nigeria and the global powers: continuity and change in...

South African Instit

ute of Inte

rnat

iona

l Affa

irs

African perspectives. Global insights.

South African Foreign Policy and African Drivers Programme

O C C A S I O N A L P A P E R N O 9 6

Nigeria and the Global Powers: Continuity and Change in Policy and Perceptions

O c t o b e r 2 0 1 1

A b i o d u n A l a o

A b o u t S A I I A

The South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA) has a long and proud record

as South Africa’s premier research institute on international issues. It is an independent,

non-government think-tank whose key strategic objectives are to make effective input into

public policy, and to encourage wider and more informed debate on international affairs

with particular emphasis on African issues and concerns. It is both a centre for research

excellence and a home for stimulating public engagement. SAIIA’s occasional papers

present topical, incisive analyses, offering a variety of perspectives on key policy issues in

Africa and beyond. Core public policy research themes covered by SAIIA include good

governance and democracy; economic policymaking; international security and peace;

and new global challenges such as food security, global governance reform and the

environment. Please consult our website www.saiia.org.za for further information about

SAIIA’s work.

A b o u t t h e S o u t h A f r I c A n f o r e I g n p o l I c y A n d A f r I c A n d r I v e r S p r o g r A m m e

Since the fall of apartheid in 1994, South Africa’s foreign policy has prioritised the

development of Africa. To achieve its ‘African Agenda’ objectives, South Africa needs to

intensify its strategic relations with key African countries. SAIIA’s South African Foreign Policy

and African Drivers (SAFPAD) Programme has a two-pronged focus. First, it unpacks South

Africa’s post-1994 Africa policy in two areas: South Africa as a norm setter in the region and

South Africa’s potential to foster regional co-operation with key African states and other

external partners, in support of the continent’s stabilisation and development. Second, it

focuses on key African driver countries’ foreign policy objectives that have the ability to

influence, positively or negatively, the pace of regional co-operation and integration.

SAFPAD assumes a holistic examination of the internal and external pressures that inform

each driver country’s foreign policy decisions by exploring contemporary domestic factors;

the scope of their bilateral relations; their role in the regional economic communities; and

lastly their relations with South Africa.

Programme head: Dr Nomfundo Xenia Ngwenya [email protected]

© SAIIA October 2011

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilised in any form by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information or

storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Opinions expressed are

the responsibility of the individual authors and not of SAIIA.

Please note that all currencies are in US$ unless otherwise indicated.

A b S t r A c t

Since the end of military rule in May 1999, Nigeria’s foreign policy has been the subject

of academic and policy interest. This is particularly in relation to its choice either continue

or change the policies pursued by erstwhile military regimes. Also of interest has been

the country’s ability to balance its obligations as a regional power, expectations as a

continental leader and aspirations as a global actor. Although Nigeria continues to be

active in regional and continental politics, its relations with major global powers, both

traditional and emerging, have been equally important, especially as key domestic and

external developments have received international attention. The paper examines Nigeria’s

recent relations with global powers. It posits that these have been influenced more by

domestic considerations than by the wider regional and continental pursuit of prestige that

had hitherto formed the cornerstone of Nigeria’s foreign policy. While pursuing domestic

political stability, the country has also recognised the need to develop its international

diplomacy. Although its relations with global powers may continue to experience hiccups,

Nigeria’s significant economic potential is likely to ensure that it remains of considerable

importance to all global actors.

A b o u t t h e A u t h o r

Abiodun Alao is a senior research fellow at the Conflict, Security and Development

Group at King’s College, London. He has written extensively on African security issues.

His published books include Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa: The Tragedy of

Endowment (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2007); The Mau-Mau Warrior (Oxford:

Osprey Publishing Company, 2005); The Burden of Collective Goodwill: The International

Involvement in the Liberian Civil War (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishers, 1996); Brothers at

War: Dissidence and Rebellion in Southern Africa (London: British Academic Press, 1994);

Peacekeepers, Politicians and Warlords: The Liberian Peace Process (Tokyo: United Nations

University Press, 1999, co-authored with John Mackinlay and Funmi Olonisakin); and Africa

After the Cold War: The Changing Perspective on Security (Trenton: African World Press,

1998, co-edited with Adebayo Oyebede).

4

S A I I A O C C A S I O N A L P A P E R N U M B E R 9 6

S O U T H A F R I C A N F O R E I G N P O L I C Y & A F R I C A N D R I V E R S P R O G R A M M E

A b b r e v I A t I o n S A n d A c r o n y m S

AFRICOM USAfricaCommand

AGOA AfricanGrowthandOpportunityAct

CNOOC ChinaNationalOffshoreOilCorporation

ECOWAS EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates

GBP Poundsterling(Britishcurrency)

GGICC GeneticInternationalCorporationofChina

MOU MemorandumofUnderstanding

MPRI MilitaryProfessionalResourcesIncorporated

N I G E R I A A N D T H E G L O B A L P O w E R S

5


I n t r o d u c t I o n

Sinceindependencein1960,governanceinNigeriahasoscillatedbetweencivilianrule

andthemilitary.Followingjustoverfiveyearsofcivilianrule,fromOctober1960to

January1966,themilitaryruleduntilOctober1975.Afurtherbriefspellofcivilianrule

punctuatedgovernanceforafurtherfiveyearsuntilDecember1985,whenthemilitary

againresumedgovernance.ThedawnofdemocracyinNigeriainMay1999calledfor

animmediateredirectioninthecountry’sforeignpolicy.Thiswasnecessarytomarkthe

changingtideinitsnewpoliticaldispensation.Itwasalsotosignalanendtotheperiod

ofmilitaryruleinwhichthecountryhadassumedanear-pariahstatusamongdemocratic

countries.IncidentssuchastheJune1993annulmentofelections,thehangingofKen

SaroWiwaandotherOgoniactivistsinNovember1995,thedetentionofmembersof

oppositiongroupsandstate-sponsoredassassinationsquads,evokedstronginternational

reactionandsanctions.TheseincludedNigeria’ssuspensionfromtheCommonwealth,the

impositionofatravelembargoonkeyofficialsandthecancellationofmilitarycontacts.1

Considerablegoodwillgreetedtheelectionofanewcivilianpresident.However, the

Obasanjoadministrationwasacutelyawareoftheneedtoembarkonacharmoffensiveto

winthefriendshipoftheinternationalcommunityandcreateanenvironmentforNigeria

toreassertitselfasakeynationinAfricaandasamajorplayeringlobaldiplomacy.

ThepaperexaminesNigeria’sforeignpolicyfrom2000to2011.It focuseslargely

onthecountry’srelationswithtraditionalglobalpowerssuchastheUS,Britain,France

andRussia;andemergingglobalpowerssuchasChina,IndiaandBrazil.Itconsidersthe

presentdispensationandpossiblefuturedirectionsforeachoftheserelations,especiallyin

lightoftradeandcommercialrelations,diplomaticcontactsandmilitarylinks.Thepaper

consistsofarefivemainsectionsofresearch.Thefirstdiscussesthecentraldeterminants

ofNigeria’sforeignpolicysincethereturnofdemocracyin1999.Thesecondfocuseson

thecountry’srelationshipwithtraditionalmajorpowers.ThethirddiscussesNigeria’s

relationswithChina,IndiaandBrazil.ThefourthreviewsNigeria’srelationswithkey

globalorganisations,inviewoftheirconnectionwithglobalpowers.Theconcluding

sectionlooksatfuturedirectionsforNigeria’srelationswiththesecountries.

p u r S u I t o f A c h A r m o f f e n S I v e : d e t e r m I n A n t S o f A n e w f o r e I g n p o l I c y A g e n d A

TheciviliangovernmentthatassumedpowerinMay1999recognisedthenecessityto

redirectNigeria’sforeignpolicy.Itsfirststepinachievingthiswastoaggressivelysearch

for friends,especiallyamongcountries responsible for influencingglobalaffairsand

shapinginternationaleconomicdiplomacy.Nigeriarealisedthatitsprimaryinfluencelay

intheWestAfricansub-region,whereithadbeenthedominantactor,andintherestof

Africawhere,alongsideSouthAfrica,ithadbecomeamajorplayer.However,Nigeriaalso

recognisedthatitsabilitytoplaythisregionalandcontinentalrolewaslargelydependent

onitsrelationswiththeglobalpowers.

AnumberofmajortrendsareclearlydiscernableinNigeria’sforeignpolicysince1999.

Perhapsthemostimportantoftheseisthedesiretoestablishandmaintainfriendships

withcountriesthathavehistoricallyshapedglobaldiplomacy,whilecultivatingdeep

6



allianceswithemergingpowersfeaturedinrecentglobaleconomicdevelopments.Nigeria

hasalsosoughttoalignitsdiplomacywithdomesticdevelopments,especiallyasthese

relatetotheconsolidationofitsnewdemocracyandtheprovisionofbasicinfrastructure.

These trends reflect the country’s overall objective as envisioned in itsVision2020

document.2ThisobjectiveistoensurethatNigeriawillbeoneofthe20-largesteconomies

intheworldby2020,therebyconsolidatingitsleadershiproleinAfricaandestablishing

itselfasasignificantplayerintheglobaleconomicandpoliticalarena.3Nigeria,however,

continues torecognise its traditionalcommitment toAfricaasawhole,andtoWest

Africa,inparticular.Consequently,thecountry’sdiplomacyfrom1999to2011hasbeen

acautiousbalanceofdevotiontotraditionalobligationstowardsWestAfricaandAfrican

concerns,andthedesiretoensurethatexternalrelations,especiallywithglobalpowers,

alsoassistindomesticconcerns.

SixmajordeterminantshaveunderlinedNigeria’sforeignpolicysince1999.These

include:

• removingthenear-pariahstatusthatthecountryattainedduringthelastphasesof

militaryrule;

• remainingakeyplayerinregionalorcontinentalpolitics,particularlyinlightofthe

increasingimportanceoftheGulfofGuinea;4

• ensuringthatexternalrelationsassistindomesticeconomicdevelopments,especially

throughstrategicco-operationwithtraditionalandemergingglobaleconomicactors;

• bringingaboutdebtrelief;

• obtainingassistancetoconsolidatedemocracy;and

• improvingtheimageofthecountryaffectedbynegativepressontheillegalactivitiesof

itsnationalsabroad.This‘citizendiplomacy’strategyhasalsohadaparalleldomestic

policyofensuringthatNigeriansathomepursueanagendatomakethenationproud.5

Thedeterminantsareconceivedlargelyofdomesticexigencies.Thispredominanceof

thedomesticovertheexternalthuscallsforabriefdiscussionoftheNigeriandomestic

situationatthetimeofthereturnofcivilianrule.Atthedawnofdemocracy,Nigeriawas

stillmaintainingitspositionasamajoroilproducer,whichaccountedforover95%of

externalearnings.Thishad,however,nottranslatedintosocio-economicandpolitical

development.Thecountrywasapproximately$30 billionindebtandbasicinfrastructures,

includingrailtransportation,werealmostnon-existent,withepilepticpowersupply.This

preventedthecountryfrommaximisingitspotential.Atitsinception,thenewcivilian

administrationwasdeterminedtoaddressthesechallenges.

Thedesiretobalancethedomesticandexternalnecessitatedaninitialforeignpolicy

that required extensive outreach diplomacy during the early years of the Obasanjo

administration.Indeed,betweenMay1999andmid-August2002,Obasanjoembarked

on113foreigntrips,spending340daysoutofthecountry.6Inexplaininghisreasonsfor

undertakingthetrips,Obasanjostated:7

Ihavedevotedmuchtimeandenergyjourneyingvirtuallyallcornersoftheglobeinmy

personal effort topositively reintegrateour country into the international community

andattractinvestment.Wearehappytoreportthattheresultsfromthesetripshavebeen

encouragingenoughtoconfirmmypersonalbeliefandtheadviceofmarketingexperts


7


namelythatpersonalcontactisthebestwaytomarketyourproduct.Andmyproductis

Nigeria.

ThelatePresidentYar’Adua,whosucceededObasanjoin2007andGoodluckJonathan,

whointurnsucceededYar’Aduain2010,didnotembarkonasmanyforeigntripsas

Obasanjo.Thesamecharmoffensive,however,underlinedtheirdiplomacy.

This new era of foreign policy differed from the preceding period in Nigeria’s

diplomacy,inwhichithadalwaysprioritisedsub-regionalandcontinentalinterests.8The

relativestabilityalongthesefrontsenabledthecountrytostrikeabetterbalancebetween

externalpoliciesanddomesticinterests.Thiswasespeciallyimportantbecausemany

Nigeriansbelievedthatthecountryhadlittletoshowforthegenerosityandsacrifices

ithadmadeinregionalandcontinentaldiplomacy.9ManyalsofeltthatNigeriashould

replaceitspastpracticeofconfrontingmajorpowersinthepursuitofanAfrican-centred

agendawithanewpracticethatbettersuitedNigeria’snationalinterests.10

n I g e r I A A n d t h e t r A d I t I o n A l g l o b A l p o w e r S

Inrecenttimes,Nigeria’srelationswithtraditionalglobalpowershavebeencentraltoits

foreignpolicyactivities.Thisisunderstandable,givenNigeria’shistoricalrelationshipwith

thesecountriesfromthetimeofitsindependence.Coloniallegacies,historicallinkages

andeconomicconnectionshavecloselytiedNigeriatoallthetraditionalpowers.The

dominanceofthesecountrieswaslaterthreatenedbytheentranceofemergingpowers.

Theentrenchednatureoftheirrelationship,however,stillmakesthetraditionalpowers

keyactorsinNigeria’sdiplomacy.

The United States: Twists and turns

Shortlybeforeitsreturntodemocracyin1999,Nigeriaexperienceddifficultrelations

withtheUS.TheUShadimposedatravelbanandsanctionsontheAbacharegimefor

hangingtheOgoniactivistsin1995.Theseactivists–andtheirleader,writerKenSaro

Wiwa–werehangedbecausetheirpersistentcampaignforjusticeandfairnessforoil-

producingregionsconflictedwiththeinterestsofoilmultinationalsandtheNigerian

government.TheUSbanontheAbacharegimewonthesupportofcivilsocietyactivistsin

thecountry,butbroughttheregimeinclearoppositiontotheUSgovernment.11However,

theconfidenceofNigeriancivilsocietygroupsintheofficesoftheUSsufferedwhen

MoshoodAbiola,thewinneroftheannulledJune1993election,diedduringameeting

withUSofficialsundercircumstancesmanyinNigeriaconsideredsuspicious.12These

tensionswereultimatelydispelledwhenPresidentObasanjowasswornin,markinganew

phaseinUS–Nigerianrelations.ThiswastocontinueundertheYar’AduaandJonathan

administrations.

Fourmain issuesunderlineNigeria’s recent relationswith theUS.These include

requestingassistanceinmilitaryprofessionalismandsecuritysectorreform;theglobal

waronterror;boostingtradeandinvestment;andeffortstoensuredebtreliefandfinancial

assistance.

8



Assistance in military professionalism and security sector reformIn light of its past involvement in politics, the Nigerian army needed to be

‘professionalised’, inorder to institutionalise respect for civilian control in thenew

democracy.ThisbecameakeypreoccupationoftheObasanjoadministrationandUS

assistancewassoughtinthisventure.ThereissomecontroversyoverwhetherNigeriahad

actuallyrequestedadefencepactwiththeUS,orwhetherithadonlyrequiredassistance

inaspectsofitsmilitaryreorganisation.StaffoftheNigerianMinistryofForeignAffairs

emphaticallydeniedanyconsiderationofadefencepact.13However,USAmbassadorto

Nigeriaatthetime,WilliamTwaddell,statedthattheUS‘refused’tosignadefencepact

withNigeriabecauseitmightbeinterpretedasaformof‘neo-colonialism’.14Hesaidthat

theUShadindicatedtoNigeria‘inclearterms’thatithadnointerestinsigningadefence

pactbutthattheUS‘willworktoprotectthecountry’snascentdemocracy’.15

USinvolvementinthereformhas,however,beencontroversial.Undertheagreement

that was reached, a US military training team, the Military Professional Resources

Incorporated(MPRI),wasinvitedtotrainmembersoftheNigerianarmy.Thedetailsof

thearrangementwereunclear,exceptthatthisteamwastocometoNigeriaandassist

inprofessionalisingtheNigerianarmy,withtheNigeriangovernmentcontributing$3.5

millioninimplementingthedefenceplan.Therewere,however,seriousobjectionsfrom

Nigerians,includingthemilitary.Firstly,therewerethosewhosawitasaformofforeign

domination.AlthoughitwasnotdisputedthattheNigerianarmedforcesneededtobe

professionalised,thereweredebatesaboutwhethertheMPRIwasbestsuitedforthis

task.Secondly,therewerethosewhoobjectedtotheexpense,whichwasseenasahuge

sacrificeatatimewhenmanyNigerianswerelivingbelowthepovertylineandwhere

basicinfrastructures,suchaswaterandelectricity,werecollapsing.Thirdly,therewere

thosewhofeltthatsuchanagreementwouldmeanaswitchtoUSweaponssystems.This

couldcompelNigeriatodiscardequipmentfromprevioussuppliers,likeNorthKoreaand

theformerSovietUnion(nowRussia),fromitsarsenal.

JustastheMPRIcontroversywasdissipating,anotherfollowedwiththeintroduction

oftheUSAfricaCommand(AFRICOM)bytheBushadministration.Thiswassupposed

tobeaunifiedcommandthatwastoberesponsibleforallAfricancountries,withthe

exception of Egypt. Nigeria’s attitude to the entire AFRICOM controversy deserves

somediscussion.Afteraninitialcondemnationoftheinitiativeandadeclarationthat

Nigeriawouldnothaveanythingtodowithit,thelatePresidentYar’AduavisitedtheUS

wherehewasquotedassayingthatNigeriawaswillingtopartnerwithAFRICOM.This

positionimmediatelycreatedconfusion,whichnecessitatedclarificationfromtheformer

ForeignAffairsMinister,OjoMaduekwe.Maduekwestatedthatthepresidenthadmeant

anysupportfromtheUSshouldbeintheformofassistanceforanalternativeAfrican

StandbyForcethatthecontinentplanned,andnotforanexternallysponsoredinitiative

likeAFRICOM.16Shortlyafterwards,Yar’AduastatedthathedidnotacceptAFRICOM.

WhenBarackObamaassumedtheUSpresidency,Nigeriamadeclearitsposition,insisting

thatheshoulddisbandtheentireAFRICOMinitiativeandsupporttheAfricanStandby

Force.NigeriacontinuestomaintainitsobjectiontoAFRICOM.

Regardless of the US involvement, it is worth pointing out that there has been

significantimprovementintheprofessionalisationoftheNigerianarmedforcessince

thereturnofcivilianrule in thecountry,especially in itsdeeperappreciationof the

importanceofcivilianoversight.ClosemilitarycollaborationswiththeUShavecontinued


9


sincePresidentObamaassumedoffice,andasrecentlyasMay2011,theUSdonatedtwo

warshipstoNigeria.17

Global war on terrorAmajorhiccupintherelationsbetweenthetheUSandNigeriacameinDecember2009,

whenayoungNigerian,UmarFaroukAbdulmutallab,wasarrestedduringafailedattempt

tobombNorthwestAirlinesFlight253,flyingintoDetroitfromAmsterdam.Although

theUSwasawareofNigeria’svulnerabilitytoreligiousradicalisation,nooneexpecteda

nationalofthatcountrytobeinvolvedinanyactivityofthismagnitude.Theimmediate

reaction of the US was to place Nigeria on its ‘Terror Watch List’.18 The Nigerian

governmentexpressedoutrageatthisresponse,whichsomecommentatorsreferredto

asprofilin–pigeon-holingacountryonthebasisofinsufficientinformation.TheUS,

however,insistedthatitsactionswereobjectiveandwithoutprejudicetoNigeria.Removal

fromthewatchlistbecameaforeignpolicypriorityforNigeria.19Afterseveraldiplomatic

entreatieswiththeNigeriangovernment,theUSagreedtoremoveNigeriafromthelistin

March2010,onthefollowingconditions:20

• Nigeriashouldpublicallycondemnactsofterrorismwherevertheyoccurintheworld.

• Nigeriashouldtakeurgentstepstoaddresssecuritylapsesatitsairports.

• NigeriashouldbepartytoanagreementtodeployairmarshallsonallUS-boundflights

originatingfromNigeria.

• Nigeria’santi-terrorismbill,pendingbeforetheNigerianNationalAssemblyshouldbe

passedintolaw.

Trade and investmentNigeriahasprioritisedtradeinitsrelationswiththeUS.Sincethereturnofdemocracy

in1999,therehavebeenincreasedtradelinksbetweenthetwocountries.Optimising

therelationshiptoimproveNigeria’seconomyiscentraltoNigeria’spolicy.Therehave

alsobeenpersistentcallsforUSinvestmentsinNigeria.Presently,keyUSinvestorsinthe

NigerianoilsectorincludeExxonMobil,ChevronandWesternGeo-physical.OtherUS

multinationalsinNigeriaincludetheBritishAmericanTobaccoCompany,inthetobacco

enterprise,andCitiBank,inthebankingsector.Asexpected,oilisatthecentreofmostof

thecountry’stradewiththeUS,andNigeriacontinuestobeoneofitsmajoroilexporters.

NigeriahasalsobeeninvolvedintheAfricanGrowthandOpportunityAct(AGOA).

ThiswasestablishedbytheUSinMay2000toprovideduty-freeandquota-freemarket

preferencesforapproximately6 400productsfromsub-SaharanAfricancountriestoUS

marketsuntil2015.Nigeria’sleadingAGOAnon-oilproductstotheUSincludecashew

nuts,sheabutter,shrimps,ginger,gumArabic,cocoaproductsandlocalfoods.However,

itseemsthatNigeriahasnotbenefitedasmuchasitshouldfromAGOA.Thisisbecause

the country’s products are not economically competitive in the US. The difficulties

involvedinregisteringacompanyinNigeriaalsoappeartohaveaffecteditschancesof

benefitingfromthisinitiative.TheWorldBank2010reportstatedthatitcosts80%of

anaverageNigerian’sannualsalarytoregisteracompany,comparedwithapproximately

4%ofanaverageMauritian’sannualsalary.21Also, infrastructuralchallengessuchas

power,transportanddelayinportsincreasesproductioncost,whichmakesthegoodsless

competitiveinUSmarkets.Nigeriarankseighthoutofthe40AGOAbeneficiarycountries

10



in2008exportsofagriculturalproductstotheUS.22ForacountrywithNigeria’sresources

andpotential,thiscanbesignificantlyimproved.

Table 1: Summary of US trade with Nigeria ($ million), 1999–2010

Year Exports Imports Balance

1999 627.9 4,385.1 -3,757.2

2000 721.9 10,537.6 -9,815.7

2001 955.1 8,774.9 -7,819.8

2002 1,057.7 5,945.3 -4,887.6

2003 1,016.9 10,393.6 -9,376.7

2004 1,554.3 16,248.5 -14,694.2

2005 1,619.8 24,239.4 -22,619.6

2006 2,233.5 27,863.1 -25,629.7

2007 2,777.9 32,770.2 -29,992.3

2008 4,102.4 38,068.0 -33,965.6

2009 3,687.1 19,128.2 -15,441.1

2010 4,039.7 30,515.9 -26,448.3

Source:USCensusBureau,ForeignTrade,‘TradeingoodswithNigeria’,http://www.census.gov/

foreign-trade/balance/c7530.html#2010,accessed10July2011

Table 2: US trade in goods with Nigeria ($ million), 2011

Month Exports Imports Balance

January 268.6 3,144.7 -2,876.1

February 331.4 2,859.3 -2,527.9

March 489.0 2,972.1 -2,483.1

April 397.1 2,944.2 -2,547.1

TOTAL 1,486.1 11,920.3 -10,434.2

Note:AllfiguresareinUS$ millionsonanominalbasis,andarenotseasonallyadjusted

unlessotherwisespecifie.Detailsmaynotequaltotalsduetorounding.

Source:USCensusBureau,ForeignTrade‘TradeingoodswithNigeria’,op. cit.

Politics of debt relief and financial assistance Withtheadventofdemocracy,Nigeriaexpectedtoreceivedividendsintheformofdebt

relief.Atthetimeitowedapproximately$35billion,largelytothegroupofcountries

knownas the ‘ParisClub’.23The realisationof this goalwas amajor foreignpolicy

objectiveinitsrelationswiththeUSandothermajorpowers.SuccessiveUSpresidents

haveshownconsiderableinterestinaddressingNigeria’sdebtquestion.Duringavisitto



11

NigeriainAugust2000,PresidentClintonannounceda$100 millionaidpackagetothe

country.Thiswasaimedspecificallyatimprovingprimaryeducationandhealthcare.

In2006,financeminister,NgoziOkonjo-Iweala,securedtheUSTreasuryDepartment’s

assistancetopersuadetheParisClubtowriteoff$18billionofNigeria’sforeigndebt.The

Bushadministrationwasalsoinvolvedinthesponsorshipofmanyhealth-relatedissues

inthecountry.

Interestingly,BarrackObamaconsidereddebtreliefforNigeriaevenbeforehebecame

president.AsIllinoissenator,hemadeitclearonthefloorofthesenatethathewould

beastrongadvocatefordebtreliefforNigeria,ifthecountrycouldhandoverCharles

Taylor–theLiberianwarlordwhowasgrantedamnestyinNigeria–whohadbythen

beenindictedbytheInternationalCourtofJustice.Hestated:24

IstronglybelievethatNigeriaisaworthycandidatefordebtreliefandakeyUSpartnerin

WestAfrica.WhenCharlesTayloristurnedover,thereisnodoubtinmymindthatIwillbe

aforcefuladvocatefordebtreliefforNigeria.

Nigeria’ssuccessinalleviatingitsforeigndebtremains,todate,oneofthemostimportant

achievementsinitsengagementwiththeglobalpowerssincethereturnofcivilianrule.

TheexpressionoffriendshipbetweenNigeriaandtheUSwasaffirmedinthesigning

ofthefirstUS–NigeriaBinationalCommission,inApril2010.Thisaimedtoestablish

a mechanism for sustained, bilateral, high-level dialogue to promote and increase

diplomatic, economic and security co-operation between the two countries. The

commission’smainobjectivesarethefollowing:25

• Promoteandco-ordinatethediplomatic,economic,military,commercial,technical,

socialandculturalco-operationbetweenthetwocountries.

• Addressareasofmutualinterestand/orconcernanddevelopstrategiesfortackling

theseissueswithassistanceandco-ordinationfrombothgovernments.

• Assist in the implementation and follow-up of agreements and all other legal

instrumentsalreadyconcludedbetweenthegovernments.

• Createfavourableconditionstocarryoutco-operationprogrammesandprojectsas

maybedecidedbymutualconsent,andhelptoresolveanydifficultiesthatmayarise

incarryingoutanysuchprogrammesand/orprojects.

• Evaluate the development of co-operation between the two countries as well as

initiativesfromeachgovernmentaimingtoexpandco-operationtonewareas.

The commission’s main focus is for the US government to work with Nigeria on a

numberofkeydomesticissues.Theseincludegoodgovernance,electoralreformand

preparations,transparencyandanti-corruption,energy(electricitysupply)reformand

investment,aswellasfoodandagriculturaldevelopment.Nodoubt,theUSinvestors

andbusinessesarealsolikelytobenefitfromfurtheringdevelopmentsinNigeriaunder

theciviliangovernment.Inaddition,thecommissionseekstopromoteco-operationin

effortstoresolveconflictintheNigerDelta,includingissuesofsecurityandcounter-

terrorism.UnderlyingthisistheUSoilandenergysecurityandtheprotectionofUS

oilmultinationalsoperatingintheturbulentNigerDelta.Someoftheseissuesarealso

apparentinNigeria’srelationshipwiththeUK.

12



The United Kingdom: Consolidation of old ties

Historically,Nigeria’s relationswith theUKhavebeencordial.ANigerianexperton

Anglo–Nigerianrelations,thelateOlasupoOjedokun,oncedescribedtheseasthe‘Anglo–

NigerianEntente’.26TheBritishForeignandCommonwealthOfficedocumentnotesthat

upto800 000peopleintheUKhavefamilytiestoNigeria,27andmembersoftheNigerian

diasporaplayimportantandvaluablerolesintheUK’seconomyandsociety.28Nigeria

isalsoakeymemberoftheCommonwealthofNations.Althoughitscommitmentto

thisorganisationhassomewhatreduced, largelybecausethereisnothingthatbrings

CommonwealthaffairstotheforefrontofNigeria’sattention,thereisstillasharedmemory

amongmanyofa‘glorious’past.Forexample,thefirstCommonwealthHeadofStates

meetingoutsideLondontookplaceinLagos,NigeriainJanuary1966.29

Since1999,NigeriahastriedtoensurethatrelationswiththeUKremaincordialwhile

alsoservingNigeria’sowndomesticinterest.Keyissuesthathavedominatedrelations

includetrade,supportfordemocracyandco-operationindebtrelief,financialassistance

andthefightagainstcorruption.

Diplomatic relationsFollowingthereturnofcivilianrule,successiveNigerianleadersandUKprimeministers

haveundertakenofficialvisitstoeachother’scountries.Nigeriaalsohostedaroyalvisit

byQueenElizabethII,inDecember2003.FormerBritishPrimeMinister,TonyBlair,

madeanofficialvisittoNigeriainFebruary2002,andhasvisitedthecountrytwicesince

leavingoffice.30

Amajordiplomatic issue thathas come to the fore inAnglo–Nigerian relations,

however,hasbeenhow to address theproblemofNigerians inUK jails.AsofMay

2010,anestimated20 000NigerianslanguishedinvariousUKjails.31Forquitesome

timetherewerespeculationsinUKnewspapersthattheUKgovernmentwastobuilda

GBP323 millionjailinNigeria.33Thiswas,however,deniedbyboththeUKandNigerian

governments.Nigeriahasalsomadeitclearthatitisnotseekinganyassistancefromthe

UKfortheconstructionofaprison.

AlthoughAnglo–Nigerianrelationscontinuetobecordial,Nigeriaseemstobedevoting

lessattention to theaffairsof theCommonwealth. Indeed, itwouldappear that the

organisationattractsminimalattentionfrompolicymakers.Thisiscontrarytothe1990s,

whentheCommonwealthwasattheforefrontofNigeriandiplomacy,especiallyunder

theleadershipoftheNigerianSecretaryGeneral,EmekaAnyaoku.Duringhistenure,

Nigeriaexperiencedcrucialdomesticissues,suchastheOgonicrisis,thattheorganisation

hadtocontendwith.However,suchissueshavenotbeenpresentinthelastdecadeto

tiedomesticpoliticaldevelopmentsandconcernstothepoliticsoftheCommonwealth.

AlthoughformerPresidentObasanjowasengagedintheCommonwealth’s initiatives

concerningZimbabwe,hissuccessorshaveshownfarlessinterestintheseanditsother

affairs.AnotherformerNigerianleader,AbubakarAbdulsalami,hasalsobeendeeply

involvedinaCommonwealthElectionObservermission.

Trade relationsTraderelationsbetweenNigeriaandtheUKhavealsoremainedcordial.Keytradeitems

includeoilandgas,financialservicesandagriculture.InAugust2010,theDeputyChief


13


ExecutiveofUKTradeandInvestment,SusanHaird,notedthattradeinservicesfrom

theUKtoNigeriain2008amountedtoapproximatelyGBP 1.27 billion,whileexports

fromNigeriatotheUK,in2009.stoodataboutGBP 600 million.Thesefiguresreflectthe

toweringsignificanceoftheUK’stradeadvantageoverNigeria.Itisalarmingthatofthe

GBP 600 millionexportsfromNigeriatotheUK,onlyamiserableGBP 12 millionwas

derivedfromnon-oilexports.Theseareagriculturalproductssuchascocoa,coffee,tea

andspices.34ExportsfromtheUKtoNigeria,in2009,increasedtoGBP 1.3 billion;while

exportsfromNigeriatotheUKremainedatGBP 600 million,thebulkofwhichcontinued

tobeoilandgas.UKexportstoNigeriaareaboutdoubleNigeria’sexportstotheUK.

GoodsexportedfromtheUKtoNigeriawereGBP 1.235 billionin2009.35

Theincreaseintradeseemstobearesultofbothcountries’realisationofthepotential

to explorenewareas in their relationship.The adventof democracy inNigeriahas

encouragedimprovementintheirtradelinks.InFebruary2011theBritishMinisterfor

Africa,HenryBellingham,challengedstaffat theBritishHighCommissioninAbuja,

NigeriatodoubletradebetweenNigeriaandtheUKoverthenextfouryears.Figures

arealreadyshowinganupwardtrend,withUKexportsup85%inthefirsttwomonths

of2011,andNigeria’sexportstotheUKupby69%overthesameperiod.36ManyUK

companiescontinuetooperateinNigeriawhilemanyNigeriansareengagingindifferent

economicenterprisesintheUK,includingrestaurants,cabofficesandsolicitorfirms.37

Politics of debt relief, financial assistance and the recovery of looted moneyTheUKhasbeenoneof thekeycountries thathas supportedNigeria’s clamour for

debtrelief.Ithasalsobeeninvolvedinprovidingfinancialassistancetopromotegood

governanceandhelpNigeriaachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.TheUKhas

supportedendeavours,includingmalariaprevention,girls’educationandreforminthe

justicesector.NigeriahasalsoworkedcloselywiththeUKoneffortstorecovermoney

heldinUKbanksbycorruptNigerianpoliticians.38

BothNigeriaandtheUKacknowledgethatrelationshavechangedandthattheUK’s

positionofdominanceintradewithNigeriahasdecreased.However,theyalsoagreethat

theirfuturerelationscanbefurtherstrengthenedonthebasisoftheirpositivehistory.

France: Smoothing historical rough edges

Nigeria’spastrelationshipwithFrancehasalwaysbeenadifficultone.Itisevenonrecord

thatFrancehadonceworkedtirelesslytowardsthedismembermentofNigeria.39Atthe

centreoftheenmitybetweenthetwocountrieswasthecompetitiontoexerciseinfluence

overFrancophoneWestAfricanstates.Francewasdeterminedtoensurecontrolover

theaffairsofthesecountries,evenaftertheirindependence.ItperceivedNigeriaasits

main‘rival’inthisobjective,especiallybecauseNigeriawasintentonachievingaform

ofregionalintegrationthatwouldexcludeerstwhilecolonialmasters.Thisultimately

resultedinNigeriachampioningthecauseoftheEconomicCommunityofWestAfrican

States(ECOWAS).40

Inthelastdecade,however,relationsbetweenNigeriaandFrancehaveimproved.This

progressistheresultoftheslightshiftinFrenchpolicytowardsitsformerWestAfrican

colonies.France’sformerdeepinterestintheaffairsofthecoloniessignificantlydecreased

withitsdecisiontoturnitsattentiontowardstheformerSovietUnion,andawayfrom

14



itsformerAfricancolonies.InamajorstrategicmovethatbeganunderPresidentJacques

ChiracandwhichhasbeenpursuedbyPresidentNicholasSarkozy,economicinterests,

ratherthanhistoricalsentiments,arenowkeytoFrenchforeigndiplomacy.Consequently,

itsformerAfricancolonieshaveslippeddowntheFrenchprioritylist.41Indeed,former

PresidentChirac’svisittoNigeriainJuly1999wasthefirstbyaforeignheadofstate

tothecountryafteritsreturntodemocraticrule.PresidentObasanjoreturnedthevisit

inFebruary2000.Relationsbetween the twocountries rose to the levelof strategic

partnershipinJune2008,whenlatePresidentYar’AduavisitedFrance.

Trade linksbetweenNigeriaandFrancehave improvedconsiderablyandNigeria

haswelcomedFrenchmultinationalinvestors.NigeriaisthelargestrecipientofFrench

exportsanditssecond-largesttradingpartnerinAfrica.FranceisalsoNigeria’ssecond-

largestforeigninvestor.FrenchcompaniesinNigeriaaremainlyinthefieldsofoiland

gas,automobileandconstructionindustries.42ThemostprominentoftheseincludeTotal,

LaFargeandPeugeot.

NigeriaistheleadingexporterofoilandrelatedproductstoFrance.43Inrecognition

ofthis,PresidentSarkozypledgedthatAgence France de Développement44wouldincrease

thelineofcreditavailabletoNigerianandFrenchcompaniesconductingbusinessin

thecountry.FrancehasalwayshadmoreeconomicinterestsinNigeriathaninallother

Francophone West African countries put together. As of April 2011, bilateral trade

betweenNigeriaandFrancehadreached5.5 billioneuros.45

InasomewhatironictwistFrance,whichhadformerlytriedtoensurethatNigeria

didnotinterfereintheinternalaffairsofotherFrancophoneWestAfricancountries,later

encouragedittofindwaysofbringingotherWestAfricancountriestogethertoaddress

theinstabilityinCôted’Ivoire.46Theconstitutionalimpassethatultimatelyoccurredasa

resultofformerPresidentGbagbo’srefusaltostepdownafterlosingtheelection,resulted

ingreatercollaborationbetweenNigeriaandFrance.Bothcountriesmaintainedaresolute

positionthatGbagboshouldrespectthewishesofIvorians.CurrentNigerianPresident

Goodluck Jonathan and French President Sarkozy seem to have established a good

friendship.ThiswasreflectedintheNigerianleader’sinvitationtoattendthe25thAfrica–

FranceSummitinNice,inMay2010.Thisattainedthedesiredresultwiththeswearing

inofCôted’Ivoire’sPresidentOuattarainMay2011.ApartfromNigeria’srelationswith

Westernglobalpowers,itisalsoimportanttoassessthecountry’srelationswithRussia.

Russia: The return of an old friend

RussiahasalwaysheldaspecialplaceintheheartsofmostNigeriansasthecountry

thatsupportedNigeriaduringitsbittercivilwarbetween1967and1970.47Although

noformofextremecordialityinrelationswasdevelopedafterthecivilwar,theSoviet

Union(andlaterRussia)continuedtofeatureprominentlyinNigeria’sdiplomacy.In

March2001,PresidentObasanjovisitedRussiaandbothcountriessignedaDeclaration

onthePrinciplesofFriendlyRelationsandPartnership,andaProgrammeonCulturaland

ScientificCooperation.

The relationshipcontinued toprogress, and in2008, the twocountries signeda

seriesofMemorandumofUnderstandings(MOUs).Thefirstoftheseagreementswasto


15


regulatethepeacefuluseofnuclearenergy,whilethesecondenvisagedtheparticipation

ofGazprom,theRussian-basedenergycorporation,intheexplorationanddevelopment

ofoilwellsandgasreservesinNigeria.By2009,bothcountrieshadbeguntalkingabout

furtherdevelopingtheirrelationship.Nigeria’sformerforeignminister,OjoMaduekwe,

andhisRussiancounterpart,SergeiLavrov,mettodiscussvariousareasofcollaboration.

Specifically,Russiawas interested inprojectsrelated to thedevelopmentofNigeria’s

infrastructure,theferrousandnonferrousmetalsindustry,electricpowergeneration,

includingnuclearenergy,andtheextractionofhydrocarbonandotherrawminerals.For

itspart,Nigeriawasinterestedintheelectricitysector.

RussianPresidentDmitryMedvedev’svisittoNigeriain2010,thefirstsuchvisitfrom

aKremlinleadertoAfrica’smostpopulousnation,boostedtheirrelationshipsignificantly.

Bothcountriessignedadealtoco-operateindevelopingnuclearenergy,especiallyforthe

purposeofelectricity.AnothermajorprojectofinteresttotheRussianswastheTrans-

SaharanGaspipeline,aprojectaimedatsendingNigeriangastoEurope,andsupported

by theEUasaway todiversify itsenergyresources.This isofconsiderable interest

toGazprombecauseofitsbeliefthatitisfarbehinditsforeigncompetitorsinAfrica,

especiallywhencomparedwithcompanies suchasRoyalDutchShell,Chevronand

ExxonMobil.By2010,bothNigeriaandRussiahadalsostartedexploringdiscussionson

spacetechnology,nuclearenergyandpartnershipinothertechnicalfields.Thecountries

havesignedanuclearagreementbetweentheNigerianNuclearRegulatoryAuthority

andtheRussianStateAtomicCorporationtoexploreanddevelopgasandhydrocarbon-

relatedprojectsinNigeria.Inthesameyeartrade,betweenthetwocountriesreached

$300 million,andNigeriabecameRussia’ssecond-largesttradingpartnerinsub-Saharan

AfricaafterSouthAfrica.However,thisamountisrelativelyinsignificantcomparedwith

therelationshipdevelopingbetweenNigeriaandtheemergingpowers.

ItisbelievedthatRussia’smainfocusinitsrelationswithNigeriaisonnuclearenergy,

gasandoilexploration–althoughfiguresofthesetradelinksarenotavailableforthis

paper.RussianPresidentMedvedevpointedout,duringhisvisittoNigeria,thatifhis

countrycarriesoutitsplans,‘RussianinvestmentinNigeriacanreachbillionsofdollars.’48

Indeed,figuresprovidedbytheRussianAmbassadortoNigeria,AlexanderPolyakov,in

January2010,reflectedthatthebalanceoftradebetweenNigeriaandRussiareachedthe

$1.5 billionmarkin2009.49

Onthewhole,Nigeriahasmaintainedacordialrelationshipwithallthetraditional

powerssincethereturnofdemocraticruletoNigeria.Despitethesecloselinksandtheir

historicalties,anothersetofcountrieshavecometoplayimportantrolesinthecountry’s

foreigndiplomacy.Thesearetheemergingpowers,especiallyChina,IndiaandBrazil.

n I g e r I A A n d t h e e m e r g I n g p o w e r S

Inthelastdecade,emergingpowerslikeChina,IndiaandBrazilhavebecomekeyactors

inNigeria’sforeignpolicy.Thisisnotonlybecauseoftheincreasingeconomicpowerof

thesecountriesbutalsobecauseoftheirwillingnesstoengagewithNigeriaregardingits

vasteconomicandhumanresources.

16



China: The bold entrance of an economic emerging power

Recently,ChinahasbecomedeeplyinvolvedinNigeria.Althoughtherelationshiphas

manydimensions,itsmainfocushasbeentrade.Thishasgrownextensively,rangingfrom

oilandgastotelecommunicationsandrailways.By2009,Nigeriawasamongtheleading

two-waytradepartnersofChinainAfrica,alongsidecountriessuchasAngola,South

AfricaandSudan;andthesecond-highestAfricanimporterfromChina,afterSouthAfrica.

ShortlyafterthereturnofdemocracytoNigeria,thetwocountriessignedseveral

economicagreements.Theseincludeagreementscoveringconsularmatters;co-operation

againstillicittrafficking;abuseofnarcoticdrugsandpsychotropicsubstances;andthe

diversionofprecursorchemicals,whichweresignedinJune2002.Otheragreements

includedanexchangeofnotesontheprovisionofgoodsbetweenthetwocountriesand

anagreementontourismco-operation.

ThevolumeoftradebetweenNigeriaandChinaincreasedfrom$178 millionin1996,

to$1.44 billionin2001.Thisrosefurtherto$1.169billionin2002,$1.86 billionin2003,

$2 billionin2004andto$2.83billionin2007.ChinaisoneofNigeria’stop-tentrading

partnersandhasestablished30companiesinNigeria.Someofthesearesolelyownedand

othersarejointlyownedwithNigerians.Thesecompaniesareinvolvedintheconstruction,

oilandgas,technology,serviceandeducationsectorsoftheNigerianeconomy.

AlthoughChinahasarangeofinterestsinNigeria,itsmaintradeinterestisoil.Thisis

alsoanaturalresourceendowmentthathasbeenattheforefrontofcontroversyinNigeria,

largelybecausetheresourcehasbeenmismanagedandthecommunitiesproducingithave

persistentlycomplainedaboutneglect.Severaloildealshavebeensignedoverthelastfew

years,themostsignificantbeingtheagreementthatinvolvedChinainvesting$4 billion

inNigeria’sinfrastructureinreturnforthefirstrefusalrightsonfouroilblocksin2008.50

SuchinfrastructureincludesChina’sbuildingofapowergeneratingstationthatwouldadd

substantialmegawattstoNigeria’spowersector.ThisinvestmentinevitablyputChinaona

collisioncoursewithNigerianmilitantsfightingtheNigerianstateoverthemanagement

ofoilinthecountry’sNigerDelta.Onanumberofoccasions,Chineseoilworkerswere

takenhostagebymilitantsandultimatelyfreedafterthepaymentofransoms.Theperiod

2004 to2009,witnessedsomemajorChinese investments. In January2006,China’s

nationaloffshoreoilcompany,theChinaNationalOffshoreOilCorporation(CNOOC),

acquireda$2.3 billionmajoritystakeinAkpo,amajoroilfield.CNOOCalsoacquired

a45%stakeinOilProspectingLicence246,worth$2.7 billioninoffshoredeepwateroil

fieldsoperatedbyTotal,theFrenchoilgiant.51ThisisreportedtobeCNOOC’slargest

foreign investment todate.CNOOCpaid$424 million for financing,operatingand

capitalexpenses.ItwasarrangedthatprofitswouldbesharedwiththeNigerianNational

PetroleumCorporationonaratioof70:30infavourofCNOOC.CNOOCalsoagreedto

spend$2 billiontobuildrefineriesanddownstreaminfrastructureinNigeria.52

Chinahasalsoincreaseditsvolumeofagriculturalexports fromNigeria.Astate-

ownedcompany,GeneticInternationalCorporationofChina(GICC),boughtitsfirst

consignmentof100 000tonnesoffreshcassavachipsfromNigeria,inJuly2005.This

dealcontinuedoveraperiodofsixmonthsonamonthlybasis.GICChasalsobegunto

importcocoabeansandrubberdirectlyfromNigeria.Chinaalsoimportssesameseeds

fromNigeria.Therearecurrentlyover500Chineseexpertsandtechniciansworkingin

variousfieldsofagriculturein20Nigerianstates.


17


ChinesefirmshavebeentroopingintoNigeriatoconductbusiness.InApril2005,

ZTECorporation,aChinese telecommunications firm,enteredadealwithNigerian

TelecommunicationsLimitedtoexpandNigeria’sCodeDivisionMultipleAccessnetwork

following a successful 10 000-line trial inMaiduguri, BornoState.TheChinaCivil

EngineeringConstructionCorporationbuilttheNigerianCommunicationsCommission

buildinginAbuja.Huawei,agiantChinesetelecommunicationscompany,isalsoengaged

inthecountry.53Inaddition,Chinais thesourceofmostof thenewmotorcycleson

Nigerianroads.54

SomeNigerianstategovernmentshavealsoestablishedcloseeconomiclinkswith

China.TheBornoStategovernmentawardedsixmajorcontractstoChineseconstruction

andengineeringfirmstoaddressissuesoffloodinganddrainageconstruction,andto

curtailmosquitoinfestation.Chineseconglomerate,ZhuhaiMinghongGroupCorporation

Limited,agreedtorevivethe350-acremoribundAwoomamaResortinOruEastLocal

CouncilofImoState.Thisdevelopmentisalsolikelytohaveapositiveimpactonthe

neighbouringAbiaandAnambraStatesinincreasingtradeandcommercialactivities.

InFebruary2011,historywasmadewhentheNigeriangovernmenthandedoverthe

OlorunsogoPowerStationinOgunStatetoaconsortiumledbySepcoIIIElectricPower

ConstructionCorporationofChinaandalocalcompany,PacificEnergy.Thiswasthe

firsthandingoverundertheadministration’sPowerRoadmaptopermanentlyaddressthe

country’spowerproblem.ThehandingoverofthestationstemmedfromNigeria’sinability

torepaytheloanprovidedbytheChinesegovernmentfortheconstructionoftheplant.

Chinaprovided65%ofthefundingrequiredforthe335-megawatt-capacityOlorunsogo

Plantandthe335-megawatt-capacityOmotoshoPowerStationinOkitipupa,OndoState.

Theloanwasprovidedthroughthecontractorsfortheprojects.ThesewereSepcoIII

ElectricPowerConstructionCorporationfortheOlorunsogoplantandChinaNational

Machinery&EquipmentImport&ExportCorporationfortheOmotoshoplant.

WhentheNigeriangovernmentfailedtorepaytheloansforthetwoplants,theChinese

contractorsweresaidtohaveleftNigeriawiththemanualsandotherdocumentsrelating

totherunningoftheplants;whilethefewdocumentsleftbehindwerewritteninChinese.

Interestingly,thisresponsewasseenasunderstandablebytheNigeriangovernment.The

MinisterofStateforPower,NuhuWya,notedthattheChinesehadactedassuchbecause

‘acontractorwhoisbeingowedwillguardjealouslyhisfallbackposition’.Therearealso

on-goingdiscussionswiththecompanythatbuilttheOmotosho[PowerStationtotake

overthemanagement.55

AlsoatthecentreofmostofNigeria’sdiplomacytowardsChina,istheprincipleof

exchangingoilfordevelopment.AsrecentlyasApril2011,theNigerianGovernment

signed a contract to rehabilitate the2110kilometreEastern rail linewithChinese

companyChinaGezhoubaGroupCorporationandtwoothercompanies(aTurkishfirm,

EsserContractingandIndustryLimited,andaNigerianfirm,LingoNigeriaLimited).

ThethreeEasternraillinesarethe463kilometrelinefromPortHarcourttoMakurdi;the

1016kilometrelinefromMarkurditoKuru,withtheinclusionofthespurlinestoJos

andKafanchan;andthe640kilometrelinefromKurutoMarkurdi.56

InApril2011,tradebetweenNigeriaandChinareachedanewhighof$7.76 billion,

thusmakingNigeria the fourth-largest tradingpartnerandthesecond-largestexport

marketofChinainAfrica.KeyChinesecompaniesinthecountryincludeHappyChef

Restaurants(foodandrestaurants),PlasAllianceCompany(rubberbagsandshoes),Royal

18



MotorsCompanyLimited(motorcycleassembly)andSunLungIndustries(manufacturing

anddistributionoftelecommunicationsandelectricalequipments).

India

NigeriahasalongandmutuallybeneficialrelationshipwithIndia.Inrecenttimes,this

hasdevelopedquitesignificantly,characterisedbyhigh-powereddelegationsbetween

thetwocountries. In2007, theysignedastrategicpartnershipdealcalledtheAbuja

Declaration.Thedeclarationincludedfouragreements,namely,twoMOUsonpromoting

interactionbetweenforeignofficebackedinstitutes;oneMOUondefenceco-operation;

andaprotocolforforeignofficeconsultations.TheAbujaDeclarationalsocoversother

issuessuchasdrugtrafficking,extradition,promotingtradeandinvestmentandcultural

exchangeprogrammes.Itwasagreed,atthetimeofsigning,thatthesepactswouldset

thestageforamoreintensiverelationshipbetweenthetwocountries.Beforethis,both

countrieshadlackedaninstitutionalframeworktobackinvestmentsandcommerce.

Nigeria’srelationswithIndiacutacrossabroadspectrum.Themostimportantof

theseistradeandcommerce.AccordingtotheIndianHighCommissionerinNigeria,

by2010,tradebetweenthetwocountrieswasapproximately$10.7 billion,ofwhich

$8.7 billionwastoNigeria’sadvantage.NigeriaisnowbelievedtobeIndia’slargesttrading

partnerinAfrica.Thekeyareasidentifiedincludemedicalandpharmaceutics,banking,

telecommunication,retail,moviesandentertainment.Inthemedicalandpharmaceutics

area,manyNigeriansconsiderIndiaasthebestlocationtoundergomedicaltreatment.

Thisislikelytocontinueforsometimetocome,especiallyinlightofthehighcostof

treatmentinEuropeandthelowstandardofmedicaltreatmentinNigeria.Inthebanking

sector,IndiahasbeeninvolvedintheIBTCBankinNigeria.TheinvolvementofIndiansin

telecommunicationbusinessinNigeriahasattractedconsiderableinterest.India’slargest

cellularservicecompany,BhartiAirtel,invested$600 millioninNigeria’smobilemarket,

totakeoverZainin2010.IndiahasalsobeeninvolvedinvehicleimportationintoNigeria,

withtwoIndiancompanies,theDANAgroupandtheStallionGroup,attheforefrontof

this.57

India’s primary involvement in Nigeria has been in the oil and gas sector, with

Indiancompany,OilandNaturalGasCorporationVideshLimited,becominganactive

participant.

Despiteclearevidenceofcordialrelationsbetweenthetwocountries,therearealso

areasofsubtletension.AmajorissueofconcernforNigeriaisthetreatmentsometimes

metedouttoNigerianstravellingtoIndia.TheNigeriangovernmenthascomplainedthat

NigeriansonlegitimatetripstoIndiaaresometimesharassedattheairportunderthe

stereotypicalassumptionthattheycouldbedrugpeddlers,orthattheymaybeengagedin

otherillegalbusiness.Nigeriahasalwaysarguedthat,althoughcitizensofbothcountries

maybeengaginginillegalactivities,itiswrongtoregardallNigeriansvisitingIndiaas

potentialsuspects.


19


Table 3: Nigeria’s trade with India ($ million), 2003–2010

2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

Indian exports to Nigeria

565.49 644.68 874.03 903.48 1,083.34 1,529.26 1,408.25

Indian imports from Nigeria

75.64a 48.40a 72.46a 7,026.93 7,616.09 8,900.35 7,287.91

a Excludingoilimportfigures.

Source:FiguresprovidedbytheIndianHighCommission,Abuja,Nigeria

Brazil

BrazilandNigeriasharealonghistoryintheirrelations.Apartfromthehistoricalroots,

thatcanbelinkedtotheslavetrade,bothcountriesalsoshareapassionforfootball.

Inthelastdecade,Nigeria’sdiplomaticandcommerciallinkswithBrazilhaveincreased

considerably,withbothsideslookingtothefuturewithconsiderableinterest.

In January 2005, a 14-man delegation led by the Brazilian Minister of External

Relations,CelsoAmorim,visitedNigeria.ThethenNigerianPresidentObasanjo,called

forstrongworkingrelationsbetweenbothcountries,andpromisedthatNigeriawould

co-operatewithBrazilon impendingUNreforms. InApril2005,BrazilianPresident

LuizInácioLuladaSilva,paidatwo-daystatevisittoNigeria,whichwasreciprocatedin

August2005byPresidentObasanjo.

TherelationshipbetweenNigeriaandBraziltookamajorleapforwardinSeptember

2005whenPresidentsObasanjoandDaSilvasignedabilateralagreement.Thisfocused

onfourmajorareasoftradeandinvestment,technicalco-operation,culturalrevival,

andregularpoliticalconsultations.Brazil,becauseofitshistoricallinkswithAfrica,also

wantedNigeriatoprovideteacherstoteachAfricanhistoryinBrazil.Duringthevisit,

Obasanjonotedthatbothcountrieswereintheprocessof‘re-ignitingthegoldenyearsof

Nigeria-Brazilrelationsofthe1980s’.58Sincethen,thevalueofbilateraltradehasreached

over$2 billionandthejointco-operationprofilehascoveredvirtuallyeveryfacetof

humanactivity.59Obasanjousedtheopportunityofthevisittocallfordiplomaticefforts

torevivetheSouthAtlanticZoneofPeaceandCooperation60andcommittedtheNigerian

governmenttoconveninganinauguralsummitofleadersfromAfrica,theCaribbeanand

SouthAmerica.

Between2003and2005,Nigeria’smerchandisedexports toBrazil increased from

nearly$1.5billionto$5billion.ThismadeNigeriathefifth-highestexporterofgoods

toBrazil,aftertheUS,Germany,ArgentinaandChina.Goodstradedincludeoiland

agriculturalproducts.Bycontrast,however,Brazil’sexportstoNigeriaroseonlyslightly,

reaching$643,000in2005.Brazil’smainexportstoNigeriaincludeethanol,sugarand

coffee.Bothcountrieshaveidentifiedanareaofmutuallybeneficialtradeintheformof

energy.NigeriandiplomatsinBrazilhaveidentifiedBrazil’sabilitytodevelopbiofossils

anditsuseofethanolasanalternativetofuelasissuesofpotentialinteresttoNigeria.

20



Inrecent times, therehasbeenclosecollaborationbetweenthe twocountrieson

the issueofhydropower.The jointagreementbetweenNigeriaandBrazilonenergy

co-operationwassignedwhenthelatePresidentYar’AduavisitedBrazilinAugust2009,

followingwhichanEnergyCommissionwasestablishedbetween the twocountries.

AccordingtoNigerianVicePresidentNamadiSambo,theobjectiveofthecommission

istoassistin‘revolutionisingtheNigerianenergysector’.Brazilhasexpressedinterestin

completingthedevelopmentoftheZungeruHydropowerPlantandfinancingtheMambilla

HydropowerProjectunderapartnershipthatwouldallowthecountrytohelpdevelop

Nigeria’spowerindustry.InreturnforBrazil’sparticipationintwohydropowerprojects,

NigeriawillgrantBrazilaccesstoitsoilandgasindustry.Thiswasparticularlyimportant

toNigeria,asthegovernmenthadearlierfailedinitspromisetodoubleelectricityoutput

to6 000megawattsbyDecember2009.61InJanuary2011,VicePresidentNamadiSambo

furthercementedthisagreementduringhisvisittoBrazil.

NigeriaandBrazilarealsoworkingtogetherintheareaofdrugsandnarcoticscontrol.

Bothcountrieshaverealisedthatcitizensfromtheir,andothercountries,havebeenusing

NigeriaandBrazilasroutesfordrugs.Theseriousnessofthisproblemwashighlighted

inApril2010,bywhichtimetheNigerianNationalDrugLawEnforcementAgencyhad

placedtheNigerian–Brazilrouteonredalertinabidtointerceptmovesbydrugtrafficking

syndicates.

nIger IA , glob Al powerS And InternAt IonAl orgAn ISAt IonS

Sincethereturnofdemocraticrulein1999,Nigeriahasalsopursueditsrelationshipwith

globalpowerswithintherealmsofmajorinternationalorganisations.Itisimportant,

however,toexplainNigeria’sunderstandingofitsinternationaldiplomacyregardingthese

organisations.NigeriabelievesithasestablisheditspositionasaregionalAfricanpower,

andthatitsdominanceinthisregardisunassailable.Consequently,thecountrywants

toreorganiseitsdomesticaffairsandtousethistowininternationalrespectability.With

democracybecomingentrenchedinthecountry,Nigeriabelievesthatoneofthemain

obstacleshinderingitsrecognitionasanemergingpowerhasbeenremoved.Furthermore,

Nigeria believes that it has done enough to win global recognition as a key player,

especiallyagainstthebackdtopofitsinvolvementinglobalpeacekeeping.

WithintheUN,Nigeria’smaininteresthasbeentoensureglobalpeaceandtoadvance

Africa’sinterests.Nigeriahascontributedtoglobalpeacekeepinginkeycountriessuchas

Sudan,LiberiaandSierraLeone.Indiscussionsheldwiththeleadersofglobalpowers,

theissueofpoliticalstabilityinAfricahasremainedamajortopicofdiscussion.President

ObasanjoraisedtheissueofinstabilityinAfrica,whenhemetformerSecretaryGeneral

KofiAnnan,inJuly2002.62InMay2011,PresidentGoodluckJonathandiscussedthe

situationinCôted’IvoirewithpresentSecretaryGeneralBanKi-moon.

AlsoimportantintheconsiderationofNigeria’sdiplomacywiththeUNhasbeenits

desiretosecureapermanentpositionontheUNSecurityCouncil.Nigeriahasdiscussed

thiswithsomeofthekeypowers,andinMay2011,itreceivedFrance’spromiseofsupport

inthisregard.63Sincethereturnofcivilianrulein1999,NigeriahasservedintheSecurity

Councilonlyonce,from2010–11.Beforethis,thecountryhasthricebeenamemberof

thecouncil,from1966–67,1978–79and1994–95.Nigeriahasalwaysbelievedthatits


21


pastcommitmenttopeaceandsecurityinAfrica,anditsinvolvementinpeacekeeping

activitiesshouldqualifythecountryfortheposition.Nigeriaisoneofthelargesttroop-

contributingnationsintheUN.AUNDepartmentofPeacekeepingOperationsreportof

May2010,notedthatthecountryhadapproximately6 000menandwomenparticipating

inpeacekeepingmissions.64ThisfigureissurpassedonlybyPakistan,Bangladeshand

India.NigeriahasservedincountriesincludingAngola,Bosnia-Herzegovina,Cambodia,

Chad,India,Iraq,Kuwait,Lebanon,Liberia,Mozambique,Pakistan(Kashmir),Rwanda,

Somalia,theDemocraticRepublicofCongoandWesternSahara.Thisinvolvementhas

broughtspecialrecognitiontoNigeria,withamemberoftheNigerianarmy,Lieutenant

GeneralChikadibiaObiakor,beingappointedastheUNmilitaryadviserforpeacekeeping

operations.TheUNalsoaccreditedtheNigerianArmyPeacekeepingCentre,makingitone

ofthefourfacilitiesintheworldwhereUNpeacekeepersaretrainedbeforedeployment

tomissions.

Nigeria has developed a somewhat peculiar relationship with the World Bank,

especiallyonissuesinvolvingthecountry’sdebt.TheObasanjoadministrationhasheld

discussionswithkeycountries,towhichNigeriawasindebted,andhassucceededin

obtaining substantial relief. It iswidelybelieved thatNigeriawasable toattain this

remarkablefeatbecausetheformerfinanceminister,Okonjo-Iweala,wasaformervice

presidentoftheWorldBank,andassuchwasabletounderstanditsinnerworkings.Inall

discussionsonNigeria’sdebt,thecountryreceivedconsiderablesympathyfromthekey

powers,andministerOkonjo-IwealaconfirmedthattheUSwasparticularlyhelpful.Itis

possiblethatthisunderstandingmaybeduetothedawnofdemocracyinNigeria.Itmay

alsobepossibletoattributethisUSsympathytoNigeria’shandoverofCharlesTaylor.This

was,however,emphaticallydeniedbyNigerianofficials.65

NigeriawasabletoreachanimportantagreementwiththeParisClubinJune2005,

atwhichtimeitowedtheclub$31 billion.ThisinvolvedNigeriamakinganupfront

paymentof$6 billioninexistingarrears,therebyreducingitsdebtto$25 billion.In

return,theclubwouldwriteoff67%oftheremainingdebt,amountingto$17–18 billion.

f u t u r e d I r e c t I o n S f o r n I g e r I A ’ S f o r e I g n p o l I c y w I t h t r A d I t I o n A l A n d e m e r g I n g p o w e r S

Since the returnofdemocracy in1999,Nigeriahas focusedondeveloping strategic

partnerships with traditional, and emerging global powers, to support its domestic

priorities.Ithasstrengthenedoldrelationsanddevelopednewones,andhastriedto

balanceitsroleasaregionalandcontinentalpower,withaddressingdomesticconcerns.

Duringthe1970sand1980s,Nigeria’sexternalpreoccupationwascentredaroundthe

liberationstruggleinSouthernAfrica.Duringthe1990s,itsfocuswasonpeacekeeping

missions.Inthelastdecade,however,Nigeriahasfocusedlargelyondomesticissues,

whileretainingadeepinterest(althoughnotaphysicalinvolvement)inregionaland

continentalissues.Itisagainstthisbackdrop,thatNigeriahasrefusedtobedrawninto

aphysicalinvolvementintheCôted’Ivoire,despitetheNigerianPresidentGoodluck

Jonathan’sdiscussionswithPresidentObamaonthesubject.

Trade relationswith international countrieshavealso shown interesting reading.

Althoughit isoftendifficulttoobtainfiguresonNigeria’straderelations,thepaper’s

22



discussiondemonstratesitscontinuedsignificancewithbothtraditionalandemerging

powers. Since1999,ashiftisalsoevidentinthecountry’sforeignpolicytowardstheglobal

powers.Nigeriacontinuestonurtureandappreciateitsrelationswiththetraditional

powers,butalsoacknowledgestheimportanceofdevelopingitsrelationshipwiththe

emergingpowers.ThisexplainsthegrowinginterestincountriessuchasBrazil,India

andChina.Nigeriaappreciatesthetremendousroletheseemergingpowerscanplayin

globalpolitics.AswithmostAfricancountries,however,italsobelievesthatthey,being

developingcountriesthemselves,wouldhavefargreaterunderstandingandsympathy

fortheAfricancausethanthetraditionalglobalpowers.AlthoughNigeriastillseeks

toberelevantintheglobalscene,italsowantstodevotemoreattentiontodomestic

considerations.Inbalancingthesetwoobjectives,thecountryhasremainedongood

termswithtraditionalpowers,thatstilldetermineeventsinglobaldiplomacy;andwith

emergingpowers,whosesimilardevelopmentalexperienceisseenasapossiblerolemodel

thatmayberelevantinNigeria’ssearchforeconomicdevelopment.Itwouldappearthat,

forsometimetocome,Nigeriamayhavetocontinuewiththis‘balancing’approachtoits

foreigndiplomacy.

A p p e n d I x A

Diplomatic visits by Nigerian leaders to global powers, April 1999 to January 2011

Date Leader Focus of discussion

United States

October 1999 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral and regional issues

May 2001 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral and regional issues

December 2004 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral and regional issues including Darfur, Sudan, Côte d’Ivoire

March 2006 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral and regional issues

December 2007 President Umaru Yar’Adua Bilateral and regional issues

December 2010 Acting President Goodluck Jonathan Bilateral and regional issues

September 2010 President Goodluck Jonathan Bilateral and regional issues

United Kingdom

September 2000 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion and debt relief

July 2003 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral issues and debt relief

July 2008 President Umaru Yar’Adua Bilateral discussion

France

February 2000 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

May 2005 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

June 2008 President Umaru Yar’Adua Bilateral discussion

June 2010 President Goodluck Jonathan Bilateral discussion


23


Russia

March 2001 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

Germany

December 1999 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

November 2003 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

June 2007 President Umaru Yar’Adua Invitation to attend G8 Summit

Brazil

September 2005 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

August 2009 President Umaru Yar’Adua Bilateral discussion

January 2011 Vice President Sambo Bilateral discussion

China

April 1999 President-elect Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussions

August 2001 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion

April 2005 President Olusegun Obasanjo Bilateral discussion and Obasanjo visited as AU chairperson

February 2008 President Yar’Adua Bilateral discussion

September 2010 President Olusegun Obasanjo Private visit

India

January 2000 President Olusegun Obasanjo Chief guest at the 50th Republic Day celebrations

November 2004 President Olusegun Obasanjo working visit

November 2007 Vice President Goodluck Jonathan To attend the Federalism Conference

April 2008 Vice President Goodluck Jonathan To attend the India Africa Forum Summit

e n d n o t e S

1 Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in November 1995, for violating the

organisation’sHarareDeclaration, throughthehangingof theOgoniactivists.The travel

embargoandcancellationofmilitarycontractswereimposedbytheUSafterthemilitary

regimeannulledtheJune1996election.

2 Nigeria,FederalMinistryofInformation&Communications,Vision2020,Abuja,2010.

3 Ibid.

4 TheGulfofGuineahasbecomestrategicallyimportantbecauseofitsoilreserves.Indeed,

theUSannouncedthatby2015,25%ofitsoilsuppliesmaycomefromthisregion.Asakey

countryintheregion,Nigeriahashadtoconsidertheseeventsinitsdiplomacy.

5 Nationalpridehasbeenencouragedthroughtheuseofdifferentcatch-phrases, themost

prominentofthesebeingrebranding.Therearealsophraseslike‘Nigeria:GoodPeople,Great

Nation’.TheobjectiveistomakeNigeriansproudoftheircountryandtoensurethattheydo

notembarkonactionthatwillbringthenationintodisrepute.

24



6 AkindeleRA,Foreign Policy in Federal Politics. A Case Study Nigeria.Lagos:WorldPress,2003.

AlsoseeappendixAforalistofdiplomaticvisitsmadebyNigerianpresidentstomajorglobal

powersfromApril1999toJanuary2011.

7 SeeOyedoyinT,‘ObasanjowoosforeigninvestorstoNigeria’,Nigeriaworld News, 18July2002,

nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/oyedoyin/0718-202.html.

8 Formostofthe1980s,Nigeria’sforeignpolicywasgearedtowardsensuringtheattainment

ofmajorityruleinSouthernAfrica.Duringthe1990s,thecountrywasdeeplyinvolvedin

resolvingcivilconflictsintheWestAfricancountriesofLiberiaandSierraLeone.

9 MostNigeriansfeelthatthecountry’ssacrificeshavenotbeenwellappreciated.Negativeside-

effectsofitsgenerosityincludePresidentMugabe’scriticismsofNigeria,thebadpressreceived

inThe Zimbabweannewspaper(whichironicallyNigeriahadboughtfortheZimbabwean

government),aswellasSouthAfrica’sperceivedunfriendlyattitudetowardsNigeria.

10 ExamplesofthisincludeNigeria’snationalisationofBritishPetroleumtoadvancethestruggle

forZimbabweanindependence,andwhenitconfrontedtheUSoverAngolanindependence.

Formoreonthis,seeAbegunrinO,Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999.

Westport:Praeger,2003.

11 TheUSAmbassador toNigeriaduring theperiod,WalterCarrington,didmuch to forge

closertieswiththedemocracygroups,totheseriousobjectionoftheAbachaadministration.

Carringtonlaterconfirmedthattheregimemadeseveralattemptstokillhim.Fortunately,US

intelligencewasinformedoftheseplansandtherebyabletoalerthimandpreventanyattempts

onhislife.SeeCarringtonW,‘Abachaalmostkilledme’,PM News,Lagos,23July2010,http://

pmnewsnigeria.com/2010/07/23/abacha-almost-killed-me-%E2%80%94carrington/.

12 Whilestillindetention,AbiolawasinvitedtomeetUSdelegateswhowerevisitingNigeria.It

wasduringthismeetingthatAbiolasuddenlybecameill.Hewastakentohospital,wherehe

subsequentlydied.

13 DiscussionwithstaffattheNigerianMinistryofForeignAffairs,Abuja,Nigeria,23April2011.

14 Ambassador Twaddell made this declaration while visiting the Nigerian Eastern Naval

CommandinCalabarwiththecommanderinchiefoftheUSNavalForceinEurope,Rear

AdmiralMichaelHaskins.SeeBen-AkpanA,‘UnitedStatesrulesoutdefencepactwithNigeria’,

TheGuardian,Lagos,24March2000.

15 Ibid.

16 Daily Independent, ‘On AFRICOM: Nigeria will partner with US military command’,

16December2007.

17 Thetwoships,ChaseandHamilton,areregardedashighendurancewarships.Theyhave,

however,beenintheserviceoftheUSCoastGuardinthelast43and44yearsrespectively.

See‘USdonateswarshipsNigeria’,The Punch,Lagos,13May2011.

18 ThisisalistofcountriesthattheUSseesassupportingterrorismorterrorists.Othercountries

onthelistatthetimeofNigeria’sinclusionwerePakistan,Lebanon,Yemen,Syria,Sudan,

Somalia,Algeria,Cuba,SaudiArabia,Iran,IraqandAfghanistan.

19 OnuahF,‘NigeriasaysUSairroutethreatensbilateralties’,Reuters,6January2010.

20 AmehJ&KIbrahym,‘USgivesconditionsfordroppingNigeriafromterrorlist’,The Punch,

Lagos,12February2010.

21 WilliamsS,‘Nigeria:AGOAproductsnotcompetitiveinUS’,Daily Trust,1July2010.

22 UmoruH,‘AGOA:WhyNigerianproductsarenotcompetitiveinUSA’,Vanguard,Lagos,1July

2010.


25


23 TheParisClubcomprisescountriesfromtheworld’sbiggesteconomies,includingFrance,

theUK,theUS,GermanyandJapan.

24 SiehRD,‘ObamatiesdebtrelieftoTaylorhandover’,22June2005,http://www.africamasterweb.

com/AdSense/ObamaTiesDebtReliefTaylorHandover.html.

25 ForafulltextoftheFrameworkoftheCommission,seeNnoma-AddisonB,The United States

and Nigeria: Celebrating Fifty Years of Friendship and Progress in Pictures. WashingtonDC:Africa

Media-Image,2010,pp.125–127.

26 OjedokunO,‘TheAnglo–Nigerianententeanditsdemise1960–1962’,Journal of Commonwealth

Political Studies,ix,3,November1971,pp.210–232.

27 UK(UnitedKingdom),BritishHighCommission,Abuja,http://ukinnigeria.fco.gov.uk/en/

news/?view=Speech&id=592941482,accessed16July2011.

28 TheMayorofLondonBoroughofSouthwarkinSouthEastLondon,TayoSitu,isaNigerian.

29 ThiswastodiscusstheproblemsraisedbytheDeclarationofUnilateralIndependencebythe

lateIanSmithinformerRhodesia.

30 ThesevisitswereinFebruary2010andJune2011.

31 Kayode-AdedejiD,‘20,000NigeriansinUKprisons’,Next,http://234next.com/csp/cms/sites/

Next/News/National/5568581-147/20000_nigerians_in_uk_prisons_.csp.

32 Poundsterling(Britishcurrency).

33 GuyoncourtS,‘UKtobuild£3mjailfor400…inNigeria’,Daily Express,London,9July2009.

34 OsagieC,‘Non-oilexport:X-rayingNigeria’stradeimbalance’,This Day,Lagos,3August2010.

35 Ibid.

36 EmbassiesinNigeria,http://diplomat-ng.blogspot.com/2011/09/british-high-commission-in-

nigeria.html,accessed16July2011.

37 TheseincluderestaurantssuchasTomi’sKitcheninDeptford,805RestaurantonOldKent

Road;cabofficesalloverLondon;andfirmsofsolicitorssuchasSimonBethelSolicitorsin

Lewisham.

38 TwoprominentcasesarethoseofDiepreyeAlamieyeseigha,whowasarrestedandjailedin

London,andJamesIbori,whoiscurrentlystandingtrial.

39 NwokediE,‘FranceandNigeria’,inOlusanyaGO&ROAkindele(eds),Nigeria’s External

Relations: The First Twenty-Five Years.Ibadan:UniversityPress,2006.

40 ItwasclearthatFrancewasnotparticularlysupportiveoftheECOWASinitiativeandCôte

d’Ivoire,believedtobeworkingunderFrenchinstruction,championedtheFrancophone

oppositiontoNigeriaforalongtime.

41 France’spreferenceforEasternEuropeancountriesoverFrancophoneWestAfricancountries

wasbecauseoftheirrelativelydevelopedinfrastructures,comparedwiththoseinWestAfrica.

TheauthorthanksTaleOmolefordrawingattentiontothispoint.

42 TradeInvestNigeria,HMDNigeria,http://www.tradeinvestnigeria.com/pls/cms/TI_SECOUT.

secout_dev?p_sid=9&p_site_id=126.

43 EmbassyoftheFederalRepublicofNigeria,Paris,AwanborFE,‘Nigeria–Francerelations–

Political’,www.nigeriafrance.com/page16.html.

44 This is a finance institution and the main implementing agency for France’s official

developmentassistancetodevelopingnations.

45 The Punch, ‘Nigeria,Francebilateraltradehits5.5billionEuro’,Lagos,25April2011.

46 DiscussionwithofficialsattheNigerianMinistryofForeignAffairs,Abuja,25May2011.

47 AlukoO,Essays on Nigerian Foreign Policy.London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1981.

48 AnofiD,‘Nigeria,Russiatradevolumehits$1.5bmark’,TheNation,Lagos,14January2010.

26



49 Ibid.

50 HurstC,‘China’soilrushinAfrica’,EnergySecurity.Washington,DC:InstitutefortheAnalysis

ofGlobalSecurity,July2006,p.11.

51 MomohS,‘HowtidyisNigeriaChinarelations’,Business Day,13January2009.

52 FormoreonChina–Nigeriaeconomicrelations,seeMthembu-SalterG, ‘Elephants,Antsand

Superpowers:Nigeria’sRelationswithChina’,OccasionalPaper,42. Johannesburg:South

AfricanInstituteofInternationalAffairs,2009.

53 MomohS, op. cit.

54 Shao Huixiang, deputy director-general of Shanghai municipality, where many of the

motorcyclescomefrom,confirmedtheincreaseintransactionsbetweenChinaandNigeria.

HenotedthatthebackuptradedestinationbetweenShanghaialoneandNigeriaamountedto

approximately$172million.

55 AlikeE, ‘FederalgovernmentcedesOlorunshogopowerplanttoChinesefirm’,This Day,

Lagos,16February2011.

56 OdogboD,‘FederalgovernmentfirmssignEasternRailcontract’,This Day,Lagos,8April

2011.

57 TheDanaGrouphasbeenresponsiblefortheimportationofKIAvehiclesintoNigeriawhile

theStallionGrouphasbeenresponsiblefortheimportationofvehiclessuchasHyundai,

HondaandAudiVW.

58 LohorJ,‘Nigeria,Brazilsignbilateralagreements’,ThisDay Online,Bilaterals.org,7September

2005,http://www.bilaterals.org/spip.php?article2667,accessed18July2011.

59 Ibid.

60 TheSouthAtlanticZoneofPeacewascreatedin1986throughaUNResolutionandisaimed

atpromotingco-operationandthemaintenanceofpeaceintheregion.

61 ItwascalculatedthattheMambillaProject,inthecountry’snorth-easternstateofTaraba,will

generate2 600megawattswhencompleted.

62 Mohammed S, ‘President Obasanjo, Kofi Annan decry conflicts in Africa’, Daily Trust,

16July2002.

63 Ikuomola V, ‘France to back Nigeria for UN Security Council seat’, The Nation, Lagos,

22May2011.

64 MojeedM,‘NigeriawinskeypostsinUNpeacekeeingwork’,The Interdependent,13September

2010.

65 Discussion with officials at the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Abuja, Nigeria,

22May2011.

South African Institute of International Affairs

Jan Smuts House, East Campus, University of the Witwatersrand

PO Box 31596, Braamfontein 2017, Johannesburg, South Africa

Tel +27 (0)11 339-2021 • Fax +27 (0)11 339-2154

www.saiia.org.za • [email protected]

S A I I A ’ S f u n d I n g p r o f I l e

SAIIA raises funds from governments, charitable foundations, companies and individual

donors. Our work is currently being funded by, among others, the Bradlow Foundation, the

United Kingdom’s Department for International Development, the European Commission,

the British High Commission of South Africa, the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the

International Institute for Sustainable Development, INWENT, the Konrad Adenauer

Foundation, the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Royal Danish Ministry of

Foreign Affairs, the Royal Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Swedish International

Development Cooperation Agency, the Canadian International Development Agency,

the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the United Nations

Conference on Trade and Development, the United Nations Economic Commission for

Africa, the African Development Bank, and the Open Society Foundation for South Africa.

SAIIA’s corporate membership is drawn from the South African private sector and

international businesses with an interest in Africa. In addition, SAIIA has a substantial number

of international diplomatic and mainly South African institutional members.

African perspectives. Global insights.South Africa

n Institute of In

te

rnat

iona

l Affa

irs

nigeria and the global powers: continuity and change in...

Documents