The Anthropological Imperative The Anthropological Imperative in in ““Risk CommunicationRisk Communication””

Benjamin Hickler, MA, Ph.D.

Tufts University

Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine

Dept. of Environmental and Population Health

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ObjectivesObjectives• Explain why anthropological frameworks and

community participation are particularly relevant

for addressing “One Health” challenges associated

with emerging zoonotic infections.

• Outline potential models for applying

anthropological tools to practical problems of outbreak prevention and response.

• Outline key concepts for anthropologically informed strategies for social mobilization and

behavior change communication.

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Factors contributing to Factors contributing to

emerging emerging zoonoticzoonotic infectionsinfections

From Marsh Inc. Economic and Social Impact of EIDs, 2010. Derived from Report of the WHO/FAO/OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases. May 2004.

• People’s relationships with animals are culturally and socially mediated, often differ by age, gender,

and socioeconomic status, and in some cases are

characterized by passionate attachment.

• People’s livelihoods are directly affected by efforts

to control zoonotic infections. This recognition should underpin all “One Health” endeavors.

• Therefore, different stakeholders are likely to have very different perceptions of the risks associated

with pathogens like H5N1.

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Human behavior is the Human behavior is the common denominatorcommon denominator……

Beyond Beyond ““Risk CommunicationRisk Communication””

•Risk communication used to be conceived in terms of a top-down model in which expert consensus is broadcast to a passive public in order to bring popular perceptions in line with expert truth.

•Now there is growing recognition that publics are active participants in sociocultural and political processes of defining and explaining risk.

•To oversimplify, the top-down broadcast model has been replaced by a dialogical, participatory model including an active engagement with publics within a competitive informational environment.

What do we mean by What do we mean by ““participation?participation?””

Pretty et al (1995) delineate seven different types of participation.

•Passive participation: People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without any listening to people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.•Participation in information giving: People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.

•Participation by consultation: People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to views. These external agents define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views.

•Participation for material incentive: People participate by providing resources, e.g. labor, in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.•Functional participation: People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages or project cycles of planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-dependent.•Interactive participation: People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple objectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.

•Self-mobilization: People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. Such self-initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power.

Pretty, J.N., Guijt, I., Thompson, J. and Scoones, I. 1995. Participatory Learning and Action.

A trainers' Guide. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.7

Uses of Anthropology in Behavior Uses of Anthropology in Behavior

Change Communication (BCC)Change Communication (BCC)

• Identify the who, what, where, when, and how of risky practices/behaviors –o Tools include environmental scans, situational analyses, market and

value-chain studies, structured and unstructured observation, etc.

o Necessary to define behavioral objectives.

• Learn why who does what, where, when and how.o Tools include participatory learning, focus group discussions, key

informant interviews, rapid ethnographic studies, etc.

o Usually necessary to achieve behavioral objectives.

• Prevent Systemic Insanity – Doing the same thing over and over again expecting different results.o Examples include pre- and post-testing, “framing,” cultural competence,

visual literacy, and M+E practices like Participatory Impact Assessment.

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Why Why people do what they dopeople do what they do……

Whereas psychological frameworks tend to look for individualmotivators, anthropological approaches

emphasize shared cultural, social, political and

structural factors that shape—promote or constrain—behaviors. (Importantly, not all are comms issues; cf.

Dunn’s framework)

Useful concepts for cultural analysis and comms include:

•Explanatory models and ethnomedical systems

•Illness behavior and “hierarchies of resort”

•Gender and the household production of health

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People do what People do what

““makes sensemakes sense””

This is practically an anthropological axiom.

If a behavior or belief does not make sense to the

analyst, then we probably don’t understand the reasoning behind it.

No behavior or belief should simply be dismissed as

irrational, especially if it seems to resist modification.

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Applying Anthropological ConceptsApplying Anthropological Concepts toto

Social Social MarketingMarketing

• Social marketing is the process of applying commercial marketing techniques to social issues in

order to create behavior change (Kotler and

Andreasen 1987)

• Social marketing is consumer-driven - the focus population or target audience is the central focus for all steps of a social marketing campaign

• Crucially, each step of the campaign requires continual input from the focus audi-ence

(recall Pretty’s typology)

The 4Ps of Social MarketingThe 4Ps of Social Marketing

• Product is the goal or behavior we would like to change or maintain.

• Price is what people must give up in order to receive the product’s benefit.

• Promotion is the overall strategy (messages and media, content and channels—think MS CREFS) used to persuade people to accept the “price” for the “product.”

• Place is the setting in which an audience encounters the social marketing strategy. “Place” includes both the communication channel (e.g., mass media, schools, village council meetings, etc.) as well as the setting in which the targeted behavior occurs.

Challenges of Social MarketingChallenges of Social Marketing• Each step of the campaign requires input from the focus audi-ence. This can

be time-consuming and labor-intensive.

• The “product” must be presented in a way that rein-forces core needs and values.

• Cannot stop only at process evaluation, for example counting the number of times a person saw a message or assessing whether the audience liked a message. It can be challenging to evaluate the impact of social marketing cam-paigns on attitudes or behavior.

• The effectiveness of social marketing is primarily demonstrated when it is combined with other strategies. Because social marketing focuses on individual and collective behavior rather than policy and envi-ronmental conditions, social marketing campaigns need to be implemented along with other strategies that impact policies, laws, and norms at institutional, environmental, and political levels.

• Social marketing has been challenged by some researchers. Wallack (1990) argues that it promotes dependence on experts and diverts attention from public policies and structural factors. For example, in less developed countries, social marketing strategies have focused on changing habits instead of working to ensure clean and healthy water supplies (Wallack, et al., 1993).

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Thank You!Thank You!

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• What is the purpose of the message?

• What techniques are used to attract your attention?

• What lifestyles, values and points of view are represented?

• How might different people interpret the message differently?

• What is omitted from this message?

Dr. Renee Hobbs, Clark University Media Literacy Project

Deconstructing Media MessagesDeconstructing Media Messages

Culture is an integrated pattern of human behavior which includes but is not limited to:

thought

languages

values

beliefs

customs

practices

courtesies

ritualscommunication

roles

relationships

expectedbehaviors

… of a racial, ethnic, religious, social, disability or political group; ability to transmit the above to succeeding generations; dynamic in nature.

manners ofinteracting

Slide Source: National Center for Cultural Competence,2008

• Are based on fact and focus on immediate consequences

• Clearly state the desired behavior and its benefits

• Use positive emotional appeals and/or humor

• Appeal to logic and reason

• Show desired behavior

Effective Media Effective Media MessagesMessages

Finding Information About Finding Information About

CommunitiesCommunities• Consulting the “Experts”

o Individuals and groups in the community

o Similar communities

o Academicians

• Gathering “Data”o Census data, maps, and other “data”

o Epidemiological data/trends and articles related to identified problem

o Behavior and social science literature

o Local newspapers

Cultural Competency Cultural Competency

• The understanding and appreciation of cultural

differences and similarities within and between

groups.

• A willingness and ability to draw on community-

based values, traditions, and customs and to

work with knowledgeable persons of and from

the community in developing prevention

strategies (programs, policies, and practices).

An Iceberg Concept of CultureDress �age

gender � language

� race or ethnicity �

� eye behavior�

� facial expressions�

� body language �sense of self �

� gender identity �

� concept of justice �value individual vs. group � taste and style

notions of modesty �concept of cleanliness

� emotional response patterns �rules for social

interaction �child rearing practices �

©decision-making processes �

©approaches to problem solving �

� perceptions of mental health, health, illness, disability �

� patterns of superior and subordinate roles in relation to status by age,

gender, class � sexual identity & orientation �

and much more…

Slide Source: The National Center for Cultural Competence, 2008

physical characteristics

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Community Prevention Design

Entity B

Strategy 1

Entity C

Entity A

Strategy 2

Strategy 1

Strategy 2

Strategy 1

Strategy 2

Inputs Outputs Short Term

OutcomesIntermediateOutcomes

Long Term/

Community Change

Program Measures

Incidence & Prevalence of

Problems

Behavior Outcome Measures

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Community Prevention Design

Entity B

Strategy 1

Entity C

Entity A

Strategy 2

Strategy 1

Strategy 2

Strategy 1

Strategy 2

Inputs Outputs Short TermOutcomes

IntermediateOutcomes

Long Term/Community

Change

Program Measures

Incidence & Prevalence of

Problems

Behavior Outcome Measures