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1. AGRICULTURE – SOME CHALLENGES IN MODERN INDIA

Agriculture, the backbone of Indian rural economy, contributes to the overall economic growth of the country and determines the standard of life for more than 50% of the Indian population. Agriculture contributes only about 14% to the overall GDP but its impact is felt in the manufacturing sector as well as the services sector as the rural population has become a significant consumer of goods and services in the last couple of decades. But during the same time, growing industrial sector has created its own set of problems to agriculture.

The ‘Intra – Sector’ Problems:

1. Fragmented land holding Nearly 80% of the 140 million farming families hold less than 2 acres of land1. Large land

holdings enable the farmer to implement modern agricultural techniques and boost productivity. Besides, the number of people dependent on agriculture is also less in a large farmland as is the case in the Western economies. Small land holdings restrict the farmer to use traditional methods of farming and limit productivity. As land holdings are small, more people invariably work on the farms in the rural areas and coupled with the obsolete technology, farm incomes come down.

2. Irrigation problems Most of the farming in India is monsoon dependent – if monsoons are good, the entire

economy (and not just the agricultural sector) is upbeat and when the monsoon fails, everyone everywhere takes a hit to some extent. For a country that receives the second highest rainfall in the world and a country with a well extended river system lack of water can hardly be an excuse. The problem here is of proper management of water or the lack of it. Irrigation which consumes more than 80% of the total water use in the country needs a proper overhaul if the country has to improve agricultural output and boost the overall economy.

3. Seed problems In the olden days, farmers had their own seed repositories from the previous crop. They

used to select the best seeds from the previous generation and use them to improve the crop quality in the succeeding generations. But now, most of the farmers – especially the poor and marginal ones – are dependent on seeds sold in the market. Moreover, the HYV seeds as well as the GM seeds which promise higher yields force the farmers to buy seeds for every crop. With spurious seeds hitting the market, the farmers’ woes have exceeded all limits. Sometimes seeds do not give the stated/claimed yields and farmers run into economic troubles.

In many cases of GM and HYV seeds, farmers are forced to use high amounts of fertilisers and pesticides, provide large amounts of water (irrigation) and abide to all the other farming requirements that the companies mandate to get the proper yields. A proper regulation/legislation to hold seed companies accountable for false claims is the need of the hour as companies use legal loopholes to push the blame on to the farmers in the case of failed crops.

4. Sustainability problems Indian agricultural productivity is very less compared to world standards due to use of

obsolete farming technology. Coupled with this, lack of understanding of the need for sustainability in the poor farming community has made things worse. Companies promise higher yields by usage of their fertilisers and farmers, most of the time, exceed the prescribed limits of fertiliser use. Water usage is also unplanned with some arid areas misusing the irrigation facilities provided by planting water intensive crops. In areas where irrigation in the form of rivers and canals is not sufficiently available, ground water resources are heavily exploited.

Sustainability in agriculture is of utmost importance as many problems faced by farmers are related to this. Excess fertiliser usage not only makes the plants dependent on artificial fertilisers but also erodes the land quality, polluted ground water and in case of a surface runoff, pollutes the nearby water bodies.

Similarly, planting crops which require more water like rice on the basis of irrigation facilities extended to areas which are water deficient uses up more water than required. Besides, the excessive evaporation cause salts to accumulate on the fields making them lose their fertility quickly.

Lack of proper understanding of the need to grow crops sustainably will push farmers into a vicious circle – of debts, heavy use of fertilisers, water mismanagement, low productivity and thus more debts for the next cycle.

5. Over dependence on traditional crops like rice and wheat Every crop requires certain climatic conditions to give the best yields. Though rice and

wheat are produced in a large area in India, certain areas can readily switch to other crops to get better productivity. India is importing cooking oil from abroad though we have the necessary conditions to grow more oilseeds herei. Heavy dependence on traditional rice and wheat points to the lack of a proper national plan on agriculture. Excess stocks in a few crops lead to problems in the selling of the produce, storage and shortage of other essential farm output. Moreover, if the farm output is skewed towards crops like rice, irrigation and ground water facilities are misused by farmers, which leads to a host of other problems.

6. Supply channel bottlenecks and lack of market understanding Supply channel bottlenecks and lack of a proper marketing channel are serious problems

for a farmer who is already burdened with a host of troubles. These are issues which need to be tackled at the regional, state and national levels. Lack of a proper marketing channel forces the farmers to distress sale, makes them victims in the hands of greedy middlemen and ultimately restricts their income.

An improper marketing and storage channel also leads to storage problems in the years where productivity is good, leads to poor agricultural exports due to problems in maintaining quality and in many cases leads to gross wastage of valuable food grains and other farm output.

Food wastageii running into thousands of crores of rupees every year is nothing short of a crime in a country where more than 20% is below poverty line and where millions go hungry day after day. Lack of a national strategy in terms of agricultural production leads to production of some crops exceeding the requirement and to some crops well below the minimum limits. The problem is more acute in case of perishable agri output like vegetables and fruits where estimates of wastage are around 40%iii.

7. Government handling of the issue MSP, overall agricultural strategy of the country, PDS, storage/granaries, lack of export

market creation India lacks the required number of storage facilities (granaries, warehouses, cold storage

etc) which negates the advantage of having a bumper crop in years of good monsoon.

Exports in agricultural sector are also not very encouraging with a share of just 10% of the total exports, for a country where more than 50% of population is dependent on agriculture. The Minimum Support Prices (MSP) offered by the Government is a double edged sword – MSPs protect farmers from being exploited by middlemen but during times of excess crop, Government runs the risk of an unnecessary fiscal deficit by buying the excess produce. Lack of proper storage facilities and lack of a proper international market linkage leads to lower exports and in many cases leads to huge amount of wastage.

Some Solutions to ‘Intra – Sector’ Problems

1. Pooling of village lands and cooperative farming will ease the burden of fragmented land holdings. When the farmers form a consortium at the village level, the aggregate land can be farmed by using the latest technology. Banks too will be willing to lend money to a village consortium which can be utilised to boost farm productivity, employ sustainable farming methods, reduce over – dependence on fertilisers and thus solve many problems. The overall risk of a crop failure is less in this case and small farmers have a higher chance of earning a decent income at the end of the harvest season. Agricultural intensity also rises when a planned strategy adopted at the village level is implemented.

Agricultural credit and farm mechanisation for small and marginal farmers will continue to be difficult unless pooling of farm resources and/or a joint usage of farm technology are employediv.

2. Irrigation problems can be addressed by Government – preferably at the State and National levels. Though the Government cannot force farmers to produce only the designated crops in particular areas, it can surely educate them about the alternatives. Irrigation and water mismanagement is an issue that can reach crisis proportions in the years to come if proper steps are not taken to avert it today. This can be achieved only by making farmers aware of the future problems and showing them alternative economic channels.

Farmers also will shift from the traditional crops and look for alternative crops provided Government gives them the confidence that alternative crops too are economically profitable. When proper techniques (in water management at the regional, state and national levels as well as a crop plan of what to produce and where to produce) are employed, it will be a win – win situation for both the farmers as well as the country.

Irrigation problems as well as problems due to single/traditional crop dependence can be solved by a national level plan for agricultural production. Government can encourage farmers to shift to cash crops (oil seeds etc) instead of food crops in areas where food crops are not at an advantage to reduce imports and also to boost exports.

3. Seed problems can be overcome by creating in house seed banks at the village level for traditional crops (thereby reducing farmer dependence on external seed banks), selling Government approved seeds through proper channels (to eradicate spurious seeds) and strict penalties on seed marketing companies in case the seeds do not match the claims – germination and yield - of the companies. Terminator seeds should not be encouraged as a matter of principle as they force farmers to buy seeds for every crop.

Scientific research in this subject is to be encouraged to promote seeds which are mild on resource requirements but help the farmers in boosting the yields. Sometimes small innovations at the grass root levels can solve a host of problems specific to a particular region. District agricultural officers must make it a habit to encourage such ideas and also take part in knowledge sharing to implement the ideas at a regional level.

4. Some sustainability solutions are proper crop management on the basis of water availability, crop rotation, deploying modern agricultural practices to boost productivity, switching over to organic farming (village pools will reduce costs), thrust on allied activities.

For organic farming, first of all, a proper awareness has to be built – among both the farmers as well as consumers. Organic farming reduces the unnecessary usage of artificial fertilisers, reduces water consumption, strikes a good balance between the local environment and the farm output, helps the land retain its fertility for a long time, reduces costs in the long run and also with the creation of a proper market in the towns and cities establishes a virtuous cycle between consumers and farmers.

5. Storage facilities can be boosted by small cold storage or granaries at village level which can be established from Panchayat funds and loans to the village society (this eliminates dumping of excess crops in the market yard). A 700 ton cold storage cum warehouse will cost around Rs. 1.5 croresv which is very reasonable cost for a group of villages or a large Panchayat, provided the State or Union Government funds the cost. E-Mandis will also help the farmers to correctly predict the prices and thus market them profitably.

6. At the National level an agricultural strategy or policy to improve information exchange, national level cold storage chains and logistic network (If Walmart can do, then Government of India can also do!) is the need of the hour. Proper management of PDS has to done to cut down wastes so that a reliable estimate of the food grain needs will be made. The excess (after keeping reserves for a potential draught year) can be exported provided the quality is maintained by means of proper storage. Food wastage can thus be cut down and agricultural trade balance can be improved if there is a national level plan.

Other serious issues plaguing Agriculture Sector Rampant urbanisation, industrialisation and infrastructural development have created

their own set of problems to a sector which is already under much strain. In the past couple of decades, due to favourable economic policies in the aftermath of liberalisation, industrial growth has been phenomenal in India. Urbanisation too has seen an unprecedented increase in the same time. But for establishing an industry or for building and expanding a city, much land is required. As the land available in the country is limited, the ever increasing demand is satisfied by the already strained agricultural land.

Farmers, in many cases the poor and marginal ones, are forced to part with their land to boost industrialisation. The SEZs which are the future growth engines for industrial output have become a menace to these poor farmers as far as land acquisition is concerned. Coupled with this, a general lack of empathy towards farmers by the administrators as well as legislators has exacerbated the situation.

So, should all industrialisation and development be halted to save agriculture? There is never a yes or no answer for many problems that India faces. Growth and development in the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy is essential if India wants to become a super power but that development should not be at the cost of agriculture. A balance is essential.

Industries and SEZs do not need fertile agricultural land to set shop. Cities too can be built on agricultural waste land. Industrial encroachment can be stopped by proper handling of land acquisition. Agricultural lands must not be used for industries unless there is absolutely no

alternative. In the extreme cases where an industry or an infrastructural requirement (like a power plant) has to come up at an area where agricultural land has to be shifted to an industrial purpose, proper compensation has to be provided to the local farmers who are dependent on the land. This can done by way of reserving some jobs (on the basis of the skill set of the local population) in the industry that is to come up, having a proper rehabilitation and resettlement program, giving appropriate compensation and making sure some share of the profits of the industry go towards development – social and economic – of the area and the displaced people.

Renewable energy farms (wind and solar) must be set in agricultural lands if and only if there is absolutely no alternative. Even in that case, double usage of land can be thought of for both agriculture and the wind farm. Solar farms can be set up over large canals which provides a double benefit – less wastage of water (evaporation) and producing solar power.

Conclusion Agriculture is a sector that feeds millions directly, has a considerable influence on the

whole economy and in a country like India well being of the agricultural sector as a whole brings a psychological advantage to a multitude of other sectors. Millions depend on the farm lands for their sustenance and thus it makes it all the more important to eradicate the problems in this field. India cannot develop in the actual sense if its farmers lead a life of dire poverty and helplessness. A careful balance of industrialisation and agriculture is crucial for the overall prosperity of the nation.

2. ECONOMICS OF ANIMAL-REARING

Livestock contributes 25 per cent of gross value added in the agriculture sector. Provides self-employment to about 21 million people. Rapid growth of this sector can be

even more egalitarian and inclusive than growth of the crop sector because those engaged in it are mainly small holders and the landless.

Growth of livestock output averaged 4.8 per cent per annum during the Eleventh Plan. The animal production system in India is predominantly part of a mixed crop-livestock

farming system vital for the security and survival of large numbers of poor people. In such systems, livestock generate income, provide employment, draught power and manure. This production system assumes special significance in the present context of sustained economic growth, rising income, increasing urbanization, changes in taste and preference that have lead to dietary changes reflecting the importance of milk, meat, egg and fish.

Dairy and Livestock Production Milk

India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the world. Plan Schemes

Dairying is an important source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed as an important role in providing employment and income generating opportunities. The Government of India and state governments are making strong efforts to increase the productivity of milch animals and increase the per capita availability of milk. The Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries has attempted the building up cooperative infrastructure, revitalization of sick dairy cooperative federations and extended support for creation of infrastructure for production of quality milk and milk products. Two important schemes being implemented are the Intensive Dairy Development Programme for increasing milk production and procurement and the National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding for genetic upgradation of bovines. This section highlights the efforts made by the GOI through its schemes formulated to increase the production and productivity of milk, poultry, meat and fish. Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality & Clean Milk Production

The scheme, introduced during October, 2003 has its objective the improvement of the quality of raw milk produce at the village level by creating awareness among farmers and members. Under the scheme, there is a provision for training of farmers on good milking practices and the setting up of Bulk Milk Cooler (BMC) at Dairy Cooperative Society level. Assistance to Cooperatives

The central sector scheme started in 1999-2000, aims at revitalizing the sick dairy cooperative unions at the district level and cooperative federations at the State level. The

rehabilitation plan is prepared by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in consultation with the concerned State Dairy Federation and District Milk Union. Dairy Venture Capital Fund (DVCF)/Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS)

The Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund scheme was started in December, 2004. It has been modified and renamed as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS) and is being implemented from September, 2010. Cattle and Buffalo Breeding: Livestock Production

India has the world’s largest livestock population, accounting for about half the population of buffaloes and 1/6th of the goat population. Such a large population presents a challenge wherein existing productivity levels are sustained by application of modern science and technology, incentives and policies. At present 28 States and one Union Territory (UT) are participating in National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding. The objective of this scheme is to promote genetic upgradation of bovines. Artificial Insemination (AI) centres have been assisted and equipped to function as mobile AI centres and 21,000 private AI centres have been established for delivery of breeding services. In order to improve the quality of semen production a Minimum Standard Protocol (MSP) for semen production has been enforced at all semen stations; 49 frozen semen bull station have been strengthened as per this MSP. A central Monitoring Unit (CMU) has been constituted for evaluation of one semen stations in two years. Thirty four semen stations in the country have acquired ISO certification against 3 during 2004. MSP for progeny testing and standard operating procedures for AI technicians has also been formulated. Challenges: The challenges facing the dairy sector are given below:

Small herd size and poor productivity Inadequate budgetary allocation over the years

Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries Lack of equity with crop production Inadequate availability of credit Poor access to organized markets deprive farmers of proper milk price Poor AI service net-work Shortage of manpower and funds Limited availability of quality breeding bulls Low acceptability of AI in buffaloes Disease outbreaks: mortality & morbidity Deficiency of vaccines and vaccination set-up Induction of crossbred animals in areas poor in feed resources Majority of grazing lands are either degraded or encroached Diversion of feed & fodder ingredients for industrial use

The Way Forward

Continuous support to the States is essential for further genetic upgradation programmes to meet the fast increasing demand for milk in the country. There is further need to consolidate

and improve the breeding infrastructure created under NPCBB, scientific programmes like Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT), Multi Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET), Markers Assisted Selection (MAS) and development of semen sexing technology and use of sexed semen for faster propagation of elite germplasm and for increasing bovine productivity. The following policy initiatives are required to attract investment and for further development of dairy and livestock sector:

Incentivize investment in this sector Increase public investment.

Meat and Poultry Sector

In terms of population, India ranks second in the world in goats and third in sheep. Unlike the dairy sub-sector, growth in poultry production is mainly attributed to the efforts of the organized private sector, which controls over 80% of the total production in the country.

In poultry development, the following three components are funded by the Department: (i) Assistance to State Poultry Farms

One time assistance is provided to strengthen farms in terms of hatchery, brooding and rearing houses, laying houses for birds with provision for feed mill and their quality monitoring and in-house disease diagnostic facilities and feed analysis laboratory. (ii) Rural Backyard Poultry Development

This component envisages supply of backyard poultry to beneficiaries from Below Poverty Line (BPL) families to enable them to gain supplementary income and nutritional support. (iii) Poultry Estates

Entrepreneurship skills are to be improved through an exploratory pilot project, ‘Poultry Estates’ in two States. It is meant primarily for educated, unemployed youth and small farmers with some margin money, for making a profitable venture out of various poultry related activities in a scientific and bio-secure cluster approach.

Poultry Venture Capital Fund

The scheme provides finance through NABARD for components like establishment of poultry breeding farm with low input technology birds, establishment of feed go-down, feed mill, feed analytical laboratory, marketing of poultry products, egg grading, packing and storage for export capacity, retail poultry dressing unit, egg and broiler carts for sale of poultry products and central grower unit, etc. Central Poultry Development Organizations & Central Poultry Performance Testing Centre

The four centres of the Central Poultry Development Organizations are located at Chandigarh (Northern Region), Bhubaneswar (Eastern Region), Mumbai (Western Region) and Bangalore (Southern Region) while one Central Poultry Performance Testing Centre is at Gurgaon, Haryana. These centres are promoting the development of poultry through the following measures:

Availability of quality chicks of identified low-input technology poultry stocks is ensured. Diversification into rearing of Duck and Turkey (Southern Region), Japanese Quail

(Northern and Western region) and Guinea fowl (Eastern region). Training of trainers, farmers, women beneficiaries, various public and private sector

poultry organizations, NGOs, Banks, Cooperatives and foreign trainees etc. Regular testing of various stocks available in the country to assess their performance.

Challenges

The challenges facing the meat and poultry sector include: Maize availability and cost: maize is the single most important ingredient of poultry feed,

its’ availability at a reasonable cost is the major problem of poultry sector. Diseases: Pathogenic and emerging diseases namely AI often cause heavy losses both

in domestic market and international trade. Lack of Marketing Intelligence: There is a dire need for realistic national marketing

intelligence to bridge the gap between supply and demand of poultry & poultry products.

Human Resource Development: To meet the growing demand of sustainable and safe production there is a huge demand for trained and skilled manpower in poultry sector.

Large size of target population to be improved in terms of productivity with application of science and technology pose a formidable challenge.

Low level of processing and value addition in animal products.

The Way Forward The following measure are suggested to strengthen the meat and poultry sector for accelerated and sustainable growth:

Long-term sustainable production measures have to be looked into to increase the production & quality of maize.

Active surveillance, monitoring and control in case of any outbreaks in rapid manner. Network for a realistic national and global poultry database and marketing intelligence

may be developed. Sufficient trained manpower should be developed in the existing institutions. With growing urbanization and increasing quality consciousness, the market for

scientifically produced meat products is expected to grow rapidly. The market is growing for ready-to-eat and semi-processed meat products because of a changing socio-economic scenario and an increase in exports to neighbouring countries, especially the Middle East.

The mechanized slaughter houses produce huge quantities of offal and digesta from the slaughtered animals which could be profitably utilized for production of value added products, like Meat-cum-Bone Meal (MBM), Tallow, Bone Chips, Pet Foods and methane as a source of energy for value addition in most of the modern plants.

There is a need to support pig rearing in order to improve sow productivity, growth rate of piglets and feed conversion efficiency.

It is important to encourage proper utilization of by-products of livestock slaughter for higher income of livestock owners. The environmental pollution and spread of livestock diseases has to be prevented.

Nutrition: Fodder and Feed With only 2.29% of the land area of the world, India is maintaining about 10.71% of the

world’s livestock. The nutritive value of feed and fodder has a significant bearing on productivity of livestock. The gap between the demand and supply of fodder is fast increasing. In order to bridge this gap, and ensure production of quality fodder, the DADF is implementing a Central

Fodder Development Organization (CFDO) Scheme. This has 7 Regional Stations for Forage Production and Demonstration (RSFP&D), one Central Fodder Seed Production Farm (CFSPF) at Hessarghatta (Karnataka) and Central Minikit Testing Programme (CMTP) for fodder crops. A modified ‘Centrally Sponsored Fodder & Feed Development Scheme’ is being implemented from April, 2010 for assisting the states in their efforts to augment the quantity and quality of feed and fodder.

Challenges

The main challenges in providing adequate and quality fodder and feed include: While numbers of livestock are growing, but the grazing lands are gradually diminishing.

The area under fodder cultivation is also limited. A majority of the grazing lands have either been degraded or encroached upon

restricting their availability for livestock grazing. Due to increasing pressure on land for growing food grains, oil seeds, and pulses,

adequate attention has not been given to the production of fodder crops. Diversified use of agriculture residues like paper industry, packaging, etc. widening the

gap between the supply and demand for fodder. There is lack of authentic data on availability of fodder, crop residues, agro industrial by-

products and feed grains (coarse cereal grains). This is required to build an actual database, on feed and fodder, to be used for more effective and realistic planning of livestock sector development.

Current production of improved fodder seed in the country is about 40,000 metric tonnes as against the requirement of 5.4 lakh metric tonnes to be cultivated on 10.8 million ha area.

A substantial amount of crop residues is burnt by the farmers after harvesting of main crop like wheat and paddy.

In most of the states there are inadequate staffs to address the problems related to fodder.

The Way Forward The measures which can contribute to improved fodder and feed situation include the following:

A reliable data-base is required for assisting in realistic planning. Supply of quality fodder and feed should be encouraged on a priority basis. The forest department can play a major role in augmenting fodder production in the

country. The degraded forest areas, mostly under the Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs), can be used for assisting growth of indigenous fodder varieties of grasses, legumes, and trees under area-specific Silvi-pastoral systems.

There is a need for undertaking an effective Extension campaign in major states for efficient utilization of crop residues, growing fodder crops, Azolla production, etc.

Production of seeds of high yielding fodder varieties needs to be increased in the organized/cooperative sector.

High yielding fodder varieties need to be introduced throughout the country, instead of dual purpose varieties.

Production of condensed fodder blocks needs to be encouraged by creating an assured market, coupled with providing a transport subsidy for supply to distant areas.

Livestock Health Infectious Diseases

High prevalence of various animal diseases like Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD), Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), Brucellosis, Classical Swine Fever and Avian Influenza is a serious impediment to growth in the livestock sector. Most of these losses can be prevented through timely immunization. The Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) has initiated National Programmes for prevention and control of FMD, PPR and Brucellosis.

Similar programmes have been initiated to control PPR and Brucellosis. Shortages of vaccines and lack of proper cold chain facility are among the major hindrances to a faster implementation of these programmes.

Veterinary Support Services

Most of the veterinary hospitals and polyclinics and veterinary dispensaries have poor infrastructure and equipment. Further, the technical manpower is too inadequate to support health programmes for the massive livestock population. The DADF has now initiated a programme for the “Establishment and Strengthening of existing Veterinary Hospitals and Dispensaries (ESVHD)”. There is a dire need to strengthen veterinary hospital facilities for timely diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases. Emphasis also needs to be given to strengthen art mobile veterinary services to ensure door-step veterinary support.

Disease Reporting

The present system of disease reporting is slow. A computerized National Animal Disease Reporting System (NADRS) linking Taluka, Block, District and State Headquarters to a Central Disease Reporting and Monitoring Unit at the DADF in New Delhi has been initiated in 2010-11. A faster and reliable disease reporting and processing of data will help in the development of appropriate policies and intervention for disease prevention and containment.

Challenges

The main challenges confronting the animal health sector include: Veterinary hospitals, dispensaries and technical manpower are inadequate. The disease reporting is neither timely nor complete which delays proper interventions. Inadequate availability of vaccines and lack of cold storage.

The Way Forward The following measures will strengthen the animal health sector:

Adequate veterinary disease diagnosis, epidemiology, hospital infrastructure and manpower need to be developed.

A strong programme for supply of sufficient veterinary vaccines is necessary. Fisheries Sector

India is the second largest producer of fish in the world. The policy for fishery development emphasizes inland fisheries, particularly aquaculture

in recent years, which has been instrumental in increasing production, enhancing exports and reducing the poverty of fishermen.

Allocations made for the development of fisheries sector through the Centrally Sponsored Schemes and Central Sector Schemes are utilized for implementation of both development and welfare oriented schemes through the respective states and UTs. In addition to the allocations made through CSS and CS, assistance is provided through other flagship programmes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the recently launched National Mission for Protein Supplements (NMPS)

Challenges

The main challenges facing the fisheries sector include: Shortage of quality and healthy fish seeds and other critical inputs. Lack of resource-specific fishing vessels and reliable resource and updated data. Inadequate awareness about nutritional and economic benefits of fish. Inadequate extension staff for fisheries and training for fishers and fisheries personnel. Absence of standardization and branding of fish products.

The Way Forward

The following measures will help to further strengthen the fisheries sector: Schemes of integrated approach for enhancing inland fish production and productivity

with forward and backward linkages right from production chain and input requirements like quality fish seeds and fish feeds and creation of required infrastructure for harvesting, hygienic handling, value addition and marketing of fish.

Existing Fish Farmers Development Authority (FFDAs) would be revamped and cooperative sectors, SHGs and youths would be actively involved in intensive aquaculture activities. L

arge scale adoption of culture-based capture fisheries and cage culture in reservoirs and larger water bodies are to be taken up.

Sustainable exploitation of marine fishery resources especially deep sea resources and enhancement of marine fish production through sea farming, mariculture, resource replenishment programme like setting up of artificial reefs.

3. IRRIGATION

DIFFERENT TYEPS OF IRRIGATION

The following systems of irrigation are suitable for the Indian topography

1. Tank irrigation

2. Canal irrigation

3. Well and tube-well irrigation

1. TANK IRRIGATION:

A tank is nothing but a depression formed on the surface of the earth by naturally or artificially to store the water by building a bund around or a side of the depression. If the tank is nearer or on the way of the stream of the river it is easy to store the water.

CONDITIONS FOR TANK IRRIGATION:

1. Land should have an undulating relief feature so that depression could be available

2. Should have a hard layered rock and little percolation of water so that water can be retained for a long period

3. Nearness of the river course so that water can be easily filled in the depression

AREAS FULLFILLING THE ABOVE CONDITIONS:

Most parts of peninsular India especially most areas of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, eastern parts of Karnataka, eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra and a few parts in north India.

ADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:

1. Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost for their construction.

2. Even an individual farmer can have his own tank.

3. Tanks are generally constructed on rocky bed and have longer life span.

4. In many tanks fishing is also carried on. This supplements both the food resources and income of the farmer.

DISADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:

1. Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most.

2. Silting of the tank bed is a serious problem and it requires desilting in regular intervals.

3. Evaporation loss is very high.

4. Sometimes it is difficult to take water from tank to the irrigation field because of the hard rock.

2. CANAL IRRIGATION

Canals are man-made channels for flow of water.

CONDITIONS FOR CANAL IRRIGATION:

1. Areas of low and level relief so that water flow would be by the gravitation force

2. Deep soft rock layer so that canal excavation would be easy

3. Perennial source of water

AREAS FULFILLING THE CONDITIONS:

North plains of India especially the areas comprising Punjab; Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and the coastal and delta regions of the south India.

ADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:

1. Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water as and when needed.

2. Canals carry a lot of sediment brought down by the rivers. This sediment is deposited in the agricultural fields which adds to the fertility of soil.

3. Some of the canals are parts of multipurpose projects and, therefore, provide cheap source of irrigation.

4. Although the initial cost involved in canal irrigation is much higher, it is quite cheap in the long run.

DISADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:

1. The canal water soaks into the ground and leads to the problem of water-logging along the canal route

2. The marshy areas near the canals act as breeding grounds of mosquitoes which result in widespread diseases

3. Many canals over flow during rainy season and flood the surrounding areas.

4. Canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.

3. WELL&TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION

A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. A tube well is a deeper well with a tube surrounding the peripheral from which water is lifted with the help of a pump set.

CONDITIONS FOR WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:

1. Sufficient sweet ground water should be available

2. Soft rock

AREAS FULFILLING THE CONDITIONS:

Large part of great plain, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan trap.

ADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:

1. Simplest and cheapest source of irrigation and the poor Indian farmer can easily afford it

2. Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises

3. Several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. Are mixed in well water. They add to the fertility of soil when they reach the agricultural field along with well water

4. There is a limit to the extent of canal irrigation while a well can be dug at any convenient place

DISADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:

1. Only limited areas can be irrigated

2. The well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it

3. Tube wells can draw a lot of ground water from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture

4. For tube-wells electricity or diesel needed.

SUMMERY NOTES IRRIGATION

TANK WELLS CANAL

TANKS

- most feasible and widely practiced method - Small in size built by raising bunds across seasonal streams. - Excavated type in WB,ORISSA, BIHAR & mostly used for raising fishes beside irrigation - Get silted up soon so need to be desilted - High rate of evaporation and occupation of fertile land - At many places dried up surface used for cultivation - Most of the tanks are non perennial - Karnataka, TN, AP, ORRISA, MAHARASHTRA have more area under tank irrigation.

WELLS

- Most widely distributed source of irrigation. - water from underground so possible in areas of low rainfall where adequate amount of

GW is present Within the reach of small farmer - the great plains, deltaic region of Krishna, Godavari, narmada, kaveri, Mahanadi and

tapi - large tracts of peninsula holds little sub surface water - in some parts of Haryana ,Rajasthan , Gujarat, Punjab ground water is saline so not

suitable for irrigation - 41 % of the net irrigated area

CANAL

- principal source of irrigation - 40% of the net irrigated area - Require an adequate source of water supply, allow relief and an extensive command

area - Inundation canals are taken out of river without any regulating system at their heads (

to use flood water) - Perennial canals take off from perennial rivers with a weir system (to regulate flow of

water) - In great plains canals take off from barrages, while in peninsula large dams and

reservoirs necessary for taking off canals - Half of the net canal irrigated area lie in UP, PUNJAB, HARYANA AND A.P

UTTAR PRADESH Upper and lower ganga canal, eastern Yamuna canal, sarda canal ramganga canal, betwa canal, agra canal

ANDHRA PRADESH

Canal system taken off from Krishna, Godavari,Tungabhadra, dowlaiswaram anicut (Godavari delta), prakasam

barrage(Krishna delta), penner canal,canals of nizamsagar,pochampad project, nagarjunsagar &

Tungabhadra project (mainly irrigate rayalseema districts) WEST BENGAL DVC (hooghly), mayurakshi,kangsabati

TAMIL NADU deltaic regions of tambraparni & kaveri, grand anicut, katalai

high level canal, mettur canal system,lower bhawani project,manimuthar project(tambraparni)

BIHAR Eastern kosi canal, eastern gandak canal, son canal

RAJASTHAN Bikaner canal (satluj), ottu feeder(ghaggar), bhakra canal, Chambal project canals, rajasthan canal

M.P Chambal project , barna project, tawa project canal

KARNATKA Tungabhadra project canals, malprabha project, ghatprabha

project,bhadra project, visvesaraya canal (kaveri)(krishnaarjunsagar dam)

MAHARASHTRA Mutha canal(khadakwasola reservoir),mula canal , upper

Godavari canal, girna canal , nira canal, pravara canal,ghod and purna canal

ORISSA Canals of Mahanadi (hirakund project) KERALA Malampuzha canal, periyar canal, pamba canal

OTHER SOURCES OF IRRIGATION - irrigation from temporary dams called ahars & pynes, spring channels, direct lift from water channels. Great plains and east coastal lowlands have more area under irrigation than the uplands in the peninsular regions due to greater concentration of the sown area and availability of more surface and sub-surface water.

NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002

Emphasis on integrated water resource development. Management for optimal and sustainable utilization of water. Creation of well-developed information system. Water conservation, participatory approach on water management

- Avg annual water availability of country -1869 billion cubic metre(bcm) - Of which 1123 bcm usable of which 690 bcm surface water rest ground water - In bhart nirman emphasis on extension renovation and modernization (ERM ) & repair

renovation and restoration ACCELERATED IRRIGATION BENEFIT PROGRAMME

- To gave loan assistance to states to help in completion of major / medium irrigation project

- Central loan assistance scheme for surface minor irrigation schemes of north eastern states and other hilly states

- 25 % project grant for non-special states and 30% for special states, drought prone tribal areas including.

Hydro project -2 - With world bank assistance in 13 states - To promote the sustainable and effective use of hydrological information system(HIS)

COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT - to bridge the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized through micro level

Infrastructure development for efficient water management and enhancement of agriculture production

- Assistance of 50:50 basis for construction activity and 75:25 basis for training activity - Parcitipatory approach with water users association - Minimum 10% contribution by the beneficiary in the cost of construction of field

channels, reclamation of water logged area - Flood management - 45 mha flood prone area in the country - By way of construction of embankment , drainage channels town protection works &

providing raised platforms - 100% central assistance to W.B ,Tripura, N.E states - Flood management programme – flood control, river management drainage

development ,flood proofing, anti-sea erosion works - A network of flood forcasting and warning system established by central water

commission in major river basins for flood forcast

Advisory council on artificial recharge of ground water

- Implementation of 5000 farmer’s participatory action research programme - Organization of national ground water congress - Institute of ground water augmentation award and national water award - Preparation of policy on use of ground water by industries - FPARP technologies –micro irrigation system (drip and sprinkler), water

conservation(jalkund, storage tanks, check dams, recharging wells), crop diversification, system of rice intensification (SRI), in-situ soil moisture conservation, micro nutrient management

- Ministryof water resources constituted bhoomijal samvardhan puraskars- cash award of 1 lkh.

National water resource council

- Prime minister chairman, union minister of water resources vice chairman ,chief ministers of all states secretary (ministry of water resources)

Central water commission – 3 technical wings

- Design and research wing - Water planning and project wing - River management wing

13 regional organizations to carry out techno-economic appraisal and economic aspects of irrigation, flood control and multipurpose project proposed by state government

All work related to hydrological data Flood forcasting system

To advise on basin wise development of water resources To advise and assist survey and investigate on designs and schemes on

development of river valleys in respect of power generation , irrigation, flood management , environmental management, resettlement and rehabilitation, soil conservation, anti-water logging measures, reclamation of alkaline and saline soils, drainage and drinking water supply

To impart training on various aspects of water resource development Dam safety studies, promotion of modern data collection techniques such as

remote sensing assessment of water erosion problems.

Central soil and material research station - Soil mechanics, rock mechanics, construction materials - Soil dynamics, geotextile, soil chemistry, rock fill technology, drilling technology

Central water and power research station

- Khadakwasla, pune - Hydraulic research - River engineering, reservoir and appurtenant structures, coastal and offshore

engineering, shiop hydrodynamics, hydraulic machinery, earth sciences, mathematic modeling

Central ground water board

- Disseminate technologies for scientific and sustainable development and management of india;s ground water resource including monitoring , assessment, exploration & augmentation

- RGI scheme provide training, setting up laboratories , r & d studies

Farraka barrage project - For preservation and management of kolkata port(bhagirathi hoogly river system)

Bansagar control board

- On sone river - M.P , U.P , bihar involved Ganga flood control commission

- Headquartered at patna.

Upper Yamuna board - MoU between H.P, Haryana, U.P, rajasthan and nct delhi - Allocation of available flow and also maintain the return flow - Three storage project- renuka dam, Krishna dam, lakhwar vyas project

National water development agency

- National perspective plan (NPP) under national common minimum programme - Transferring water from water surplus basin to water deficit basin by interlinking of rivers

Two components - 1. Himalya water development component - 2 .peninsular rivers development component - Main river links- ken betwa link (M.P, U.P involved) - Parbati- kali sindh- Chambal link(M.P , rajasthan involved) - PAR-TAPI NARMADA LINK and damangana – panjal link (gujrat Maharashtra involved) - Godavari- Krishna link (andhrapradesh involved) - Mahanadi – Godavari- Krishna- pennar kaveri- gundar link system -7 states involved

4. LAND REFORMS IN INDIA

WHAT IS LAND FORM – Land reforms involve the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership.

Land reforms refer to transfer of ownership from more powerful to less powerful.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND –

Land reforms after independence -

1. Institutional reforms

Abolition of intermediaries

Tenancy reforms- security of tenure, decrease in rent, conferment of ownership

rights.

Ceiling on size of landholdings

Cooperativization and community development programmes.

2. Technological reform

Beginning around mid or late sixties ushering in green revolution.

DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF LAND REFORMS-

Anti-poverty strategy – majority of our population depends on agriculture so

improvement in agriculture through the vortex of land reforms is prerequisite.

Empowerment of women – as it has been increased feminization of agriculture, an

estimated 20 % of rural household are de facto female headed, and women are

often managing land and livestock. Tenurial security can empower women to

assert themselves better with agencies that provide input and extension services.

Women with asset such as land have greater bargaining power which can lead

to more gender equal allocations of benefits even from male incomes. Women

without independent resources are vulnerable to poverty though they are better

informed about agricultural knowledge. Moreover it would add to socio-cultural

fabric.

Land alienation-the menace of naxalism has its root in land alienation. The Ministry

of Home Affairs’ assessment, in 2006, was that 120-150 districts in 12 states were

“Naxal-infested”. Obviously, normal writs of the State did not operate in these

areas. Thus, a huge chunk of mainland India was being “governed” by extra-legal

and, in some places, illegal authorities. The assessment also showed that militants,

whoever they were, had established a rapport with the local population due to

which they were able to move about freely evading and avoiding the pincers of

the law-enforcing authorities. They were proving to the hilt Mao Tse-tung’s doctrine

of ‘Fish in Water’, where the fish were the militants and the water the mass of

disgruntled, disaffected peasantry and landless agricultural workers. If the

disaffection of the latter could be substantially reduced, the water would

evaporate and the militants disappear.

Food security- to ensure food security for such a vast population as in India land

reforms becomes vital. And if we fail to ensure food security we fail to ensure

nutritional security too.

Equality to India- equality is our constitutional right and by land reforms this is

granted to every citizen of our country.

INITIATIVES TAKEN SO FAR-

Land ceiling – ceiling limits has been prescribed by the states above which a family

cannot own a land.

Bhoodan land- the land owners who had large quantities of land were persuaded

to surrender some part voluntarily.

Tenancy reforms- leasing out land to others needy person on written or oral

agreement hence some states enacted laws to protect tenants.

Common property resource- states have conferred rights to the communities over

resources such as pasture land, fuel wood, and minor forest produce.

Waste land- states distributes the waste land available with them to the landless

persons.

Tribal land alienation- enactment of laws for the protection of scheduled tribes.

CHALLENGES

Land and its management – land and its management fall in exclusive domain of states.

Each state has different set up for land and land record management so this

heterogeneity is an issue.

Shifting Economic Imperatives – Increasing people’s access to land and creating a more

equitable redistribution of land assets are important for India, particularly in view of its

high and ever-increasing person-to-land ratio. Increased emphasis on industrialization

should not result in an abandonment of the rural sector.

Maintaining Ecological Balance – ecological balance between the proportions of land

designated for forestry, agriculture, and non-agricultural purposes. There is a need to

explore the linkages among rural poverty, landlessness, and skewed land tenure systems

with particular attention to the problems of deforestation. The reduction of forests

inevitably disturbs the ecological balance. Cyclical patterns of droughts followed by

floods have been clearly linked to this. At the same time, there is no guarantee that the

already existing skewed distribution of land outside the forests will not be replicated.

Preserving Human Diversity – The concept of land as a commodity comes into conflict

with traditional concepts of common property and with societies, such as those of many

tribal peoples throughout India, who generally do not have a documented system of

land rights.

Complexities of Common Property Regimes –Resources, both natural and manmade,

controlled and managed as common property present another challenge in the context

of land-related issues. Besides private property or property owned and controlled by the

state, common property such as forests, grazing lands, water, and fisheries can also be

held and managed through a community resource management system.

At present the issues related to land are dealt by the various govt. department with little

scope of interdepartmental coordination. Land management largely bureaucratically

controlled no resurveys to create up-to-date land records. To add to the misery of rural

population majority of the revenue courts continue to operate in English language

unknown to rural hinterlands.

MEASURES TO STRENTHGEN LAND REFORMS-

A massive operation should be undertaken to restore alienated tribal lands to their

rightful tribal owners.

Appropriate amendments of the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 and Coal Bearing Areas

(Acquisition Development) Act of 1957 in tune with PESA.

Issue of ‘user pattas’in the names of women and men for use of CPR including tree

pattas for forest dwellers and water pattas for fisherfolk over inland or coastal CPR

waterbodies.

Setting up of a dispute settlement mechanism at the gram panchayat level with gram

panchayat members and representatives of beneficiary groups, with a representative

of the bureaucracy as a member convenor, to keep records and explain the legal

position.

The NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL so as to make it fully federal structure.

The settlement of rent should be left to the village community to decide at the

panchayat level and to be appropriated for their own purpose.

The survey operations should be subjected to social audit

The state have to device a regular method where by the updation of records of rights

may take place without there being requirement of survey operation in the present

mode.

5. WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION Our environment is progressively degraded due to over exploitation of natural resources.

Population pressure indiscriminate tree felling, over grazing, unsound agricultural practices, all these and other factors contribute towards this degradation.

In the degraded landscape with little or no tree cover and subsequently little soil cover, the rain water is not able to percolate into the ground and flows away to the streams.

Along with this water we lose rich top soil which is necessary for any vegetation to grow.

It is a vicious cycle no top soil means no vegetation which leads to increase run off water and further erosion of top soil.

WHY WATERSHED? Waters are flowing to streams and joining to sea or oceans means there is little or no

contribution for rain water to be absorbed by soil which means that the ground water level is decreasing so rather that exploitation of water we have to arrange for refilling of the water and also prevent the fertile soil to get eroded.

OBJECTIVE Primary objective of the programme is to conserve our natural resources the top six inches

of the land are most fertile and most of the soil nutrients are present in that layer, the top soil is eroded with flowing water every year we have to prevent that.

Similarly the rain water also flows away and needs to be stopped; the speed of the flowing water has to reduce so that it doesn’t wash away the top soil so the basic work involves soil and water conservation.

It’s like a bank if you have money in the bank only then we can withdraw similarly the bank of our watershed is our hills if there are enough trees grasses and different kinds of treatment then the hills can conserve or store water inside them. If there is enough shade then the rain water will not directly impact onto the soil but rather its impact will be cushioned by the leaves of the trees or vegetative cover otherwise the water would be carried away by the loose top soil with its force. So we don’t just have to stop the water but also have to cover it i.e., to protect it direct rainfall sunlight and animals.

WHAT IS WATERSHED? Along Centuries human beings have settled across rivers of catchment area which form

lakes and provide regular supply of water to them

Watershed of a particular river or stream is defined as that area which collects the rain water and drains it into gully’s and nala bunds to a point on that river or stream. It may be small consisting of few hectares and huge covering several millions of hectares.

Delineation of a Watershed

Delineation of a watershed mean determining the boundary of the watershed i.e. ridgeline.

A watershed consists of three types of lines Ridge Line, Drainage Line and Contour Lines.

After knowing the concept of watershed, it becomes important to see how a watershed can be identified on the site.

The watershed of any size can be delineated from the following:

1. Ridge Line 2. Outlet (Drainage Line)

Ridge Line is the line that joins comparatively the highest elevation points and that becomes the boundary of the watershed. A ridgeline bifurcates the falling water on two opposite sides.

The most important aspect for defining and delineating a watershed is to fix the outlet of the drainage course. As the outlet goes downstream of the drainage course, the area of the watershed goes on increasing. Basically location (position) of the outlet defines the area of watershed.

Watersheds are classified based on the area (size):

Micro watershed (upto 10 ha) Mini watershed (upto 200 ha) Sub watershed (upto 4000 ha) Watershed (upto 10,000 ha) River basin or River valley ( more than 10,000 ha)

Watersheds are of different types based on their location:

Runoff watershed or ”A” class watershed (Upper reach watershed): These watersheds are at the origin of river or at the upper catchment of river basin. Runoff is the main characteristic here.

Recharging watershed or ”B” class watershed (Middle reach watershed): These are on the plateau area characterised by medium percolation and infiltration.

Storage watershed or ”C” class watershed (Lower reach watershed): These watersheds are in the plains and characterised by good infiltration and recharging.

Watersheds are also based on the ground water exploitation: Dark watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water pumping is more than 85

% of annual recharging. These watersheds are also called fully “developed” (exploited) watersheds.

Grey watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water drafting is 65 – 85 % of annual recharging.

Yellow watershed: In theses watersheds annual ground water drafting less than 65% of annual recharging. These are called as least developed or exploited watershed.

The dark watersheds need to be treated on the priority basis.

Watersheds can be of different shapes: Square Rectangular Triangular Polygonal

The volume of water at the outlet of the watershed depends on the shape of the watershed and hence this needs to be taken into consideration while planning treatments for the watershed.

While planning for development of any watershed, one needs to look deeply into various aspects:

The size, shape, average slope of the watershed Vegetation and land use Soil texture, depth of soil, geology Average annual rainfall, rainfall period and its distribution, rainfall intensity and

frequency, infiltration rate

WHAT WILL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT DO? Watershed management is treatment of the entire catchment area and an attempt to

regeneration conservation and judicious use of all resources natural like plants water land animals within a particular watershed can be referred to as watershed management. Watershed development must be run from ridge to valley basis.

The main objective behind watershed developments treatments is to reduce the velocity of fast flowing water and increase the time of concentration which will allow the water to percolate and recharge the subsurface aquifers.

Watershed development programme has to be undertaken from the top most point where the rain water after flowing starts flowing downwards this point is called the Ridge. The watershed has to start from the ridge and progress downwards to the valley. There are reasons for this firstly soil conservation is essential for watershed development if only water storage structures are built the purpose of halting soil erosion is defeated. The soil gets washed away and collects in these structures due to this silt gets deposited over the years and the structure gets filled with the soil this leads to reduction in its capacity to store water thus neither soil and nor the water is conserved.

Secondly if there are no barriers at the ridge the water will flow down at such a high rate/velocity that it’ll wash away the water storage structure below or the structures has to be strong enough to withstand the velocity this means an additional expenditure.

Watershed developments are to be down along the contour lines these are the lines joining the points that are at the same altitude or height. This ensures the water that collects at the treated area remains at the uniform level leading to even moisture throughout the land.

It also reduces the chances of the structure breaking as the water pressure at all point on the treatment is the same.

From top of the hills downwards the series of structures is made that would ensure step by step slowing down the fast flowing of water until a part of it finally stopped. This results in control of erosion retention of soil fertility better soil moisture infiltration and ground water recharge

AREA TREATMENT IN NON-ARABLE WASTE LAND Water absorption trenches Continuous contour trenches Stone bunds

Water Absorption Trenches (WAT) is large size trench excavated along the contour line with the cross section of 1sq meter. It is usually excavated on highly degraded waste land where the slope is steep and sudden changes in the slope. To trap rain water enable it to percolate to underground aquifers and break the speed of fast moving water Continuous Contour Trenches(CCT) are excavated. Besides helping in percolation these CCT increase soil moisture which help in the growth of grass shrubs and trees.

Depending upon the rainfall the dimensions of the CCT will vary and so will the required volume of earth work per hectare. Since fodder is basic requirement in rural livelihood grasses of nutritional variety can be planted across the mounds of that and CCT as well as beds between the CCT. This not only provides fodder for animals it also prevents the soil erosion. When degraded land require plantation the CCTs are refilled. The top soils from the upstream side are filled in the CCT.

After digging the CCT will refill them. On the hill we have the CCT which is 30cm wide, we dig soil from the upstream side up to 1m above the CCT and put this soil into the CCT. The height of the soil column that is refilled in the CCT should be around 45 – 60cm from the bottom of the CCT and in the centre of the refilled portion we plant trees.

This treatment results in good survival rate of plants generally in place where soil depth is little. It allows proper aeration and prevents root coiling and creates a moisture bank so necessary for plant growth especially in arid areas.

On the CCTs which are suitably weathered and refilled with earth, trees grasses and shrubs are planted. These are usually local species which meets the local needs of fuel fodder timber fruits and fibre. Where the soil depths are not sufficient the pastures are developed.

Where there is enough soil depth CCT’s are done up to 30 cm deep these are dug across the slope and maintaining the same level. Where ever the terrain is rocky and there is not enough soil we make Bunds using stones.

Stone bunds are laid along the contour lines across the slope to arrest the flow of water and control erosion in areas where soil excavation work is not possible. Stone bunds can be erected in both arable and not arable lands.

AREA TREATMENT ON CULTIVABLE LAND. Farm bunds. Contour bunds. Waterways and outlets.

Watershed development also involves taking up of area treatments in cultivable lands. Here the objective is to increase the productivity of the land for crops & horticulture through different soil and water conservation measures.

Farm bund is useful areas where the land is almost flat or used for agricultural purposes. Farm bunds are erected across the slopes if not possible across the boundaries of the fields. The top level of the bund should be even throughout so that required cross section is maintained irrespective of undulations of the plot. Grasses and trees can be grown for better stability and additional income for the farmer.

Earthen bund raised along the counter line is called Contour Bund. Waterways outlets either natural or artificially constructed are necessary for safe disposal of additional water from the field in a manner that minimizes erosion. Outlets are built to remove excess runoffs from the farm or Counter Bund.

Normally outlets are built at a height up to 1 foot from the ground level so as to stew some runoff.

Two types of outlets are used the Stone Outlets and the Pipe Outlets.

DRAINAGE LINE TREATEMETS Gully Plugs Nala Bunds Gabion Structures Loose Boulder Structures Masonry Structures

A series of structures is constructed along the drainage line these structures allow the surplus run off which has been considerably slowed down to accumulate and get stored along the entire drainage line. Which ensures entire groundwater recharge and creation of water banks.

Gully plugs are usually makeup of loose rocks of stones which are locally available. Vegetation is necessary for the stabilization of the gully.

Earthen Gully Plugs are the earthen embankments which are built across the slopes situated at the bed of the gully. A spillway is provided at any one side of the embankment to bring the excess runoff at the non-erosive velocity. When gullies are prominent instead of small side gully plugs loose boulder structures with batter sometimes on both sides are constructed

Gabion Structures is similar to loose boulder structure but to increase stability the boulders are enmeshed in wire. Gabion structure is constructed in places where the foundation is not available for the construction of check dam or there is no possibility of a spillway to construct a nala bund. Gabion Structures are silt controlled measures but through some innovation such as central concrete wall or plastering it can be converted into a water harvesting structure

Nala Bund is an earthen bund of suitable dimension raised across nala or gully the purpose is to hold the run off in order to create a pond or water body on the upstream side of the bund Nala bund is always constructed with the facility of spill way for draining surplus of rain water. These structures store rain water for a particular amount of time which helps recharging of ground water. Nala bunds also help to stabilize nalas, gully’s and streams

Check Dams are masonry structures which are constructed to impound surplus runoff, the stored water recharges the underground water this type of structures is constructed when in nala bund or in earthen structures cannot be need or a site where a spill way is not available. The objective of the different treatment is to meet the barren lands productive for forests pastures and agriculture.

IF WE START THE WORK FROM THE BOTTOM AND MOVE UP WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES. If we start the work from the bottom then as there is no such things as bunds and counter

lines in the top there will be no resistance for the water flow and as it come with such velocity from the top that by the time the work at lower is completed it’ll will be destroyed.

MYTHOLOGY Once King Bhagirathi wanted to bring River Ganga from heaven but Ganga would fall from

such a force that the earth would not be able to withstand the pressure so the Lord Shiva slowed the impact of the fall by taking it on this head on which his hair was tied. The water has to go through his hair and fall’s pressure was controlled.

i.e., pressure of rain water falling on the earth is to be reduced so that water would flow without eroding the soil

By doing watershed work form ridge to valley we do it the way the nature is intended. Running water is slowed down flowing water is made to walk and walking water is stopped. Spread around and made to go underground this is what that the rain water a nurturing nourishing cause of life peace and prosperity.

SUMMARY Treatment of the entire catchment area around the entire village to ensure conservation

and regeneration of all its natural resources especially Water is called Watershed Development. Watershed development must be run from ridge to valley basis.

Right from the top you dig continuous contour trenches and when you come down on waste lands you dig continuous contour bunds and on farm land you erect farm bunds along the drainage line of the rivers right from the top you do gully plugs when you come down nala bunds, gabion structures and check dams.

The idea is to control soil erosion and to control the flow of gushing water; water that is running we try to make it walk, walking water we stop and stop water we try to force it under ground. The idea is to trap harvest and store the rain water where ever it falls within the area itself. Since the speed of the rain water is controlled and the soil is not washed away the rivers doesn’t get flooded and silted.

Thus the water shed development is an answer to two problems that of drought and that of that of fly.

Earlier method of watershed development concentrated merely on the harvesting structures and ignored treating water shed as a home therefore this lead to soil erosion and siltation.

i http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-20/india-seen-defying-rupee-plunge-to-import-record-cooking-oils.html ii http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/07/02/india-wheat-food-malnutrition-crops-idINDEE86101620120702 iii http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-10/india/36257227_1_wastage-india-wastes-tonnes iv http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/root-causes-of-farm-distress/article4746830.ece v http://www.indianspices.com/html/wp_wcs.htm

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