- 38 -

【研究論文】

神戸英語教育学会紀要

『KELT』第 36 号（2021.1.31）

New Teaching Method in Vocabulary Learning

Based on Prototype Theory - The Case of “Katakana-English”

Maiko Kimura

Mukogawa Women’s University, Japan

Hiroko Arao

Mie University, Japan

- 39 -

要約

日本には「カタカナ語」という外国語由来の単語や表現が存在する。「パソコン」「人間ド

ック」「シャープペンシル」など英語圏では理解されないものも多数含まれる。これら「カ

タカナ語」は日本人英語学習者の語彙獲得にどのように影響するのだろうか。本研究では、

日本人英語学習者には「苦行」と捉えられがちな語彙学習を、入試など特定の目的のための

暗記ではなく、若い世代の学習者らが、日常楽しみながらあらたに作り出し、使用している

「カタカナ語」が英語語彙習得に正の影響を与える可能性を模索する。

プロトタイプ理論を援用しつつ、一般語の意味ネットワークとの違いに着目した、日本人

英語学習者に対するあらたな語彙学習法を確立するため、日本人英語学習者（大学生）を対

象に、カタカナ語に対する意識/理解度、および中心的意味から周辺への広がりを調査した。

- 40 -

Introduction

There are several barriers preventing Japanese learners of English from gaining

mastery of the English language. These include the different language order based on

grammatical rules, alphabets and anxiety, to name a few. Among these, vocabulary

learning is sometimes considered to be dependent on the learners’ autonomy, because it

is a matter of memorization. In other words, if it is taken for granted that vocabulary

learning is just a memorization task, it would be considered learners’ responsibilities.

However, is this assumption correct? To answer this question, researchers must assess

Japanese learners of English and search for better ways to help them acquire vocabulary.

In this paper, a new methodology is suggested, which involves the use of “Katakana-

English” that is common among the Japanese people.

Materials & Methods

The Importance of Vocabulary Learning and Difficulties in Quality and Quantity

A general belief and undeniable fact about vocabulary in foreign language

learning is that acquiring more words is better for the learner. Meara (1996) clarifies the

importance of vocabulary by pointing out the superiority of learners with larger

vocabularies in a wide range of language skills over learners with smaller vocabularies.

Hence, many English-language learners tend to spend time and energy acquiring as

many words as possible by reading English books and other materials from the

beginning stage of their learning, such as in junior or senior high school. Carter (1987)

suggests that while advanced learners may benefit from learning vocabulary in context,

beginners probably benefit the most from words that are presented in lists of translation

pairs. Nation (1993) strongly advocates what he calls a “vocabulary flood” for

beginners. This flood would invariably feature learning words from a list. However, the

question to be asked is how learners can deal with this vocabulary flood during the

learning process.

In particular, the problem many English learners face is polysemy, which refers

to words having multiple meanings. The words they have already learned often appear

to have different meanings later on, confusing and tiring learners at the end of the day.

For example, some learners who are familiar with the word “fine” (meaning “good”)

might not recognize the meaning of “first-class” in a different context. Bolinger (1997)

describes this cognitive human feature with the expression “the mind is freer than the

tongue” (p. 19). The deception is similar to when we meet acquaintances and fail to

recognize them in unexpected contexts.

Vocabulary training is sometimes called “menace” training by Japanese learners

of English. They are required to memorize as much vocabulary as possible,

- 41 -

mainly for entrance examinations when they are students. In order for them to

eliminate such awkward training, a new method of vocabulary learning and

teaching is expected to be explored. (Mizobata, 2006, pp.110-111)

In “Depth of Processing Hypothesis,” learners can recall and practically use new

vocabulary when they cognitively spend much energy in manipulating and thinking

about it (Craik & Tulving, 1975). This hypothesis suggests the importance of the depth

of processing information and implies that the acquisition of vocabulary requires

learners to be engaged in deep processing of information. Therefore, in vocabulary

instruction, the quantity (“flood”) is as important as quality, which influences the

learner’s retention of vocabulary. Ensuring quantity and quality in vocabulary teaching

is critical, because no matter how much vocabulary learners are taught, if they cannot

retain and use it, it is meaningless. At the same time, no matter how much engagement

learners have in learning vocabulary, if the quantity of words is quite limited, it does not

necessarily improve their language proficiency.

Among many vocabulary teaching methods, semantic mapping is an effective

way that strikes a balance between quality and quantity. Semantic mapping involves

thinking about the relationship between learners’ prior knowledge and new vocabularies

encountered. Here, the meanings and the existing relationships between the meanings

are presented as visual images (Novak & Gowin, 1984), enabling the learners to have a

visual image that clearly shows the relationships between words and their meanings.

Learners are also encouraged to use semantic mapping to expand their vocabulary. As

semantic mapping builds on prior knowledge and is an engaging activity for learners, it

is considered an effective strategy in vocabulary learning. As learners learn to

categorize words based on their related meanings, the interrelationships among them

leads to the deep processing of such meanings, ultimately increasing a learner’s

vocabulary. Although, there are several methods to teach vocabulary, which have been

found to be effective for certain learners, Schmitt (1997) points out that the efficacy of

each method greatly depends on the proficiency level and age of the learner.

Prototype Theory and Expanding Vocabulary by Understanding Polysemy

According to Kimura and Arao (2018), when they are faced with instances of

polysemy, Japanese learners of English are likely to take central meanings in

dictionaries as the most familiar meanings. Moreover, they habitually apply the most

familiar meaning of a word to understand a new one and get lost in the meaning;

sometimes, they become confused or tend to misunderstand the word. Therefore, for

effective vocabulary learning, the current study suggests that teaching the related

meanings of a word can help learners construct networks of meaning in their mental

- 42 -

lexicon. It also emphasizes that providing a visual image of a word based on the related

meanings is important in helping learners understand the deep meaning of that word.

This way of teaching can be especially effective for many beginners who

struggle with polysemy. From the opposite point of view, the most familiar meaning that

learners associate with a word can hinder them from fully understanding that word

when it is used with a different meaning. Nevertheless, referring to the other meanings

of a word can help the learners’ memory by taking advantage of their familiarity with a

specific meaning (the one that that first comes to mind upon encountering a word).

When their familiar meaning is actually not the one that is being referred to, an

instruction can surely raise learners’ awareness and enhance their memories for long-

term retention. The idea behind the suggested method is discussed in the following

sections.

A Method of Teaching Vocabulary Using Learners’ Prior Knowledge and

Familiarity

Among many attempts by researchers, a method suggested by Maki, Hata,

Akira, and Kawase (2019) is worth considering wherein the use of acronym is creatively

applied to teach vocabulary to English learners. In fact, there are many acronyms used

by Japanese learners of English in their daily lives; therefore, the method has a lot of

potential. For example, DVD and ATM are very common acronyms among Japanese

learners. They are so common and familiar that most of them cannot describe these

things without using these acronyms. The point of using acronyms in a vocabulary

teaching method is the efficacy of introducing them along with the detailed vocabulary.

Using both, learners can easily imagine the word, and the image in their mind promotes

the acquisition of new words. Some examples of acronyms and their detailed meanings

are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Examples of acronyms and their detailed meanings

Acronym Detailed meanings Acronym Detailed meanings

DVD Digital Versatil Disc FAQ Frequently Asked Questions

ATM Automatic Teller Machine GDP Gross Domestic Product

ETC Electronic Toll Collection System

Learners benefit from Write’s method by utilizing a new discovery. The

familiarity and knowledge of acronyms facilitate learners’ curiosity to the original

words and inspire learners by the discovery by asking related questions (e.g., “Is it so? I

- 43 -

didn’t know that” or “I see. T in ATM is teller in a bank”). The strong point of this

method is that it uses the stock knowledge of Japanese learners of English. As was

mentioned, people in Japan are surrounded by many acronyms even without being

aware that they are originally English. Although some people regard the language

environments where Japanese adopt so many acronyms to be a threat to Japanese

language use; however, in fact, they are inevitable for most of Japanese and so there is

no reason why they cannot use the acronyms for learning English vocabulary. The

method is based on the assumption that learners can use their acquired knowledge to

learn new words.

Exploring a New Method that Uses Katakana-English

Maki, et al (2019) has inspired the authors of the current work to explore a new

method, which features “Katakana-English” a kind of fusion language that Japanese

learners of English are familiar with and know too well. First of all, we must clarify

what Katakana-English is. The Japanese language uses three different letters in its

writing system: Hiragana, Katakana (phonogram), and Chinese characters (ideograms).

Katakana-English mainly consists of combinations of Katakana letters. Katakana is

often used for foreign words that originally come from other countries. The words

written in Katakana are often pronounced in Japanese pronunciation to match the

Japanese phonological system; thus, they may sound completely different from how the

original words are spoken in the foreign origin language. Thus, Katakana words

comprise a large part of Japanese language. In addition, they often change form in such

a way that they are shortened or mixed with other Japanese words. Many English words

are used as Katakana-English in Japan, but English-speaking people who are non-native

speakers of Japanese may not even notice that those words are originally English

because the words are extremely phonologically and semantically deviated from the

original versions.

Katakana-English words are defined and categorized in different ways by

different researchers. For example, Toyota (2003) categorizes Katakana-English words

as (1) those that can be used in English-speaking countries, (2) words mistakenly used

as a notion of English in Japan but are not used in English-speaking countries, and (3)

words derived from other languages aside from English. In this categorization, the

words in Category 1 keep the English meaning, form, and pronunciation; words in

Category 2 are completely Japanized by changing the meaning, form, and pronunciation

but are still be believed to be decent English words; and the words in Category 3 are not

originally English.

- 44 -

Inoue (2004) also differentiates Katakana-English and Janglish words by using

the following description. On the one hand, Katakana-English words are Japanese

words that have been historically used for a long period of time; hence, it would be

extremely inconvenient for Japanese people to live without using such words. On the

other hand, Janglish words are considered disposable buzzwords that can be used

temporarily. They usually disappear over time and do not become regular Japanese

words used on a daily basis.

Whether or not these are useful or considered incorrect forms of English,

unsurprisingly, the Japanese use so many Katakana-English words in their ordinary

conversations. Clearly, some Katakana-English words are not so deviant from the

original English words in that the former still maintain the semantic and phonological

features of the latter, although the degree may vary. Once Katakana-English words

deviate from the original ones to the degree that they are incomprehensible and no

longer recognized to derive from the original English words, they are often called

“Janglish” (a combination of the words “Japanese” and “English”). Unlike the

arguments by Inoue (1998), some of the so-called Janglish words have unexpectedly

become almost regular Katakana-English words as they are used over time. That is the

reason why some Japanese learners of English unconsciously use such words both in

Japanese and English.

The following are a few of many examples of statements made by Japanese

college students and recorded for the study. These statements are originally made in

Japanese and translated into English and the Katakana-English, which are underlined,

are kept as they are for reference.

1. “I’m a big fan of Seventeen (the name of a group). I earnestly make a phone call at a

free dial to get a ticket whenever they hold concerts in Japan. On the day of the concert,

there are a lot of high-tension (energetic) fans and they become panic (are panicking)!”

(a female college student A).

2. “I visited a dinner-show of a talent (TV personality) at a hotel with my friend. I

dressed up because the show was held at a high-class hotel in Kobe. When I asked a boy

to take my coat, he treated us very kindly. We felt as if we were cereb (celebrities).” (a

female college student B).

As seen in these statements, it is obviously difficult to figure out the meanings of

the underlined Katakana-English words, while they completely make sense and are

understandable to most of the Japanese who use them. On the one hand, due to the

nonsensical nature and incomprehensiveness of these words in English, some Japanese

consider them as shameful and wasteful, pointing out that they are totally wrong usage

of English. Some people, on the other hand, accept the uniqueness and localization of

- 45 -

the words as parts of Japanese, thus admitting a change of language use over time. In

terms of English education, if there is one thing, it is risky for English learners to use

the Katakana-English words when speaking English without knowing that many of

them do not make sense, especially when the Katakana-English words deviate too much

or become too Japanized to the degree that they reach the level of incomprehensible

Janglish words. Therefore, raising learners’ awareness of Katakana-English by

emphasizing the differences between these words and their correct English counterparts

is important. This attempt provides learners with a strong impression of words and

enhances their memory so that they can retain these words in their mind.

To avoid the confusion due to the variety of definitions and categorizations

proposed by different researchers, this study divided Katakana-English words into six

categories when used in English-speaking contexts: (1) words that are pronounced

differently (“gas,” “virus,” “ticket,” etc.), (2) words that are partially abbreviated

(“appo” for appointment, “depart” for department store, “ensto” for engine stop, “boy”

for bellboy, etc.), (3) words that are partly changed but sometimes accepted in English

(“complex” for inferior complex, “claim” for complaint, etc.), (4) words that can be

misunderstood (“cunning” for cheating, “talent” for TV personality, “cereb” for

celebrity, etc.), (5) words that are purely coined in Japan (“mishin” for sewing

machine, “three size” for BWH measurements, “free dial” for toll-free call, “high-

tension” for energetic, etc.), and (6) words that can be used directly (e.g., “standing

ovation”). Words in Categories 1–5 have Japanese flavor and those in Category 6 can

be used as correct English in English communication.

“Teen slang” used by young Japanese can be considered typical examples of

Category 5 words.

These slangs currently used by Japanese youth may possibly be called Janglish

by some people. These are trendy words used temporarily and eventually become

obsolete and forgotten. However, as mentioned previously, once in a while, some new

expressions are adopted indefinitely and become commonly used by all Japanese people

as regular Katakana-English. For example, “dotacan” (last-minute cancellation) used to

be a trendy slang coined by young people in early 1900s, but today it is a normal and

ordinary word used and understood by everyone regardless of generation. This kind of

phenomenon takes place when the words are quite frequently used and comfortably fit

people’s sense of language use to the point where they are accepted as words for daily

use. The types that are likely to survive as regular words are beyond the scope of this

study and should be explored and discussed in another study.

Clearly, Japanese youth enjoy bringing English elements into their language in

Japanese and they are rather open to new word sounds. Thus, this can be a good

- 46 -

opportunity for English as a foreign language (EFL) researchers to take advantage of

Japanese young people’s positive attitudes to Katakana-English for effectively teaching

and expanding the learners’ English vocabulary.

Pre-survey on Katakana-English

A survey was conducted in order to determine how university students, who are

also English learners, recognize whether Katakana-English words are correct or

incorrect as English words. The respondents of the survey included 90 Japanese

university students who have been learning English for about ten years. Next, 16

Katakana-English words classified under Category 5 (words that did not make sense in

English) were presented to the respondents in Roman letters. The respondents were

asked to check “Yes” if the words were recognized as Katakana-English coined by

Japanese, but are incomprehensible in English communication (thus considered Janglish

under Category 5). The results of the survey, which indicate the inaccuracy rate of their

recognition, are shown in Table 3.

Table 2. Japanese college students’ recognition of Janglish words

Note: number of respondents is 90

For example, let us take “hearing test” as Katakana-English that has been

outstandingly taken to be a correct English term. Results showed that 70 percent of the

respondents understood that the term referred to a listening comprehension test.

Needless to say, “hearing test” usually refers to “audiometric test” in medical English-

speaking contexts. The idea is, however, far beyond the imagination of Japanese

learners of English. As seen in the results, it is highly possible for Japanese learners who

use Katakana-English to communicate in English and end up miscommunicating in an

English-speaking context.

- 47 -

In relation to the above, the summary of the negative aspects of Katakana-

English are presented below.

1. Their perception that these are correct English words leads to confusion in meanings

(e.g., “American coffee” is used to mean “weak coffee,” “sharp pencil” is used to

mean “mechanical pencil”).

2. The use of Janglish causes a pronunciation problem in English. For example, many

Japanese mispronounce the “r” sound to sound like “l,” as in “Japanese eat r(l)ice as

a staple food.”

3. The use of Katakana-English is looked down on and severely criticized as Janglish,

something that represents a lack in knowledge of English.

While the negative points are targets of some critics, the use of Katakana-

English can be helpful in preventing a conversation from breaking down when Japanese

learners of English do not know the specific English words they want to express. They

use Katakana-English as one of the compensation strategies among the communication

strategies suggested by (Oxford, 1990), a kind of “switching to the mother tongue,” so

to speak. In a way, it can also be considered “coining words” given that Katakana-

English is a replacement that Japanese English-language learners desperately take a risk

to use in order to make themselves understood when they have a limited vocabulary.

As for teaching English, it is important to shine a light on the positive features of

Katakana-English words: they are more familiar to Japanese learners of English than

normal English words and are commonly used in Japan on a daily basis. When they are

used mistakenly in English communication, they are criticized as something that hinders

the Japanese people’s English-speaking abilities, so Katakana-English words rarely get

attention and are underutilized in teaching English. The next section discusses how the

positive aspects of Katakana-English words can be an effective part of vocabulary

instruction.

Using Katakana-English in Expanding Leaners’ Vocabulary

One of the most well-known and effective techniques to memorize second-

language (L2) vocabulary is the keyword method originally suggested by Atkinson

(1975). The method functions effectively by creating a connection between a word in

the target language and its counterpart in the learner’s first language, which is chosen as

a keyword. The idea is that a keyword familiar to a learner facilitates the connection

with a new word in the target language and helps the learner remember that word. Can

Katakana-English words possibly serve as keywords in vocabulary instruction in

English?

- 48 -

Katakana-English words are so deeply ingrained in Japanese society that they

are never ignored as junk words or considered as slang expressions. As previously

mentioned, Katakana-English words are sometimes considered to be barriers in

understanding correct English usage. If they are incomprehensible Janglish words, they

are even categorized as disposable items for those who criticize negative aspects in

learning correct English. Setting aside the controversy concerning the features of

Katakana-English and even Janglish, English learners and teachers must maximize the

fact that such words are already ingrained in the Japanese mind as regular words;

therefore, in expanding Japanese learners’ English vocabulary, nothing is more useful

than harnessing their familiarity with Katakana-English words. In particular, when such

words are quite different from correct English, in terms of meaning and form, such as in

Categories 4 and 5 in the previous section, then the impact of a gap between Katakana-

English and correct English words learned through instruction can facilitate the deep

process of learning and enhance the learners’ memories.

In the keyword method, a Japanese word is adopted as a keyword using the

connection of meanings or familiarity to Japanese learners of English. If the keyword is

a Katakana-English word believed to be a correct form English (but actually not), the

impression on learners is expected to be much higher than the use of Japanese words as

a keyword.

Study

The hypothesis for the study is that by paying attention to their wrong

recognition of Katakana-English words with Japanese flavor and focusing on the

difference between such words and their correct English counterparts, Japanese learners

of English can more successfully learn new meanings of Katakana-English words with

Japanese flavor (Categories 1–5) than those words that can be used directly and

correctly (Category 6).

In order to clarify the possibility of using Katakana-English with Japanese

flavor to expand learners’ vocabulary in teaching English to Japanese learners, the

followings are the processes taken in this study.

1. The first survey is conducted to find out the participants’ prototype in Katakana-

English words with strong Japanese flavor. We asked the participants, 15 university

learners of English, to write the meanings of the 10 Katakana-English words with

strong Japanese flavor in a given list (table 3) according to the order with which

they remembered these words. The first meaning is considered to be the prototype of

the word.

2. The participants are given an instruction to raise their awareness of the 10

Katakana-English words and how these have been used incorrectly compared with

- 49 -

actual English usage by looking them up in a dictionary and finding out the central

meaning of each word. They are then encouraged to realize that their prototypical

meanings are often different from the central meanings in a dictionary.

3. Then, they are given a list of 20 Katakana-English words, including the 10 words

with strong Japanese flavor they focused on in process 2. The other 10 were

Katakana-English words with less Japanese flavor in meaning and form. Their

prototypes are almost the same with correct English, although they are specifically

used in the Japanese context in daily lives. The instruction covers the meanings of

the 20 words. In addition to the meanings, the instruction provides another set of

meanings for the 20 words.

4. The participants were tested as whether they remembered the meanings of the 20

Katakana-English words they learned a week ago in process 3.

The First Survey

The survey was conducted on 15 Japanese university students who had been

learning English for 11 years. First, 10 Katakana-English words (“bill,” “diet,” “issue,”

“stress,” “term,” “coin,” “mansion,” “event,” “claim,” and “unique”) were given to

them. They were then asked to write three meanings of each word, which came up to

their mind from the first to the third most familiar (in order). When the participants

cannot come up with the three meanings, they were allowed to write just two. This

process identifies the prototype of each word, which is recognized as the central

meaning in the mental lexicon of each learner. Table 4 summarizes the results of the

survey and shows the three meanings of each word that the participants remembered

along with the number of the participants in parentheses.

Table 3. Ten Katakana-English words with strong Japanese flavor

1st 2nd 3rd

bill a printed statement

of money (7)

a draft of a

proposed law (3)

building (1)

diet lose weight (15) food (5) a legislative

assembly (1)

issue matter (8) a regular series of

publication (3)

stress (mental) stress (15) emphasis (11)

- 50 -

term fixed period of

time (school, etc.)

(8)

word (1) Condition (1)

coin (money) coin (15)

mansion apartment (15)*

event annual event (15) competition (11)

claim complaint (15) insist (2)

unique strange (15)

Note: The values in parentheses show the number of respondents who listed these

meanings.

* In British English ‘mansion’ means ‘flat’ so that this is not exactly wrong.

Awareness of Katakana-English Words with Strong Japanese Flavor

We explained to the participants that many of the Katakana-English words

sometimes have different meanings from the original English words or are used in

different ways, while some Katakana-English words have the same meanings but are

pronounced with Japanese accents in a slightly different way from accurate English

pronunciation. Paying attention to their first choice of meanings in the 10 words, they

were encouraged to look up the first meanings of each word in a dictionary. For

example, the meaning of “diet” was prototypically understood as “lose weight” by 15

participants, but the central meaning in a dictionary was “staple food.” This enables the

participants to realize that their prototypes in words are different from the actual central

meanings in English. The participants were also provided a key information: Katakana-

English words were so familiar to them that it was important to know which ones were

strongly Japanese-flavored Katakana-English words and which ones had less Japanese

flavor.

Learning the New Meanings of 20 Katakana-English Words

The participants went through 20 words (the 10 Katakana-English with strong

Japanese flavor and 10 other carefully chosen Katakana-English words with less

Japanese flavor) in a list. In addition to the 10 Katakana-English words in the previous

step, another set of 10 Katakana-English words fell in Category 6, which were words

that made sense in English as they did in Japanese. This means that the prototypes of

Japanese people are not different from the central meanings in a dictionary: the kind of

Katakana-English is judged to be words with less Japanese flavor in this study. For

example, “lemon” is a fruit in Japanese prototypical meaning as it is in the central

- 51 -

meaning in the dictionary. The same can be said of the other nine Katakana-English

words in this case.

The 20 words were each explained to the participants by giving them new

meanings they were not familiar with. For example, the prototype of “diet” was “to lose

weight” for Japanese learners, but it was found that the central meaning was “food” in a

dictionary. In addition to this instruction, the participants were taught that the word had

another meaning (“legislative assembly”), which most participants did not know. In the

case of “lemon” as a word with less Japanese flavor, the Japanese prototypical meaning

is nothing but “a yellow sour fruit” as it is in the central meaning in a dictionary. Thus,

in addition to this meaning, the instruction taught them that it can also refer to an

“unsatisfactory thing or person.” In this way, the participants received instruction on the

20 words by learning their other meanings, which the participants did not know or were

not familiar with. Hence, the process facilitated the expansion of the meanings

surrounding each word. Table 5 shows the meanings of Katakana-English words with

strong Japanese flavor, which were newly taught to and retained by the participants.

Meanwhile, Table 6 shows the newly taught meanings of Katakana-English words with

less Japanese flavor. Likewise, the participants were asked to remember these meanings.

Table 4. Newly taught meanings of Katakana-English words with strong

Japanese flavor

- 52 -

Table 5. Newly taught meanings of Katakana-English words with less Japanese

flavor

Word Meaning Word Meaning

1. lemon unsatisfactory

person or thing

6. date dark brown oval

fruit

2. cheese too sentimental 7. trip cause to stumble

and fall

3. will bequest 8. run manage

4. reserve modest 9. sentence declare the

punishment

5. ball party (dance) 10. mint a place where

money is coined

Results of the Test on 20 Word Meanings

One week later, the participants were a given a list of 20 Katakana-English

words (10 words with strong Japanese flavor and 10 with less Japanese flavor) to test

whether they correctly remembered the new meanings they learned in previous

instruction. The average sores for Katakana-English words with strong and less

Japanese flavor were 8.86 and 8.06, respectively. T-test reveals that the average score

for Katakana-English words with strong Japanese flavor was significantly higher than

that for words with less Japanese flavor (t=1.84, p-value <0.1). Results also showed that

Japanese university learners of English could effectively expand and retain the

meanings in words with strong Japanese flavor rather than those with less Japanese

flavor. This means that when Japanese university learners of English have prototypical

meanings in Katakana-English that differed from the central meaning in a dictionary,

they can learn another meaning well. However, when their prototypical meanings match

the central meaning in a dictionary, their learning of a new meaning was not as effective

as the case wherein their prototypical meanings differed from the central meaning.

Implications and Discussion

As shown in the study, it is relatively helpful to teach additional new meanings

of Katakana-English words that are familiar to Japanese learners of English. Harada

(2019) suggests that the level of familiarity with Katakana-English makes a difference

in learning English. Katakana-English can be used to increase the size of learners’

active vocabularies if the instructors help them to do so. The idea reasonably fits the

argument that teaching a new meaning of familiar words than unknown/unfamiliar

words to learners imposes less cognitive burden on English-language learners (Schimitt,

- 53 -

1997). This notion is also supported by the results of a past study, which clarified the

strong positive connection between word memory and prior knowledge in learning

(Brandt et al., 2005).

In terms of memory, however, the opposite effects have been shown in some

studies, that is, something unfamiliar can be better memorized by a learner without any

prior knowledge it. For example, Davis et al. (2012) presented participants different

images (i.e., pictures that showed prototypical and non-prototypical features of a

beetle), and found that the participants could better remember the non-prototypical

pictures that did not match their prior knowledge of a beetle than the ones that fit their

prototypes. The asymmetry incongruence between prior knowledge and new knowledge

has an incongruence effect, which can be vivid in one’s memory (Neuschatz et al.,

2002).

The incongruent effect explains the learners’ better memory of meanings in

Katakana-English words with strong Japanese flavor. Japanese learners of English are

generally familiar with Katakana-English words, so this familiarity can help them learn

new meanings of the words. If the words have quite different prototypical meanings

from the learners’ own prototypes, the incongruent effect can be expected to facilitate

and enhance the memory even further. Even if their familiar knowledge of Katakana-

English words is not quite accurate, the gap between what they have known and what

they have recently learned can have a strong and vivid impact on learners’ discovery

and memory. The effects of Katakana-English can be explained in terms of not only

“familiarity” but also “incongruence” in the learning process. Such an incongruence

also causes emotional effects, such as a feeling of surprise or unpredictability.

Therefore, the reason why the infamous Katakana-English can be useful in vocabulary

expansion is possibly explained from many aspects of cognitive and psychological

processes in learning.

In a past study of Kimura and Arao (2018), the key to focus on is the importance

of relational meanings associated with the prototypical meaning of a word. However,

this study finds that the unpredictability of meanings can also enhance the memory and

lead to vocabulary expansion in the case wherein the words (e.g., Katakana-English

words) are familiar to learners. More often than not, learners make an attempt to find

the underlying connections between their prototypical meanings and newly learned

meanings. When they find the connection, learners are convinced and become

intellectually interested in the word. Even if they find no connection, the

unpredictability seems to be a cognitive stimulus that is well-retained in the mind.

- 54 -

Conclusion

This study suggests the possibility of using Katakana-English words in teaching

vocabulary. Prototype theory supports the idea behind the suggested method in a way

that a prototypical meaning serves as a central meaning in one’s mental lexicon. The

learners’ familiarity and prior knowledge are key factors that can heighten the effects of

this new method. Additionally, the incongruence effect is expected to enhance the

retention in vocabulary extension, thus making the proposed method more effective.

The potential effect of this method should be explored further as there remain

some matters to study and discuss in detail. First, future works should select a wider

range of Katakana-English words to study and give to the participants. Second, the

number of participants in the current study was not large enough to completely validate

the effect of the method. Third, the vocabulary sizes of the participants were not

examined in detail so the level of vocabulary can be well controlled and adjusted to the

most effective learning for each participant. Although this paper has some issues

mentioned above, the suggestions provided in this study give new insights to vocabulary

instruction in teaching English for Japanese learners.

References

Atkinson, R. C. (1975). Mnemotechnics in second-language learning. American

Psychologist, 30, 821–828.

Bolinger, D. (1997). Meaning and form. Longman.

Brandt, K. R., Cooper, L. M., & Dewhurst, S. A. (2005). Expertise and recollective

experience: recognition memory for familiar and unfamiliar academic subjects.

Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1113–1125.

Carter, R. (1994). Vocabulary and second/foreign language teaching. Language

Teaching, 20, 3–16.

Craik, F., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and retention of words in episodic

memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268–294.

Harada, Y. (2019). Adverse effects of Katakana words in Japanese for Japanese learners

of English. The Proceeding of Japanese Cognitive Science Society, 36, 503–

511.

Inoue, M. (2004). Basic vocabulary list of 550 Katakana loan words in the Japanese

language, Kobe Yamate University 6, 65-79.

Kimura, M, & Arao, H. (2018). Vocabulary learning for Japanese learners of English.

GEN TEFL Journal, 3, 94–105.

Maki, J., Hata, M., Akira, K., & Kawase, M (2019). Toujigokarahairu yakugakubusei

noeigotango gakushuu shiryousakusei kokoromi [The attempt to make a word

- 55 -

list by introducing initials for pharmaceutical students] Matsuyama University

Studies in Language and Literature, 38 (2), 1–69.

Meara, P. (1996). The dimensions of lexical competence. In G. Brown, K. Malmkjaer, &

J. Williams (Eds.), Performance and competence in second language

acquisition (pp. 35–52). Cambridge University Press.

Mizobata, Y. (2006). Koukatekina goi dounyu [The effective introduction to

vocabulary] In S. Kadota, & D. Ikemura (Eds). Eigo goishidou Handobuku

[English vocabulary instruction handbook]. Taishukan.

Nation, I.S.P. (1993). Teaching and learning vocabulary. Heinle & Heinle.

Neuschatz, J. S., Lampinen, J. M., Preston, E. L., Hawkins, E. R., & Toglia, M. P.

(2002). The effect of memory schemata on memory and the phenomenological

experience of naturalistic situations. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 687–

708.

Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge University

Press.

Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know.

Heinle & Heinle.

Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of

Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 192–233.

Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. Cambridge University Press.

This works was supported by KAKENHI Grant Number JP18K00828

..