nietzsche and political thought

8/13/2019 Nietzsche and Political Thought

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Nietzsche, Genealogy and Justiceaul atton

jus t ice , acc or d in g to Rawls , i s the f irst v i r tu e o f soc ia l ins t i tu t ion s , in the sam e w aythat t ru th is the firs t virt ue of syst em s of th ou gh t (R aw ls 1999, p . 3). A society is'we l l -o rd e re d , ' h e a rg u e s , w h e n th e re i s a p o l it i c a l c o n c e p t io n o f justice on w hich a l lr e a s o n a b le citizens can agree , when i t s bas ic ins t i tu t ions are elfcctivcly regulated by apubl ic con ce p t io n of jus t ic e , and w he n c i t izen s have an e ffect ive sense o f jus t ice th a te n a b le s th e m to u n d e rs t a n d a n d a p p ly th e p r in c ip le s o f ju s t i c e (Ra wls 2 0 0 5 , p . 3 5 ) . Itfo llo ws th a t th e l e g i t ima c y o f o u r s o cia l i n s t i tu t io n s , i n c lu d in g o u r fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t ,d e p e n d s o n th e i r b e in g ju s t . T h e e x e rc i s eof po l i t ica l pow er i s leg i t imate on ly wh en i t ise x e rc i s e d in a c c o rd a n c e w i th a c o n s t i tu t io n th a t e m b o d i e s th e p r in c ip le s of a n a g re e dpol i t ica l co nc ep t io n of jus t ice (R awls 2005 , p . 137) .

R a w l s d i s t i n g u i s h e s p a r t i c u l a r p u b l i c conceptions o f jus t i ce , suc h as h is ow nc o n c e p t io n o f ju s t i c e a s f a i rn e s s , f ro m concepts o f soc ia l jus t ice tha t se t ou t gen era lp r in c ip le s fo r th e a s s ig n me n t o f r ig h t s a n d d u t i e s a n d th e d i s t r ib u t io n o f th e b e n e f i t sof social l ife . For the m o d e r n c i t i z e n s o f d e m o c r a t i c a n d l i b e ra l so c i e t i e s, w h o s econsidered in tu i t io n s a b o u t wh a t is j u s t fo rm th e ra w m a te r i a l o f Ra wls 's c o n c e p t io no r th e o ry o f ju s t i c e ,ihese b a s ic p r in c ip le s in c lu d e a v o id a n c e of'arbitrary d i s t i n c t i o n s 'b e tw e e n p e r s o n s in th e a s s ig n m e n t o f b a s i c r ig h t s a n d d u t i e s , a n d th e e s t a b l i s h me n tofa ' p r o p e r b a l a n c e ' b e t w e e n c o m p e t i n g c l a i m s to the advan tages o f soc ia l l i fe ' (Rawls1999, p . 5; 2005, p . 14).W h i le h e d o e s s u g g e s t th a t th i s c o n c e p t t a l l ie s w i th t r a d i t io n a lv iew s of jus t ice such as Aris to t le ' s , Rawls do cs no t in qu ire fu r th e r in to the o r ig i ns o fo u r c o n c e p t o f ju s t i c c . M o re g e n e ra l ly , h e is l e ss in t e re s t e d in th e h i s to r i c a l c h a ra c te ro f o u r c o n c e p t a n d c o n c e p t io n s o f ju s t i c e . By c o n t ra s t , if we a re in t e re s t e d in th ep o s s ib i l i t y th a t o u r c o n c e p t io n s a n d e v e n o u r c o n c e p t ofjusticc m i g h t c h a n g e , t h e n ilis im p o r ta n t to u n d e rs t a n d th e i r h i s to ry . I f we a re in t e re s t e d in th e fu tu re o f ju s t i c c ,g e n e a lo g ic a l in q u i ry in to i ts o r ig in s c a n p ro v i d e u s w i th r e s o u rc e s for th in k in g a b o u tit differently.

Ni e tzsc he is a spec ies pe rf ec t io n is t , in te re s ted in the fu tu re o f the hu m an senseofjusticc and fo rm s of soc ia l an d po l i t ica l o rder .1 M o re o v e r , h e i s c o m m i t t e d to a nh i s to r i c a l a p p ro a c h to th e c o n c e p t s a n d c o n c e p t io n s th a t in fo rm s o c ia l a n d p o l i t i ca llife, lie d e n i e s the poss ib i l i ty ofd e f in i n g su c h c o n c e p t s - only s o m e t h i n g w h i c h h a s n oh i s to ry c a n b e d e f in e d ' (GM I I : 1 3 ) - in f a v o u rofg e n e a lo g ic a l e n q u i ry in to th e i r o r ig in s .In Human, All Too Human, Daybreak a n d On the Genealogy of Morality, h e p ro v id e s


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8 Nietzsche and Political Thought

e l e m e n t s o f a s p e c u la t iv e a c c o u n t o f th e o r ig in s o f ju s t i c e g ro u n d e d in a h i s to r i c a lc o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n n a t u r e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e t h e o r y th a t 'a power-wilt isac ted ou t in a l l tha t happens ' (GM II : 12) . Al tho ug h he is o f ten con s ide red to be ana n t i -d e mo c ra t i c i f n o t a n a n t i -p o l i t i c a l t h in k e r , N ie tz s c h e 's c o m m e n ts o n d e m o c ra t i cp o l i t i ca l o rg a n iz a t io n in c lu d e s o me h ig h ly fa v o u ra b le ju d g m e n t s , p a r t i c u la r ly inwr i t in g s a ro u n d 1 8 8 0 . ' In th i s c h a p te r , Iwill fo c u s o n th e s e c o mme n ts in o rd e r to a rg u ethat he p rov ides the bases fo r a nove l in te rpre ta t ion of the sources and poss ib le fu tu red e v e l o p m e n t o f a democracy'yet t o c o m e ' ( H H 293) .

1 Origins of justiceInHuman, All Too Human, Nie tzsch e sugges ts tha t jus t ice o r ig ina t es be t w een par t ie s o fa p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l p o we r , 'wh e re th e re i s n o c l e a r ly r e c o g n iz a b le s u p e r io r i ty o f fo rc ea n d a c o n te s t wo u ld re s u l t i n mu tu a l in ju ry p r o d u c in g n o decisiveo u t c o m e ' ( H H 9 2 ) .Un d e r th e s e c i r c u m s ta n c e s , it m a k e s mo r e s e n s e for b o th p a r t i e s to n e g o t i a t e o v e rth e d e ma n d s o f e a c h p a r ty w i th a v ie w to r e a c h in g a mu tu a l ly s a t i s fa c to ry a g re e me n t ,the r eby avo id i ng conf l ic t tha t wouldonly lead to in ju ry wi th n o assu ranc e o f a benef ic ia lo u tc o m e o n e i th e r s id e . Un d e rs t o o d in th i s m a n n e r , j u s t i c e i s b a s e d o n th e e g o i s m th a tis expr essed in th e thou gh t : ' to wha t end sh ould 1 in ju re my se lf use lessly an d pe rh ap se v e n th e n n o t a c h ie v e myg o a l? ' (H H 9 2 ) .

From Nie tzsche ' s genea lo g ica l po in t o f v iew, the ego is t ic o r ig in o f m ora l v i r tue s suchas jus t ice doe s no t m ea n tha t they do no t se rv e the in te res ts o f a l l pa r t ie s co nc er ne d ,n o r th a t th e y c a n n o t o v e r t ime c o me to a p p e a r u n e g o i s t i c . In 7/ie Wanderer And HisShadow, he o ffers a pa ra l le l accou nt o f the ma n ne r in wh ich unse l fish dea l ing s wi tho th e r s c o u ld h a v e c o me to a c q u i re a p o s i t iv e e v a lu a t io n . Ne ig h b o u r in g c h ie f t a in s wh oh a d lo n g b e e n in c o n f li c t w i th o n e a n o th e r c o m e to a p e a c e fu l a g re e me n t b e c a u s eo f th e in t e rv e n t io n o f a th i r d p a r t y w h o th r e a te n s to s id e w i th wh o e v e r i s t h e v ic t imof aggr ess ion by the o ther , the reb y co nv inc ing bo th to keep the peace . As a resul t,t h e fo rme r e n e m ie s e n te r in to p e a c e fu l r e l a t io n s o f t r a d e a n d m u tu a l a s si s t a n c e th a te n h a n c e th e i r c o n d i t io n in a v a r i e ty of wa y s :

They bo th saw with as ton ishment how the i r p rosper i ty and wellbcing s u d d e n lyincreased , how each had in h is ne ighbour a wi l l ing t rad ing par tne r ins tead ofacra f ty o r open ly mocking i l ldoer , how each cou ld even ass is t and rescue the o therin t imes o f need ins tead of exp lo i t ing and augment ing th is need of h is ne ighbouras he re to fore . (WS 190

Each par ty saw on ly the behav iour o f the o ther , which they ca l led unse l f ish andc o n s i d e r e d a v i r tu e b e c a u s eof the benef i t s they der ive d f rom i t. In th i s ma n n e r , o n th eb a s i sof pe rce ived se l f - in te res t , lhe v i r tueofu n s e lf i sh b e h a v io u r b e c a m e a c k n o wle d g e d .It was no t tha t unse l f ish beh av iou r had no t p rev iou s ly oc cu rr ed in p r iva t e o r on a smal ls c a le , b u t r a th e r th a t i t o n ly b e c a m e a c k n o w le d g e d a s a v i r tu e w h e n

fo r the firs t t ime i t was painted on a wall in large le t ters legible to the wholec o m m u n i t y , l h e mo ra l qualities a re recognized as v i r tues , accorded va lue and an


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Nietzsche. Genealogy and Justice 9

h o n o u r e d n a m e , a n d re c o m m e n d e d fo r a c q u i s it io n o n ly f rom th e mo m e n t wh e nthey have v is ib ly de te r m ine d th e fa te and fo r tune of whole societies . (WS 190)

So it is wi th jus t ice , acc or d in g to Nie tzsche ' s acc ou nt . Th e h igh va lue p laced on th isa p p a r e n t l y uncgoistic v i r tu e in c re a s e s o v e r t ime a s a c o n s e q u e n c e b o th o f th e benefitsi t b r in g s to th e c o mmu n i ty a n d o f the efforts to protect and maintain i t . I ts valueincr eases as do es the va lue o f ever y h igh ly va lu ed th in g :

For som eth ing h igh ly va lued is s t r iven for , im i ta ted , mu l t ip l ied th ro ug h sac r if ice ,and gro ws as the w orth o f the to i l an d zea l ex pe nd ed by each ind iv idua l i s adde dto the worth o f the va lued th ing . (HH 92)

Nie tzsche ' s gen ea lo g ies o f jus t ic e , unse l f ish b eh av i ou r an d o th er soc ia l v i r tu esr e m a i n f ir m l y a n c h o r e d in a c o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n n a t u r e a s f u n d a m e n t a l l y self-i n t e re s t e d . Ho we v e r , t h e re i s m o r e to h i s c o n c e p t io n o f h u m a n s e lf - in te re st a n d th em e c h a n i s m b y wh ic h th i s le a d s to ju s t a n d fai r d e a l in g s b e tw e e n in d iv id u a l s a n dg ro u p s . F i r s t , b e c a u s e th e c o n c e p t ofjusticc o r ig in a te s in n e g o t i a t io n b e twe e n p a r t i e so f a p p ro x ima te ly e q u a l p o we r , i t imp l i e s a n u n d e rs t a n d in g o f th e b a s e s o f a g re e me n tbe tween par t ie s wi th d i f fe ren t o r conf l ic t ing in te res ts : 'the c h a ra c te r i s t i c o f exchangeis t h e o r ig in a l c h a ra c te r i s t i c o f ju s t i c e ' (H H 9 2 ) . S e c o n d , th e p ra c t i c e o f n e g o t i a t io nim pl ies an un de rs ta nd in g of the p roces s o f g ive and t ake , o r wha t N ie tzsch e re fe rs toa s r e q u i t a l (Vergeltung). It follows that: just ice i s th u s r e q u i t a l a n d e x c h a n g e u n d e r th ep re s u p p o s i t io n o f a n a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a l p o we r p o s i t io n ' (H H 9 2 ) . On the Genealogyof Morality r e i t e ra t e s th e c o n n e c t io n b e twe e n ju s t i c e a n d e x c h a n g e in p o in t in g to th ee ty mo lo g ic a l l i n k b e twe e n Schutd (g u i l t ) a n d Schuldcn (d e b t s ) , a n d in s u g g e s t in g th a ttheo r ig i n s o f p u n i s h m e n t in c lu d e d th e id e a th a t e v e ry in ju ry c o u ld b e c o m p e n s a te d b yan equ iva len t am ou nt o f suffe r ing in f l ic ted on the pe rp e t r a to r (G M II : 4 ) .

In Human, All Too Human, th e re fe rence to requi ta l and excha nge lead s Nie tzsc heto in v o k e two o th e r mo ra l s e n t ime n l s th a t b e lo n g to th e s a me d o ma in a s ju s t i c e ,n a m e ly rev en ge a n d g ra t i tu d e : ' r e v e n g e th e re fo re b e lo n g s o r ig in a l ly w i th in th e d o m a i nof jus t ice , it is an ex chan ge . Gr a t i tud e l ikewise ' (HH 9 2 ) . Ho w e v e r , wh e n w e tu r n tohis analyses of thesep h e n o m e n a , th e ideao f jus t iceasa re la t ions h ip invo lv ing req u i ta la n d e x c h a n g e b e twe e n p a r t i e s o f a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l p o w e r is fu r th e r c o m p l ic a te db y th e in t ro d u c t io n o f th e c o n c e p t io n o f in d iv id u a l s a s ' s p h e re s o f power' This i s howNie tz s c h e e x p la in s th e s e n t im e n t s o f g ra t i tu d e a n d re v e n g e :

The reason t he m an of po we r is grateful is this . Il i s benefac to r has , th ro ug h thehe lp he has g iven h im, as i t were la id hands on the sphere o f the man of powerand in t ruded in to i t (an dcr Sphdre de s Machtigen gleichsam vergrijfen un d sichin sie engedrdngt): now, by way of requ i ta l , the ma n of pow er in tu rn lays han dson the sphere o f h is benefac tor th rough the ac t o f g ra t i tude . It is a mi lde r form ofrevenge . (H H 44)

Nie tz sc h e 's a n a ly s e s of g ra t i tu d e a n d re v e n g e , a n d b y imp l i c a t io n o f th e h u m a n s e n s eofjust icc in te r m s of the sphe re o f po we r tha t cons t i tu tes the ind iv idu a l soc ia l agen tre q u i re s fu r th e r e x p la n a t io n . This wi l l be p ro v id ed in the nex t sec t ion de vo ted to h istheory o f wi l l to power and the ro le p layed in th is theory , insofa r as it a p p l i e s In h u ma n


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b e in g s , b y th e c o n c e p t o f th e f ee l in g o f p o we r . F o r th e m o m e n t , h o w e v e r , it i s imp o r ta n tto n o te th e c o mp le x i ty o f th e o r ig in s o f ju s t i c e a s h e e x p la in s th e m. T h e s e in c lu d eth e c a p a c i ty fo r r e q u i t a l a n d e x c h a n g e , th e e q u a l i ty o f p o we r o r r a th e r th e p e rc e iv e de q u a l i t yof p o w e r ( w h i c h m a yor may no t accura te ly re f lec t the ac tua l ba lance o f fo rcesin a g iven re la t io nsh ip) , and th e capac i ty fo r a fee ling of pow er , whi ch refers us to t hek in d o fagency in v o lv ed in h u m a n in te ra c t io n s .

2 Power and the feeling of powerAt th e t im e o f wr i t in g Human, All Too Human, N ie tz s c h e h a d n o t p re s e n te d in e x p l ic i tfo rm h is theory of the will to power.' Ap p l i e d to th e o rg a n ic wo r ld , t h i s th e o ry d o c sno t c la im tha t a l l th ings seek power over the i r environment, o r tha t they seek self-p re s e rv a t io n , b u t r a th e r th a t e v e ry th in g s e e k s to e x e rc i s e o r e x p re s s i t s o w n d i s t in c t iv ec a p a c i t i e s . W h e th e r o r n o t th a t l e a d s to s e l f -p re s e rv a t io n o r to p o w e r o v e r o th e r th in g swi l l d e p e n d n o t o n ly o n th e in t r in s i c c a p a c i t i e s o f th e b o d y c o n c e rn e d , b u t a l s o o n th eenvironment in which i t seeks to exerc ise i t s power . As he la te r wri tes :

A living thing desires above all to vent i ts s trength - l ife as such is will to power -se l f -p rese rva t ion iso n ly o n e of the ind irec t and m os t f requen t cons equ ence s o f it .(BGE 13)

Ap p l i e d to th e h u m a n a n i m a l , t h i s th e o ry t a k e s o n a fu r th e r d im e n s io n b y v i r tu e o f th efac t tha t , to a g rea te r elegree th a n a ll o th e r l iv in g th in g s , h u m a n b e in g s a re c o n s c io u sofan d a ffec ted by the i r ac t io ns . The fac t tha t theya re c o n s c io u s o f th e i r a c t io n s me a n sth a t th e y a c t in th e lig ht o f p a r t i c u la r wa y s o f u n d e rs t a n d i n g o r d e s c r ib in g th e m e a n in g ,g o a l s a n d c o n te n t o f th e i r a c t io n s .This impl ies tha t the re is an inescapab le in te rpre ta t iv ee le me n t in a l l h u ma n a c t io n . The fac t tha t hu m a n be in gs a re con sc i ou s o f an d a ffec tedby the i r ac t ion s fu r the r imp l ies tha t the re isa p a r t i c u la r k in d o f fe e d b a c k lo o p b e twe e nan agen t ' s ac t ions and the agen ts se l f -es teem or self-respect.4 Wh e n th e a c t io n i smis d i re c te d o r b lo c k e d th e a g e n t e x p e r i e n c e s a feeling of im po te nc e OC pOWCffeasnCttiW he n it succ eeds , o r i s be l ieved to have suc cee ded , the agen t ex per ien ces a fee l ing ofpower . Nie tzsche ' s mature doc tr ine o f the wi l l to power as i t app l ies to human be ings i ss u mme d u p in th e fo l lo win g p a s s a g e f ro m On The Genealogy of Morality.

Every a n i m a l . . . ins t inc t ive ly s t r ives fo r an op t im um of favourab le condi t io ns inwh ich i t can fully exp ress i ts po w er and a chieve i ts m axi m al feelingofp o we r . (G MIII: 7 translation modified)

E v e n th o u g h h e o n ly e x p li c i tly fo rmu la te d th i s d o c t r in e some years la ter, the crucialro le o f the fee l ing of po w er is impl ic i t in the ana lyse s o f hu m an soc ia l in te rac t ionu n d e r t a k e n i n Human, All Too Human a n d Daybreak. At the ou t se t o f Human, All TooHuman, a f te r c a l l in g for a c h e mi s t ry o f th e mo ra l , r e l ig io u s a n d a e s th e t i c s e n s a t io n sa n d a ll t h e a g i t a t io n s we e x p e r i e n c e w i th in o u rs e lv e s in c u l tu ra l a n d s o c ial i n t e rc o u rs e ,a n d in d e e d e v e n wh e n we a re a lo n e , ' N ie tz s c h e a d v a n c e s th e h y p o th e s i s th a t th e re a ren o a c t io n s th a t a re e i th e r c o mp le te ly e g o i st i c o r c o m p le te ly d i s in te re s t e d : th e re a re o n lys u b l ima t io n s ' i n wh ic h th e b a s ic clement see m s a lm os t to have d isp ersed an d revea ls


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Nietzsche, Genealogy and Justice 13

re la t io n o f d o m in a t io n o v e r a n o th e r , t h e y mig h t d o n a t e s o m e o f it t o th e we a k e r p a r ty .In do in g so , the y no t on ly p r esu pp os e 'a wea k fee l ing of po we r in h im w ho th us le tsh i m s e l f b e d o n a t e d to,'as Ni e tzsch e sugges ts , bu t they a lso pe rp e tu a te the wea k fee l ingo f p o w e r a n d th e re b y re in fo rc e th e h ie ra rc h ic a l r e l a t io n s h ip ( D 1 1 2 ). In Human, AllToo Human, h e p ro p o s e d a n e c o n o m ic mo t iv e for th e powerful to respect the rightsof those conquered or ens laved in po in t ing ou t tha t the la t te r s t i l l possess a t leas t thepo we r to des t ro y them se lv es , the r eby in f l ic t ing a loss on th e co nq ue ro r o r the s lavemaster (HH 93) .

Th ere i s a fu r th e r d i m en s i on to N ie tzsche ' s ana lys is o f the o r ig ins o f r igh ts an dd u t i e s wh ic h b r in g s th i s in to c lo se a l ig n m e n t w i th h i s a c c o u n t o f th e o r ig in o f ju s t i c c ,nam ely the fac t tha t i t a lso re l ie s on a co nc ep t io n of the agen ts invo lved as no t me re lysub jec ts o f power bu t a lso sub jec ts endowed wi th a capac i ty fo r the fee l ing of power .W h e n we h o n o u r o u r d u t i e s to o th e r s , d o in g s o m e th in g fo r th e m in r e tu rn for wh a tthey hav e do ne fo r us , he a rgu es :

W hat w e are do in g is res toring ou r self-rega rd - for in do in g so m et hi ng for us ,th e s e o th e r s h a v e imp in g e d u p o n o u r s p h e re o f p o we r , a n d w o u ld h a v e c o n t in u e dto have a ha nd in it if we did not w ith the pe rfo rm an ce of ou r 'duty ' practi se arequ i ta l , tha t i s to say impinge upon the i r power . (P 112)

For th is reason , Nie tzsche qua l i f ie s h is in i t ia l de f in i t ion o f r igh ts as recognizeda n d g u a ra n te e d d e g r e e s o f p o w e r b y s p e c i fy in g th a t th e r ig h t s of o th e r s ' c o n s t i tu t ea c o n c e s s io n o n th e part o f our fee l ing of power to the fee l ing of power o f thoseo th e r s ' (D 1 1 2 ) . H i s a n a ly s i s o f th e o r ig in s o f r ig h t s a n d d u t i e s th u s p ro c e e d s , o n th ea s s u m p t i o n th a t th e s e in v o lv e re l a t io n s b e twe e n in d iv id u a l s c o n c e iv e d a s ' s p h e r e s o fpower , ' where th is invo lves a capac i tyto be affected by the exerc ise o f one ' s ow n po w eras we l l a s by the impac t o f the power o f o thers . I t a lso invo lves be l ie fs about one ' so w n p o w e r a n d th a t o f o th e r s . As N ie tz s c h e p o in t s o u t , t h e r ig h t s o f o th e r s r e l a t eo n ly to ' t h a t wh ic h t h e y b e l i e v e l i e s w i th in o u r p o we r , p ro v id e d it is t h e s a m e th i n gwe be l ieve l ie s wi th in our power' (D 1 1 2) . T h i s imp l i e s th a t r ig h t s a n d c o r re s p o n d in gd u t i e s o n ly a r i s e w i th in a c o n te x t o f s h a re d b e l i e fs a b o u t th e p o we rs o f th o s e in v o lv e d .Amo n g th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th i s v i e w , i t fo l lo ws that r igh ts a re sub jec t to change asth o s e s h a re d b e l ie f s c h a n g e . Hu m a n b e in g s a rc a c u te ly s e n s i t iv e to c h a n g e s in th ep e rc e iv e d re l a t io n s o f p o we r th a t o b t a in b e tw e e n th e ms e lv e s a n d o th e r s . T h a t i s o n eof the reasons tha t r igh ts may come to ex is t where they d id no t be fore , o r go ou t o fe x i s t e n c e wh e re th e y h a d p re v io u s ly e x i s t e d .

4 Dem ocracy and the stateIn th e a b b re v ia t e d g e n e a lo g y o f r ig h t s a n d d u t i e s in Daybreak, as in th e ana l yses o fju s t i c e , g ra t i tu d e a n d re v e n g e in Human, All Too Human, we en co un te r the log ic o fre q u i t a l a n d e x c h a n g e a lo n g wi th th e c o n c e p t io n o f th e b e a r e r s o f righls anel dutiesas sub jec ts o f bo th power and the fee l ing of power . On th is bas is , Nie tzsche offe rsan account o f the emergence of soc ia l re la t ions invo lv ing jus t ice and of the va lue o fsuch re la t io ns . | us t re la t ions an d the assoc ia te d r igh ts and du t ie s tha t these im ply


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with in c iv i l o r po l i t ica l soc ie t ie s the re fore can be supposed to have emerged be tweenin d iv id u a l s a n d g ro u p s s e e k in g to e x p re s s th e i r o wn p o we r a n d to a c h ie v e a ma x ima lfee l ing of power . Nie tzsche ' s d iscuss ion of the o r ig in o f r igh ts and du t ies docs no tconsider th e l a te m o d e r n id e a of d e m o c r a t i c s o c ie t i e s g o v e rn e d b y m e a n s o f la ws ,w h e r e il isassumed no t on ly thai a ll c i t izens arc equal before the law but a lso thai theypar t ic ipa te equa l ly in the fo rmat ion of new laws . However , h is concep t ion of r igh ts asre c o g n iz e d a n d g u a ra n te e d d e g re e s of p o w e r isprima facie app l icab le to th is fo rm ofpo l i t ica l soc ie ty . Th e bas ic c iv il an d po l i t ica l r igh t s , w hic h fo rm th e bas is o f dem oc ra t icg o v e r n m e n t , w o u l d a m o u n t t o t h e ' d e g r e e s o f power' that a l l citizens wo uld agre e toa c c o rd o n e a n o th e r . T h e s e d e g re e s o f p o we r wo u ld in c lu d e th o s e n e c e s s a ry fo r th econduct o f g o v e rn m e n t wh e re th i s is u l t im a te ly a ma t t e r o f th e wa y s in wh ic h c i t i z e n sco l lec t ive ly exerc ise coerc ive power over one ano ther . 'Ihcy wo u ld in c lu d e n o t o n ly th ep r o t e c t i o n o f p e r s o n a n d p r o p e r t y b u t also f r e e d o ms o f s p e e c h a n d o p in io n , r ig h t s topar t ic ip a t io n in the po l i t ica l p roce ss an d so on . As such , these r ig h ts p ro v ide m uc h oft h e f r a m e w o r k ofa c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m o c r a c y .Co n s id e re d in th e lig ht o f c o n t e m p o ra ry l ibe ra l c o n c e p t io n s o f ju s t i c c , t h e q u e s t io nar ises wh e th er i t is poss ib le to ex t end Nie tzsche ' s acc ou nt o f the o r i g i n s ofjusticct o e n c o m p a s s it s m o d e r n d e m o c r a t i c fo rm. Ca n w e e n v i s a g e a s o c ie ty in wh ic h th eaff i rma t ion of th e eq ua l r i gh ts o f a l l c i t ize ns is a m ea ns to the fee l ing of pow er fo rin d iv id u a l s a n d th e c o m m u n i ty a s a wh o le ? N ie tzs c h e 's wr i t in g s c o n ta in t a n ta l i z in gs u g g e s t io n s th a t h e th o u g h t th i s mig h t b e p o s s ib le . F o r e x a mp le , i n On the Genealogyof Morals he po in t s ou t tha t a sthe p o we r a n d s e l f - c o n f id e n c e ofa communityg ro w s , s odo cs i t s capa c i ty to take l igh t ly th e o ffences o f ind iv id ua ls : it s pe na l law beco m es m or elen ien t . On t h is bas is , he sugges ts tha t

It is not impossible to imagine society so conscious of its power that it cou ldallow itse lf the nobles t luxury available to i t . - that of le t t ing i ts malefactors gounpunished. 'W ha t do 1 care abo ut m y par as ite s ' i t co uld say, ' le t th em live andf lour ish : I am s t ro ng enou gh for tha t ' (GM II: 10)

T h i s o v e rc o mi n g o f ju s t i c e in th e p e n a l s p h e re wo u ld a m o u n t to th e a b o l i t io n o f o n e o fthe e s s e n t i a l fu n c t io n s o f th e s t a t e h i th e r to , n a me ly th e p o we r to p u n i s h . F. lsewhcre, ina long passage in Human, Alt Too Human, d e v o t e d t othe re la t ion sh ip be tw een rel ig iona n d g o v e rn me n t , h e ima g in e s a fo rm o f s o c ie ty in wh ic h all o f the essen t ia l func t ions o fthe s ta te have been laken o v e r b y a n o th e r 'organizing power' He v ie ws th e e me rg e n c eo f d e m o c ra c y in E u r o p e a n m o d e rn i ty in a h i s to r i c a l p e r s p e c t iv e th a t e n a b le s h im tosec th e fu n d a me n ta l c h a n g e s in th e n a tu re a n d in th e p e rc e p t io n of g o v e rn m e n t th a tth i s imp l i e s . He a rg u e s th a t ' a b s o lu te tu t e l a ry g o v e rn me n t ' wh ic h re g a rd e d i t s e l f a sthe guar d ia n of the peop le wou ld a lways want re l ig ion to co n t in ue , a t leas t so lo ngas it fu lly un de rs to od t he benef i t s tha t rel ig ion pro v ide s . These inc lu de ca lm ing thep o p u la c e a n d h e lp in g th e m to d e a l w i th c a la mi t i e s , wh e th e r n a tu ra l o r s o c ia l , a s wel las ensur ing c iv i l peace . Re l ig ion 'qu ie tens the hear t o f the ind iv idua l in t imes o f loss ,de pr iva t io n , fea r, d is t ru s t ' and it a lso 'gua ran tees a c a l m , p a t i e n t , t ru s t in g d i s p o s i t io na m o n g t h e m a s s e s ' (1111 472) . I t a lso en sur es the leg i t im acy of the s la te i t sel f s incewi th o u t th e a s s i s t a n c e o f p r i e s t s ' e v e n n o w n o p o we r c a n b e c o me " l e g i t ima te " : a sN a p o l e o n g r a s p e d ' ( H H 4 7 2 ) .


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By c o n t ra s t , a v e ry di f fe re nt d y n a m ic t a k e s o v e r o n c e g o v e r n m e n t i s n o lo n g e rcon s id ere d to s tan d above an d ap ar t f rom t he peop le , bu t i s regarded me re ly as anexpression of the will ofthe p e o p le . He n c e fo r th , ' t h e a t t i t u d e to wa rd s r e l ig io n a d o p te db y th e g o v e rn me n t c a n o n ly b e th e s a me a s th a t a d o p te d to wa rd s i t b y th e p e o p le '(HH 4 7 2 ) . O n c e th e p e o p le c o m e to h o ld a r a n g e o f d iv e r s e a n d c o n f l i c t in g a t t i t u d e stow ard s re l ig io n , as we ll a s a p lu ra l i ty o f conf l ic t ing re l ig ious be l ie fs , the s ta te will haveno op t i on bu t to t rea t re l ig ion as a p r iva te m at te r . The secu la r i za t io n of the sta te wi ll int u r n u n l e a s h a d y n a m i c o fincreased r e l ig io u s d iv e r s i ty o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d in c re a s in ghos t i l i ty to wa rd s rel ig ion on the pa r t o f the s ta te an d i ts i r re l ig ious sup po rte rs onthe o ther . Religious g ro u p s w i ll t u r n a g a in s l lhe s t a t e a n d b e c o me h o s t i l e to wa rd s i t .Th is wi l l on l y fu r the r inc re ase conf l ic t b e tw een th e fo rces o f re l ig ion and secu la r isma n d u n d e r m in e th e a t t i t u d e of v e n e r a t io n a n d p ie ty ' t o w a rd s th e s t a t e th a t h i th e r toprevailed (HH 4 7 2 ) .

O v e r t ime , a s s u m in g th a t th e e n l ig h te n e d fo rc e s o p p o s e d to re l ig io n p re v a i l ,th is wi l l lead to dec l ine in the au thor i ty o f the state an d th ere by i ts effectiveness asa n in s t i tu t io n o f g o v e rn me n t . I t w i ll b e c o m e th e site o f con s tan t po l i t ica l s t rug g leb e tw e e n c o n t e n d in g p a r t i e s , i n c a p a b le of e m b a rk i n g o n p ro je c ts th a t re qu ire lo n g -t e r m i n v e s t m e n t o r c o m m i t m e n t .

F ina l ly - one can say th is wi th ce r ta in ty - d is t rus t o f a l l government , ins igh t in tothe use lessness and des t ruc t iveness o f these shor t -winded s t rugg les wi l l impe lmen to a quite novel resolve: the resolve to do away with the OOOOtpl of th e s ta le ,to the abo l i t ion o f the d is t inc t ion be tween pr iva te and publ ic . Pr iva te companieswillstep by s tep absorb the business of the s ta te : even themos t resis tan t re ma ind erof wha t w as fo rmerly the wo rk of gov ern m ent ( fo r example i t s ac t iv i t ie s des ign edto pro tect t he priv ate per son from the private pers on ) will in the long ru n be takencare o f by pr iva te con tr ac to rs . Dis regard for and the dec l ine and death of the state,the l iberation of the private person (I take care not to say: of the individual), is thecon sequ ence of the dem ocr a t ic con cep t ion of the s la te ; it i s in th is tha t i ts m iss ionlies. (HH 472)

C o m m e n ta t o r s o n th i s p a s s a g e h a v e a t e n d e n c y to s to p at th i s p o in t a n d to s u p p o s eth a t N ie tz s c h e s imp ly we lc o me s th e d e c l in e a n d d e a th o f th e s ta te .7 Yet these are not hisf inal w or ds on the sub jec t . He pr ese n ts the s ta te in a lon ger - te rm h is to r ica l pe r spe c t iv ea s me re ly o n e a m o n g ma n y o rg a n iz in g p o we rs ' t h a t h a v e h e ld swa y fo r p e r io d s inth e h i s to ry o f h u m a n i ty in v a r io u s p a r t s of th e wo r ld . O th e r s in c lu d e th e r ac ia l c l a n ,the family and the Greek polis.* H o w m a n y s u c h o r g a n i z i n g p o w e r s h a s h u m a n k i n dnot seen di e o u t ? Far f ro m s u s ta in i n g a n a n t i -p o l i t i c a l v i e w , h i s lo n g - t e rm h i s to r i c a lp e r s p e c t iv e e n a b le s h im to e n v i s a g e a fu tu re in wh ic h s o me o th e r fo rm of'organizingpower' wi l l emerge :

T h e p ru d e n c e a n d self-interest o f men a reof a ll their quali t ies the best developed;ift h estale i s n o lo n g e r e q u a l to th e d e m a n d sof these forces then the las t thing thatwi ll ensue is chaos : an inv en t ion m ore su i ted to the i r purp os e than the s ta te waswill gain vic tory over the s ta te . (HH 172)


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Nie tzsche is re luc tan t to specu la te on the fo rm tha t th is new inven t ion migh t take .Ho w e v e r , it is wo r th n o t in g th a t h e i s we l l a wa re o f th e d i s t in c t i o n b e twe e n g o v e r n m e n t ,a s th e wo r k of s o m e o rg a n iz in g p o we r , a n d th e s t a te a s a p a r t i c u la r fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n tth a t p re s u p p o s e s a n a u t h o r i ty o v e r a n d a p a r t f ro m th e p e o p le wh o a re g o v e rn e d . Ina n earlier passage in Human, All Too Human, he no ted tha t h is to r ica l ly , the re la t iono f g o v e rn m e n t to th e g o v e rn e d w a s s e e n a s a r e la t io n b e twe e n ' two d i s t in c t s p h e re so f power' tha t resembled a range of o t he r h ie ra rch ica l re la t ions in soc ie ty : be t w eente a c h e rs a n d p u p i l s , ma s te r s a n d s e rv a n t s , fa th e r s a n d fa mi l ie s a n d s o o n (H H 4 5 0 ) . Hec o n t ra s t s th i s w i th th e ' h i th e r to unhistoricaland a rb i t r a ry , if non e th e les s mo re log ica l 'c o n c e p t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t a s 'nothing bul an o rgan of the people ' and no tes tha t i t sw id e s p re a d a c c e p ta n c e imp l i e s c h a n g e in th e n a tu re o f th e s e o th e r s o c ia l r e l a t io n s a swell (HH 4 5 0 ) .

5 Democracy and justiceP a ra g ra p h 2 7 5 o f lhe Wanderer And His Shadow i s on e o f Nie tzsche ' s m or e pos i t ivea s s e s s m e n t s o f th e d e m o c ra t i z a t i o n o f E u ro p e . He a rg u e s th a t th i s p ro c e s s is i r r es i s t ib l eb e c a u s eanyo p p o s i t i o nto it now ha st oemploy'preciselyt h e m e a n s w h i c h t h e d e m o c r a t i cidea f i rs t p laced in everyone 's hands , ' namely il h a s to a p p e a l to th e ju d g e m e n t a n d w il lof tho se a ffec ted by it (W S2 75 ) . Mo re im po rtan t ly , he a rg ues tha t it i s va luab le be cau seof the ' cyc l opean ' i n s t i tu t i o n b u i l d i n gthat s e rv e s to s e p a ra te E u ro p e a n modernity f romth e Mi d d le Ag e s . T h e institutions th a t a c c o mp a n y th e a d v e n t o f d e mo c ra t i c s o c ie ty a red e s c r ib e d a s 'prophylactic measures' b y m e a n s o f wh ic h th e fo u n d a t io n s o f a fu tu re ,h ig her fo rm of soc ie t y a re la id 'so tha t the fu tu re ca n safe ly bu i l d up on t he m '(WS 275) .N ie tz s c h e s u g g e s t s th a t b y th e s e me a s u re s

W e m ak e it hen cefo rth im poss ible for the fruitful f ields of cul tur e again to b edes t roy ed overn ig h t by wi ld and senseless to rren ts We erec t s tone dam s an dpro tec t ive wa l ls aga ins t ba r bar ian s , aga ins t pes t i lence , aga ins tphysical and spiritualenslavement (WS 275)

Although he docs no t spe l l ou t p rec ise ly the n a tu re o f th e s e s to n e d a ms a n d p ro te c t iv ewa l l s, we c a n s u p p o s e th a t th e y in c lu d e th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o n s t i tu t io n a l a n d l eg a la r c h i t e c t u r e ofa ju s t a n d d e m o c r a t i c s o c ie ty . T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e p i s o d e s in th e c o u rs eof t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h e n f o r m sofp h y s ic a l a n d s p i r i tu a l e n s la v e m e n t r e -e m e rg e dbeca use these were no t p res en t g ives us som e ind ic a t ion of wha t i s invo lved , nam elyf re e d o ms o f c o n s c i e n c e a n d o p in io n , f r e e d o m o f a s s o c ia t io n , th e p ro te c t i o n o f p e r s o na n d p ro p e r t y a n d a n in d e p e n d e n t ju d ic i a ry to e n s u r e th a t th e s e p ro te c t io n s re a lly d oamount to a ru le o f law.

Nie tzsche ' s h is to r ica l spec u la t ion s in Human, All Too Human a b o u t th e c o n s e -q u e n c e s o f d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i tu t io n s for mo d e rn s o c ie ty a n d g o v e r n m e n t l e a v e u s w i thtw o s ign if ican t resou rces wi th w hich to ad dre ss the poss ib i l i ty o f a mor e jus t an dth o ro u g h g o in g d e mo c ra c y o n th e b a s i s o f h i s c o n c e p t io n o f th e w i l l t o p o we r a n d th ed y n a m ic s th a t it u n le a s h e d in h u m a n h i s to ry . F ir s t , h e d i s t in g u i s h e s b e tw e e n th e s t a t e ,u n d e r s t o o d as a d i s t in c t s p h e re o f p o w e r over a n d a b o v e th e p o we r o f th o s e governed.


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a n d g o v e rn m e n t , u n d e rs t o o d a s th e me a n s b y wh ic h c i ti z e n s c o l l e ct iv e ly e x e rc i s epo we r over one ano th er . Sec ond , he recognizes tha t the evo l u t io n of m o de rn soc ie tywil l inev i tab ly lead to a p lu ra l i ty o f re l ig io us , ph i loso phic a l an d m ora l v iews . In o th erwo rds , e f fec tive and s tab le de m oc ra t ic go ve rn m en t wi l l no longe r be ab le to exp ec t tha te v e ry o n e w i l l h a v e th e s a me o p in io n s a n d objectives bu t wi l l have to take in to accounta p lu ra l i ty of c o n c e p t i o n s of th e g o o d .A fu n d a m e n ta l p r in c ip le o f m o d e r n l ib e ra l c o n c e p t io n s o f d e m o c ra c y is wh a t w emight ca l l an egalitarianism o f c o n c e p t io n s o f th e g o o d . S u b jec t to th e i r r e s p e c t in gthe r igh ts o f o thers , ind iv idua ls have the r igh t to the i r own concep t ion of the goodand the r igh t to l ive in accordance wi th the i r own concep t ion of wha t makes a l i few ort hw hi l e o r a t leas t endu rab le . Th is is o f ten exp resse d in te rm s of th e idea tha tind iv idua l l ives should be l ived f rom the ins ide . People should no t be beholdento ex te rna l au t ho r i t i e s to te ll th em how to l ive. Nie tzsch e en do rse s the core o f th isp r in c ip le wh e n h e wr i t e s th a t :

. . . i f the purpose of a l l poli t ics really is to make l ife endurable for as many asposs ib le , the n these as -m any- as -po ss ib le a re en t i t led to de t e rm ine w ha t theyun de rs tan d by an end ur ab le l ife ; if they trus t to their inte llect a lso to discove rthe r ight m ea ns o f a t ta in ing th is goa l , wha t good is the r e in do ub t in g i t? Theywant for once to forge fur themselves their own fortunes and misfortunes; and ifthis feeling of s e l f -de t e rmi na t i on , pride in the five or s ix ideas their head containsand b rin gs forth , in fact renders the ir life so plea sant to the m the y are hap py tob e a r th e c a la mi to u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e i r n a r r o w -m in d e d n e s s , t h e re is l it t le to beobjec ted to , a lways p re sup po s ing tha t th is na rro w -m ind ed ne ss do es no t go so faras to demand tha t every th ing should become po l i t ic s in th is sense , lhat e v e ry o n eshould l ive an d work accord ing to such a s tan dar d . (H H 438)

Of cou rs e , Nietzsche 's ow n view is that i t is not t he pur p os e of a ll pol i t ic s to m ak e l ifee n d u ra b le for a s m a n y a s p o s s ib le . H i s c o n c e p t io n of'grand p o l i t i c s ' a im s a t s o m e th in ga l to g e th e r d if f e re n t , n a m e ly th e h ig h e r p o w e r a n d s p le n d o u r o f th e h u m a n s p e c ie s . InDaybreak, h e a rg u e s th a t ma n y p o l i ti c a l a n d e c o n o m ic af fa ir s 'a re n o t wo r th y o f b e in gtheenforcedconcern ofsoc ie ty ' smost gifteds p i r i t s '{Dl79).Howcver,acknowledgementt h a t the idea and th e pur su i t o f such g ran d po l i t ic s a rc no t fo r eve ryo ne doc s no t m ak eh im a n e n e m y of d e m o c r a c y , n o r d o e s it p re c lu d e h i s q u a l i fi e d e n d o rs e m e n t o f th ee g a l i t a r i a n p r in c ip le a lo n g th e l in e s a b o v e . '1he ega l i ta r ia n p r inc ip le tha t a ll sh ou ldh e a l lo we d to l iv e in a c c o rd a n c e w i th th e i r o wn c o n c e p t io n o f th e g o o d c a n re a d i lya c c o m m o d a t e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t s o m e m o r e e n l i g h t e n e d s p i r i ts o u g h t t o b e a l l o w e dto abs ta in f rom those fo rms of po l i t ic s a imed on ly a t making l i fe endurab le fo r as manyas poss ib le , sub jec t on a l l s ides to th is no t caus ing harm to o thers . It is the task of thee n l ig h te n e d few to q u e s t io n the p re v a i l in g c o n c e p t io n s o f th e g o o d a n d to a s k wh e th e rth e s e s e rv e o r h in d e r th e p ro g re s s iv e e v o lu t io n o f h u ma n k in d .

Nie tzsche was a lways c r i t ica l o f the idea , which he a t t r ibu ted to the soc ia l is ts o fh is t im e , tha t the h igh es t goo d sh ou ld s top a t the 'des i re to c rea te a com for tab le l ifefo r a s ma n y a s p o s s ib le ' (HH 2 3 5 ) . On h i s v i e w , th e a t t a in me n t o f th i s c o mfo r t a b lel ife fo r as m an y as poss ib le wo uld 'des t roy the so i l ou t o f whi ch grea t in te l lec t an dth e pow erfu l ind iv idua l in gene ra l g row s ' (H H 2 35) . The s ta te ma y wel l have been a


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In v ie w o f th e s e s c a t t e re d re ma rk s a b o u t th e imp l i c a t io n s o f th e p ro c e s s o fd e mo c ra t i z a t io n , a n d N ie tz s c h e ' s a p p a re n t e n d o rs e me n t o f a n id e a l o f d e mo c ra c y , i td o e s n o t seem u n r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t wc c a n c o n c e iv e o f a ju s t a n d d e m o c r a t i csoc ie ty on the bas is o f h is concep t ion of ind iv idua ls as sub jec ts o f power . We canimagine a fo rm of po l i t ica l soc ie ty based on the equality o f c i t izens qu a c i t izens tha tis mo re th a n a me re a c c o m m o d a t i o n b e tw e e n d i ffe re n t ia l s p h e re s o f p o we r . We c a nre c o n s t ru c t a p a th wa y fro m c i t i z e n s h ip r ig h t s u n d e rs t o o d a s me re modus vivendibe t we en in d iv idu a ls and s ta le ins t i tu t ion s , o f vas t ly d i f fe ren t deg rees and k in ds o fp o we r , t o r ig hts u n d e r s to o d a s d e r iv e d f ro m a g re e m e n t o n a p o l i ti c a l c o n c e p t io n o fjus t ice . Giv en the ten de nc y inh ere n t in de m oc ra t ic soc ie ty to mu l t ip ly rel ig ious an do th e r m o ra l p o in t s o f v i e w , s u c h a c o n c e p t io n o f ju s t i c e wo u ld re q u i re a n o v e r l a p p in gc o n s e n s u s o n f u n d a m e n ta l p r in c ip le s o f ju s t i c e a n d c o n s t i tu t io n a l a s s o c ia t io n . Ina d d i t io n to c o n c e iv in g o f h im o r h e r s e l f a s a l a wg iv e r, t h e c i t i z e n o f s u c h a d e m o c ra c yto co m e wo uld a lso have to recognize h is o r he r d i ffe rences f rom o t he rs . He or sh ewo u ld h a v e to a cc e p t th a t th e y d o n o t n e c e s s a r i ly s h a re a c o m m o n c o n c e p t io n o f th egood and tha t wha t a re compel l ing reasons fo r one a re no t necessa r i ly compel l ing fo ro t he rs . Such a p lu ra l is t and d em oc ra t ic soc ie ty w ou ld on ly be s tab le if c i t izens werec o m m i t t e d to a n id e a l o f p u b l i c r e a s o n a s g o v e rn in g th e i r p o l i t ic a l r e l a t io n to o t h e rc i t i z e n s . T h i s wo u ld o b l ig ethem t o a r g u eforo r aga ins t particularp ro p o s a l s in t e r m s th a tth e y c o u ld re a s o n a b ly e x p e c t o th e r s to e n d o rs e . In a d e mo c ra c y d e d ic a te d to c re a t in ga n d g u a ra n te e i n g a s m u c h d e m o c ra c y a s p o s s ib le , c i t i z e n s wo u ld a c h ie v e a f e el in g o fp o w e r b y r e s p e c t i n g t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f o t h e r s . T h e y w o u l d h o n o u r t h e m s e l v e s b yh o n o u r in g th e in d e p e n d e n c e a n d fe e lin g o f p o w e r of o th e r s . S u c h a c o n c e p t io n o fc i t i z e n s a s r e a s o n a b le s u b je c t s , e n d o w e d w i th a c a p a c i ty fo r ju s t i c e a n d a c o n c e p t io n o fth e g o o d , a llo ws u s to ima g in e a c o n c e p t io n o f ju s t i c e s imi la r to th a t fo u n d a m o n g l a t em o d e r n th e o r i s t s o f c o n s t i tu t io n a l d e m o c ra c y s u c h a s Ra wls. It a l lo ws u s to e n v i s a g ea we l l -o rde red soc ie t y in wh ich th e m ai n t en an ce of the po l i t ica l re la t ion of c i t ize ns too n e a n o th e r i s a me a n s to th e f e el in g o f p o w e r for all.

Notes1 He rm an S iem ens sugge sts that what is at stake for Nietzs che 'is not a few ind ivid uals

but, in fact , the future of hum an ki nd , a con cern that has its sources in a positiveethica l impu lse that fuels Nietzsche's th ou gh t from b eg inn ing to end; that is , hisperfectionis t demand that we overcome ourselves as wc are , that we do everything toenh anc e or e levate the hu m an species by exte nd ing the range of hum an possibil i t ies '(Siem ens 2009 , p . 30).

2 These include Human, All Too Human (1878) ,Assorted O pinions and Maxims(1879), The Wanderer And His Shadow (1880) and Daybreak (1881). Siemens notestwo features of Nietzsche 's writ ings during this period that s tand in contras t to hisoveral l t rea tment o f democrac y : first, his posit ive evaluation of democracy andsecond , h is engagem ent wi th dem ocrac y as a po l i tica l phenomenon (S iemens 2009 ,p .23).

3 This app ear s in pub lishe d wor k for the first tim e in Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Z 2, 'OfSelf-O vercom ing') . I t appea rs in note boo ks from 1885, where he asserts that Ihis


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Nietzsche.GenealogyandJustice 21world is the will to power - and noth ing besides1. (Notebook 38, )un c-|u ly 1885 [12]).See also 36(3 1|). E dito rs note: reference to 'derWillenach Macht' can be found inNietzsche's n oteboo ks as earlyas1880.SeeKSA8,6[130].

4 Ac co rdin g to Raw ls, self-esteem includes a sense of one's ow n value ,aswe ll as'a confidence in one's own a bilit y, so faras it is within one's power, to fulfill one'sintentions' (Rawls 1999,p. 386).

5 On Tlie Genealogyof Morality reiterates the cla im that cruelty was pa rtof'the festivejoyof the ancients' (G M I I :6 ), in the context of arguing that,fora longt im e, theequivalence that underpinned thephenomenono fpunishment relied upon 'thepleasure o f having the right to exercise power over the powerless w itho ut a tho ug ht'( G M I I :5).

6 For furth er discussion of Nietzsche's approach to an imma nent historica lunderstandingoftheor igin of rights,see Patton 2004, pp.43-61;Patton 2008.

7 Reading this passage alongside his better kn ow n characte rizations such as thesuggestion that Stateis the name for the coldest o fallcold monsters' (Z I, 'On theNew Idol')leads Lester Hunt tothe view thatheis ananti-political thinker (Hunt1985,pp. 454,458(f). Brian Leiter takes this passage to indicate that Nietzschebelieves humanitytobeseton a path towards'ak in d o f anarchy' (Leiter 2009, p. 2).Herman Siemens suggests that 'the argument of this text is that the concept ofpopular sovereignty has the effect of destroying the religious aura ofthestate sothat"mo dern democracy is the historical form o fthedecay of the slate*"(Siemens 2009,P- 25).

8 Nietzsche describes theGreekpolisas mistrustful o f the grow thofcultu re, l ike everyorganizing political power' (HH 474).

9 Rawls argues that measures o f this kin d to establish a'property owning democracy'arc required by liberal princ iplesofjusticc (Rawls2001.pp. 135-40).

BibliographyBrobjer.T. H . (2008).'Cri tica l Aspects of Nielzsches Relation to Politics and Dem ocracy',

in H. W. Siemens and V, Roodt (eds).Sietzschc, Power and Politics: RethinkingNietzsche sLegacy for Political Tlwught. Berlin and New York: WalterdeGruyter,pp .205-27.

l l u n l . L . I I . (1985),'Politicsand Anti- Politics: Nietzsche's View oftheStale'.History ofPhilosophy Quarterly 2(4), 453-68.

Leiter, B. (200 9),'Tamsin Shaw, Nietzsche's Political Skepticism (Princeton UniversityPress,2007)'.Notre Da me Dam e PhilosophicalReviews, 21January 2009.http://ndpr.nd.edu/ncws/23891-nictzschc-s-political-skepticism/.Visited 12Ap ril 2003.

Nietzsche,F. (numerical references arc to sections rather than page numbers)(1982),Daybreak:Tltoughtson the Prejudices ofMorality, M. Clark and B. Leiter (eds),

R. J. Hollingd ale (trans). Cam bridge: Cam bridge Univ ersity Press.[D](1986),Human All TooHuman: A Book for Free Spirits R. |, Hollingd ale (trans.).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [HH](1994),On the Genealogy of Morality, K.Ansell-Pearson (cd)and C.Diethc (trans.).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [GM\(2001),Beyond Good and Evil, R.-P Ho rstma nn (ed.) and ). No rm an (trans.).

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2 2 Nietzsche and Political Thought

(2003) , Writings from the Late Notebooks, R. Bi t tn c r(cd . ) and K.Sturge (trans .) .Cambridge : Cambridge Univers i ty Press .

(2009) , Digitate Kritische Gesamtausgabe Werke und Briefe, Nietzsche Source online a tht tp : / /www.nie tzschesource .org/*eKGWB.

Pat ton , P. (200 4), 'Po we r and Right in Nietz sche and Foucault '. International Studies inPhilosophy, 36(3) , 4 3 - 6 1 .

(2008),'Nietzsche on Rights, Power and the Feeling of Power', in H. W. Siemens andV. Roodt (eds),Nietzsche, Power and Politics: Rethinking Nietzsche's Legacyfor PoliticalIhought. Berlin and New York:Walter d e Gru y te r .p p . 4 7 1 -9 0 .

(2013),'Nietzsche on Power and Democracy c i rca 1 8 7 6 -1 8 8 ] ' . in M. Knoll andB. Stocker (eds), Nietzsche's Political Philosophy. Berlin and New York: de G ruyte r.

Rawls, J . (19 99) , A Theory of Justice: Revised Edition. Cam bridg e , MA: Harvard Univers i tyPrat

(2001), Justice as Fairness: A R estatement. Cam brid ge, MA : Harv ard Univers ity Press .(2 0 0 5 ) ,Political Liberalism: E xpanded Edition. New York: Co lum bia Univers ity Press.Siem ens, H. W. (2008 ), 'Yes , No , May be So . . . Nietzsche 's Equivo cations on th e Relationbe tween Democracy and "Grosse Politik* , in H. W. Siemens and V. Roodt (eds),

Nietzsche, Power and Po litics: Rethinking Nietzsche's Legacy for P olitical Ihought. Berlinand New York:Walterd e Gru y te r .p p . 2 3 1 -6 8 .

(2009) , Nietzsche's Cri t ique o f Democracy (1870-1886) ' .Journal of Nietzsche Studies,3 8 , 2 0 - 3 7 .

Socrates . (1961 ), 'Cr/Io ' , in F.. Ham ilton a nd H. Ca irns (eds), H. Tred ennick (tran s .) , Plato:The Collected Dialogues. Princ eton U nivers ity Press . (References arc to numberedparagraphs ) .
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