly
greater under NT than CT, at the beginning of the
wheat cycle, during each of the two growing seasons
(Fig. 2). Higher soil water content under NT than CT
indicated reduced water evaporation during the
preceding period. This condition guaranteed an earlier
and more uniform emergence in NT than in CT
(Fig. 3), where whole plot emergence was delayed. In
2000–2001, soil water content was always greater
under NT than under CT, but differences declined
towards the end of the crop cycle (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Soil water content under conventional tillage (CT) and no-
tillage (NT) during 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 growing seasons at
Foggia, Italy. *Significant difference at P < 0.05 level probability
between tillage treatments.
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–78 75
Fig. 3. Emergence conditions of durum wheat on December 15, 2000 at Foggia, Italy under conventional tillage (left) and no-tillage (right).
In 2001–2002, soil water content under NT started
off more similar to that in CT, but became greater than
CT throughout the year. Across growing seasons, soil
water content under NT was about 20% greater than
under CT.
At Vasto, soil water content results were similar to
those at Foggia (Fig. 4), but the magnitude of difference
in soil water content between tillage systems was less
than at Foggia.
At Foggia, differences in soil water content between
NT and CT could be partly attributed to differences in
Fig. 4. Soil water content under conventional tillage (CT) and no-
tillage (NT) during 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 growing seasons at
Vasto, Italy. *Significant difference at P < 0.05 level probability
between tillage treatments.
bulk density, 1.42 Mg m�3 under NT and 1.16 Mg m�3
under CT. Differences in bulk density due to tillage
system was an annual additive effect during 7 years. As
reviewed earlier, the effects of tillage on bulk density
and therefore on porosity distribution is conflicting
(Kay and Van den Bygaart, 2002). However, under NT it
was expected that a better and more uniformly
distributed wheat root system existed in the 0–15 cm
depth (Barzegar et al., 2004; Wilhelm, 1998) due to
better soil structural conditions, improved by higher
content of organic C in comparison to CT (19.7 g kg�1
versus 18.7 g kg�1). At Vasto, soil bulk density differed
only slightly at 0–40 cm depth; being 1.37 Mg m�3
under NT and 1.33 Mg m�3 under CT.
At Foggia, greater bulk density under NT would
have increased soil water capacity, which in association
with reduced water evaporation from the soil surface
due to residue, would have enhanced available water
for the crop. Furthermore, NT can increase water
storage replenishment of deeper layers as compared
with CT (Bonfil et al., 1999). Gantzer and Blacke
(1978) reported an increase of earthworm population
and biochannels in NT system compared with CT,
resulting in higher infiltration of water. Moreover,
Douglas et al. (1980), found macropores of earthworm
channels to be the prime cause for the difference
between CT and NT tillage systems. Seasonal WU at
Vasto was 434 and 415 mm (2000–2001) and 471 and
448 mm (2001–2002), respectively, for CT and NT
treatments. At Foggia, WU was 245 and 271 mm
(2000–2001) and 420 and 407 mm (2001–2002),
respectively, for CT and NT treatments. The water
balance did not indicate drainage, so that all rainfall
was considered useful for the crop. In the Mediterra-
nean climate of southern Italy, soil water evaporation is
important before complete crop soil cover. Rinaldi et al.
(2000) found out, in an experiment with weigh
lysimeters, water saving of about 12% when mulched
P. De Vita et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 92 (2007) 69–7876
with wheat straw residue. Moreover, NT with straw
mulch can increase both WUE and grain yield (Bonfil
et al., 1999). At Foggia, greater WUE occurred with NT
(6.1 kg ha�1 mm�1) than with CT (3.7 kg ha�1 mm�1)
in 2000–2001, which was extremely dry, while no
significant differences were found in other years, where
mean WUE values were 10.8 and 8.1 kg ha�1 mm�1,
respectively, in 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 at Vasto and
5.8 kg ha�1 mm�1 at Foggia in 2001–2002.
Soil organic C at Foggia was greater with NT than
CT at 0–15 cm (19.7 g kg�1 versus 18.7 g kg�1) and at
15–30 cm (18.7 g kg�1 versus 15.0 g kg�1). The situa-
tion was reversed in the deeper layers (30–45 and 45–
60 cm), where organic C was greater in CT. These
results agree with those of other authors who observed
an effect of tillage operations on improved soil quality
indices (Dick, 1983; Lal et al., 1998), including soil
organic C storage (Dick, 1983; Lamb et al., 1985; Dao,
1991; Unger, 1991; Edwards et al., 1992; Eghball et al.,
1994; Bruce et al., 1995; Potter et al., 1998).
Conversely, increased losses of soil organic C have
been documented with CT (Lamb et al., 1985; Studdert
et al., 1997). At Vasto, no differences in content or
distribution of organic C were found, between NTand CT
(data not shown). The reason why many of the soil
properties recorded at Vasto were not significantly
different could be due to the young age of the trial. Many
of such soil modifications start 4–5 years after the
beginning of the tillage system adoption, as reported by
several authors (Rhoton, 2000; Carter and Rennie, 1982).
4. Conclusion
Superior yield and WUE occurred with NT when
precipitation was <300 mm during the wheat cycle
(November–May). Under these conditions, the NT
treatment expressed its superior nature for wheat yield
ensuring also a good level of grain quality. This is
important, since better quality of durum wheat in many
Mediterranean regions is inversely related to yield so
that the concept of quality is strictly associated to the
capacity of the soil management system to guarantee
acceptable and stable production by farmers with time.
The results presented here, show the importance of
saving soil moisture, through a reduced tillage system,
particularly in semi-arid environments, characterized
by low annual rainfall and high environmental
evapotranspiration demand. NT with residue retention
increased organic C in the upper layer of the soil, which
could lead to higher root density. This last characteristic
of crop in semi arid regions allows the ready absorption
of water minimizing water loss by evaporation.
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