new sunrise creations

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PoetryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic[1][2][3]

qualities of language—such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and

metre—to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic

ostensible meaning.

Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of

Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese

Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas,

Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey.Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused

on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later

attempts concentrated on f eatures such as repetition, verse form and

rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from

more objectively informative, prosaic forms of writing. From the

mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally

regarded as a fundamental creative act employing language.

Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differentialinterpretation to words, or to evoke emotive responses. Devices such

as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes

used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity,

symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often

leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of

speech such as metaphor, simile and metonymy[4] create a resonance

between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings,

forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms ofresonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of

rhyme or rhythm.

Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures and genres and

respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes.

Readers accustomed to identif ying poetry with Dante, Goethe,

Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on

rhyme and regular meter; there are, however, traditions, such as

Biblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_dictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonaestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_symbolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighierihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_dictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_symbolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonaestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature


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Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,[5] playing

with and testing, among other things, the principle of euphony itself,

sometimes altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.[6][7] In today's

increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles andtechniques from diverse cultures and languages.

Contents! 1 History

! 1.1 Western traditions

! 1.2 20th-century disputes

! 2 Elements

! 2.1 Prosody

! 2.1.1 Rhythm

! 2.1.2 Meter

! 2.1.3 Metrical patterns

! 2.2 Rhyme, alliteration, assonance

! 2.2.1 Rhyming schemes

! 2.3 Form

! 2.3.1 Lines and stanzas

! 2.3.2 Visual presentation

! 2.4 Diction

! 3 Forms

! 3.1 Sonnet

! 3.2 Shi

! 3.3 Villanelle

! 3.4 Tanka

! 3.5 Haiku

! 3.6 Ode

! 3.7 Ghazal

! 4 Genres

! 4.1 Narrative poetry

! 4.2 Epic poetry

! 4.3 Dramatic poetry

! 4.4 Satirical poetry

! 4.5 Light poetry

! 4.6 Lyric poetry

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! 4.7 Elegy

! 4.8 Verse fable

! 4.9 Prose poetry

! 4.10 Speculative poetry

! 5 See also

! 6 Notes

! 7 Further reading

! 7.1 Anthologies

History

Aristotle

Poetry as an art form may predate literacy.[8] Epic poetry, from the

Indian Vedas (1700–1200 BC) and Zoroaster's Gathas to the Odyssey

(800–675 BC), appears to have been composed in poetic form to aid

memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient

societies.[9] Other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs.

The earliest entries in the ancient compilation Shijing, were initially

lyrics, preceding later entries intended to be read.

[10]

The oldest surviving epic poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the

3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was

written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus.[11]

Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics Iliad and Odyssey,

the Old Iranian books the Gathic Avesta and Yasna, the Roman

national epic, Virgil's Aeneid , and the Indian epics Ramayana and

Mahabharata.

The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetrydistinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad,

resulted in "poetics"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry.[12] Some

ancient poetic traditions; such as, contextually, Classical Chinese

poetry in the case of the Shijing (Classic of Poetry), which records the

development of poetic canons with ritual and aesthetic importance.[13]

More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could

encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's

Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bash!'s Oku no Hosomichi, as well as

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differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry,

and rap.[14]

Western traditions

John Keats

Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and

assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of

Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry—the epic, the

comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-

quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of thegenre.[15] Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic

poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy

as subgenres of dramatic poetry.[16]

Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the

Islamic Golden Age,[17] as well as in Europe during the Renaissance.[18] Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and

defined it in opposition to prose, which was generally understood aswriting with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative

structure.[19]

This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but

rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime

without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought

process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from

logic "Negative Capability".[20] This "romantic" approach views form

as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract anddistinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained

influential into the 20th century.[21]

During this period, there was also substantially more interaction

among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of

European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade.[22] In

addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period

numerous ancient works were rediscovered.[23]

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20th-century disputes

Archibald MacLeish

Some 20th-century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of

prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using

language, and poetry as what the poet creates.[24] The underlying

concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist

poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem

with words, and creative acts in other media. Yet other modernists

challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided.[25]

The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began

in the first half of the 20th century coincided with a questioning of thepurpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of

distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of

poetic prose and prosaic poetry. Numerous modernist poets have

written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have

been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused

with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by

non-metrical means. While there was a substantial formalist reaction

within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, thisreaction focused as much on the development of new formal

structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and

structures.[26]

Recently, postmodernism has come to convey more completely prose

and poetry as distinct entities, and also among genres of poetry, as

having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes

beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to

emphasize the role of the reader of a text (Hermeneutics), and to

highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read.[27]

Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form

and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding

attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within

a tradition such as the Western canon.[28]

ElementsProsody

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Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem.

Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related.[29] Meter is

the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic

pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a lineof poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the

scanning of poetic lines to show meter.[30]

Rhythm

Robinson Jeffers

The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and

between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having

timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending onhow rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by

multiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed language. Syllable-

timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French, Leonese, Galician

and Spanish. English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-

timed languages.[31] Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is

perceived. Languages can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic

Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages include Chinese,

Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most Subsaharan languages.[32]

Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses

or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern

English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so

rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on

the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided).[33] In

the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are

similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter.[34]

OldEnglish poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of

syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.[35]

The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many

of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which

successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound

structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to

antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be

reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on

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metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on

much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences.[36] Some

classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid

grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-freegrammar) which ensured a rhythm.[37] In Chinese poetry, tones as

well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies

four tones: the level tone, rising tone, departing tone, and entering

tone.[38]

The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create

rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case

of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of

cadence rather than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, MarianneMoore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who

reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English

poetry.[39] Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative

to accentual rhythm.[40]

Meter

In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped

according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet perline.[41] The number of metrical feet in a line are described using

Greek terminology: tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet,

for example.[42] Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five

feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb".

This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used

by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of

Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter", comprises six feet per line,

of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl". Dactylic

hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest

extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod.[43]

Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a

number of poets, including William Shakespeare and Henry

Wadsworth Longfellow, respectively.[44] The most common metrical

feet in English are:[45]

Homer

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! iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable

(e.g. describe, Include, retract)

! trochee – one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed

syllable (e.g. picture, flower)

! dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed

syllables (e.g.annotate an-no-tate)

! anapest – two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed

syllable (e.g. comprehend com-pre-hend)

! spondee – two stressed syllables together (e.g. e-nough)

! pyrrhic – two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to

end dactylic hexameter)

There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a

choriamb, a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed

by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The

choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry.[43]

Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than or in

addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman

Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl

to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.[46]

Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or incombination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most

natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally

produces a subtle but stable verse.[47] Scanning meter can often show

the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not

show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and

lengths of syllables.[48]

Illustration by Henry Holiday to Lewis Carroll's "The Hunting of the Snark",

which is written mainly in anapestic tetrameter.

There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in

describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while

dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses

dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns

of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the

language.

[49]

Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than thebasic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought

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to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir

Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed

and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of

accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and

suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented

stress from an accented stress.[50]

Metrical patterns

Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters,

ranging from the Shakespearean iambic pentameter and the Homeric

dactylic hexameter to the anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery

rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are

common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or lineand to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may

be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of

a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine

ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and

create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to

be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter,

tend to be highly irregular.[51] Regularity can vary between language.

In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in differentlanguages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will

generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the

meter, which does not occur, or occurs to a much lesser extent, in

English.[52]

Alexander Pushkin

Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and

poems who use them, include:! Iambic pentameter (John Milton in Paradise Lost , William

Shakespeare in his Sonnets)[53]

! Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; Virgil, Aeneid)[54]

! Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress";

Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, Robert Frost, Stopping by

Woods on a Snowy Evening)[55]

! Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")[56]

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! Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre)[57]

Rhyme, alliteration, assonance

The Old English epic poem Beowulf is written in alliterative verse.Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating

repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent

structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an

ornamental element.[58] They can also carry a meaning separate from

the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, Chaucer used

heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character

as archaic.[59]

Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme")

sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within

lines ("internal rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their

rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure

permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a

lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow

regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from

other languages, is less rich in rhyme.

[60]

The degree of richness of alanguage's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining

what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.[61]

Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds at the beginning

of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short

intervals; or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of

words. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring

early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The

alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter andalliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern

determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur.

This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most

Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or

carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in

languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use

of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at

the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but

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goes back to the Homeric epic.[62] Because verbs carry much of the

pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal

elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese

poetry.[63]

Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeatedthroughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a

word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and

so is less useful as a structural element.[61]

Rhyming schemes

Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels. A Doré

illustration to the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto 28.

In many languages, including modern European languages andArabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for

specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets.

However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the

European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme

schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme.[64]

Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part

under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern

Spain).[65] Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the

first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their

long, rhyming qasidas.[66] Some rhyming schemes have become

associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other

rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or

time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-

defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat,

while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.[67]Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to

sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain

rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain

is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the

one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form.[68] Similarly, an "a-b-b-

a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such

forms as the Petrarchan sonnet.

[69]

Some types of more complicatedrhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from

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the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima.[70] The

types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the

main article.

FormPoetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry,

and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras.

Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and

write in free verse. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its

form; some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found

in even the best free verse, however much such structures may appear

to have been ignored.[71] Similarly, in the best poetry written in

classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or

effect.[72]

Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the

stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines

such as cantos. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations

of words and calligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are often

combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes

(see following section), as in the sonnet or haiku.

Lines and stanzas

Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be

based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming

pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions,

particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical

pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in

different units, or can highlight a change in tone.[73] See the article on

line breaks for information about the division between lines.Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are

denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of

two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four

lines a quatrain, and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each

other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines

with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a

common meter alone.[74]

Alexander Blok's poem, " Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" ("Night, street, lamp,

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drugstore"), on a wall in Leiden

Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which

regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic

tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations,

and rhymes established in paragraph form.[75] Many medieval poems

were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and

rhythms were used.[76]

In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming

scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of

succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include,

for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the

case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza whichthen repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking

stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example,

the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated

into one or more stanzas.[77]

In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some

forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to

strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza

had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration orassonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered

lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not

necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained

internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word).

Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a

trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules

than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.[78]

Visual presentation

Visual poetry

Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry

often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in

the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a

poem.[79] In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual

presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important partin the overall effect of many poems.[80]

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With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the

mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements

have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets

have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes.

Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or

groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition.

At times, this complements the poem's rhythm through visual

caesuras of various lengths, or creates juxtapositions so as to

accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an

aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to

concrete poetry or asemic writing.[81][82]

DictionPoetic diction treats the manner in which language is used, and refers

not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its

interaction with sound and form.[83] Many languages and poetic

forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct

grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry.[84][85]

Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary

speech patterns, as favoured in much late-20th-century prosody,

[86]

through to highly ornate uses of language, as in medieval and

Renaissance poetry.[87]

Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and

metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in

the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of

metaphor."[88] Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted

for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting

instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the

exploration of tone.[89] On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed

rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.[90]

Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures,

and were prominent in the West during classical times, the late

Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly

rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry

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through the ages.[91] Other notables examples include the Roman de

la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers

Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables

(influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fullyallegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that

deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full

allegory.[92]

Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for

effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for

example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku.[93] Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor.

Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a shortphrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea")

or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a sombre tone to a poem,

or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes.[94]

FormsSpecific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more

developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme,

meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, rangingfrom the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy

to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle.[95]

Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used

across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be

found in the discussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods and

in the glossary.

Sonnet

Shakespeare

Among the most common forms of poetry through the ages is the

sonnet, which by the 13th century was a poem of fourteen lines

following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. By the 14th

century, the form further crystallized under the pen of Petrarch, whose

sonnets were later translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas

Wyatt, who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English

literature.[96] A sonnet's first four lines typically introduce the topic,

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the second elaborates and the third posits a problem - the couplet

usually, but not always, includes a twist, or an afterthought. A sonnet

usually follows an a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f-gg rhyme pattern. The

sonnet's conventions have changed over its history, and so there are

several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, in sonnets English poets

use iambic pentameter, the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets

being especially notable.[97] In the Romance languages, the

hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters,

though the Petrarchan sonnet has been used in Italy since the 14th

century.[98]

Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a

poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turnsassociated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet

make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects.[99]

Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry,

with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse.[100]

Shi

Shi (simplified Chinese:诗; traditional Chinese:詩; pinyin: sh! ;

Wade–Giles: shih) Is the main type of Classical Chinese poetry.[101] Within this form of poetry the most important variations are "folk

song" styled verse ( yuefu), "old style" verse (gushi), "modern style"

verse ( jintishi). In all cases, rhyming is obligatory. The Yuefu is a

folk ballad or a poem written in the folk ballad style, and the number

of lines and the length of the lines could be irregular. For the other

variations of shi poetry, generally either a four line (quatrain, or jueju)

or else an eight line poem is normal; either way with the even

numbered lines rhyming. The line length is scanned by accordingnumber of characters (according to the convention that one character

equals one syllable), and are predominantly either five or seven

characters long, with a caesura before the final three syllables. The

lines are generally end-stopped, considered as a series of couplets,

and exhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device.[102] The "old

style" verse (gushi) is less formally strict than the jintishi, or regulated

verse, which, despite the name "new style" verse actually had its

theoretical basis laid as far back to Shen Yue, in the 5th or 6th

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a 5-7-5-7-7 pattern.[111] There is generally a shift in tone and subject

matter between the upper 5-7-5 phrase and the lower 7-7 phrase.

Tanka were written as early as the Asuka period by such poets as

Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, at a time when Japan was emerging from aperiod where much of its poetry followed Chinese form.[112] Tanka

was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry (which was

generally referred to as "waka"), and was used more heavily to

explore personal rather than public themes. By the tenth century,

tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, to the point

where the originally general term waka ("Japanese poetry") came to

be used exclusively for tanka. Tanka are still widely written today.

[113]

HaikuHaiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, which evolved

in the 17th century from the hokku, or opening verse of a renku.[114]

Generally written in a single vertical line, the haiku contains three

sections totalling 17 onji, structured in a 5-7-5 pattern. Traditionally,

haiku contain a kireji, or cutting word, usually placed at the end of

one of the poem's three sections, and a kigo, or season-word.[115]

Themost famous exponent of the haiku was Matsuo Bash! (1644–1694).

An example of his writing:[116]

fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage

the wind of Mt. Fuji

I've brought on my fan!

a gift from Edo

Ode

Horace

Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as

Pindar, and Latin, such as Horace. Forms of odes appear in many of

the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins.[117] The

ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode.

The antistrophes of the ode possess similar metrical structures and,depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the

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epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a

formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. The

strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often

conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to

either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended

to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first

reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the

epode.[118] Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with

considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing

the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-

Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry.[119]

Ghazal

Rumi

The ghazal (also ghazel, gazel, gazal, or gozol) is a form of poetry

common in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Urdu and Bengali

poetry. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming

couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line. This refrain

may be of one or several syllables, and is preceded by a rhyme. Eachline has an identical meter. The ghazal often reflects on a theme of

unattainable love or divinity.[120]

As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many

variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical

poetic diction in Urdu.[121] Ghazals have a classical affinity with

Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in

ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain

produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical

themes well.[122] Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-

century Persian poet.[123] One of the most famous poet in this type of

poetry is Hafez. Themes of his Ghazal is exposing hypocrisy. His life

and poems have been the subject of much analysis, commentary and

interpretation, influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing

more than any other author.[124][125] West-östlicher Diwan of Johann

Wolfgang von Goethe that is a collection of lyrical poems, has been

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inspired by the Persian poet Hafez.[126][127][128]

GenresIn addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in

terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally atradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style,

or other broader literary characteristics.[129] Some commentators

view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of

genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other

works.[130]

Narrative poetry

Geoffrey Chaucer

Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it

subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often

reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to human

interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many

scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were

composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related

individual episodes. Much narrative poetry—such as Scottish andEnglish ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance

poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated

that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter,

alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who

recited traditional tales.[131]

Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz,

Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare,

Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Fernando de Rojas, AdamMickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred

Tennyson.

Epic poetryEpic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative

literature. This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning

events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. It

recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or

mythological person or group of persons.[132] Examples of epic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tennysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tennysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pushkinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_de_Rojashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Burnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Cam%C3%B5eshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Langlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Ruizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dantehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_interesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_interesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre


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poems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, the

Nibelungenlied , Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, the Cantar de Mio

Cid , the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's Ramayana,

Ferdowsi's Shahnama, Nizami (or Nezami)'s Khamse (Five Books),

and the Epic of King Gesar. While the composition of epic poetry,

and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after

the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be

written. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize to a great extent on the

basis of his epic, Omeros.[133]

Dramatic poetry

GoetheDramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and

appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. Greek

tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B.C., and may have been an

influence on the development of Sanskrit drama,[134] just as Indian

drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the

bianwen verse dramas in China, forerunners of Chinese Opera.[135]

East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh. Examples of

dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nizami's two famous

dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin,

Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab, Rumi's Masnavi,

Gorgani's tragedy of Vis and Ramin, and Vahshi's tragedy of Farhad .

Satirical poetry

John Wilmot

Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong

tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A

notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal's satires.[136]

The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (a

Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe,

subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a

reference to Thomas Shadwell).[137] Another master of 17th-century

English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.[138]

Satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilmot,_2nd_Earl_of_Rochesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Shadwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Flecknoehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet_Laureatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drydenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satires_of_Juvenalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilmot,_2nd_Earl_of_Rochesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahshi_Bafqihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis_and_Raminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asad_Gorganihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masnavihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sohrabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_and_Shirinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layla_and_Majnunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizami_Ganjavihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Operahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bianwenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omeroshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_prizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Walcotthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_poemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_King_Gesarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khamse&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizami_Ganjavihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valmikihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantar_de_Mio_Cidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantar_de_Mio_Cidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_Lus%C3%ADadashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Cam%C3%B5eshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibelungenliedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer


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Azerbaijan's Sabir and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage.

Light poetry

Lewis Carroll

Light poetry, or light verse, is poetry that attempts to be humorous.

Poems considered "light" are usually brief, and can be on a frivolous

or serious subject, and often feature word play, including puns,

adventurous rhyme and heavy alliteration. Although a few free verse

poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition,

light verse in English is usually formal. Common forms include the

limerick, the clerihew, and the double dactyl.

While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel, or thought

of as poetry composed casually, humor often makes a serious point in

a subtle or subversive way. Many of the most renowned "serious"

poets have also excelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry

include Lewis Carroll, Ogden Nash, X. J. Kennedy, Willard R. Espy,

and Wendy Cope.

Lyric poetry

Christine de PizanLyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic poetry, does not

attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Poems

in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather

than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own

feelings, states of mind, and perceptions.[139] Notable poets in this

genre include John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins, and Antonio

Machado.

ElegyAn elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a

lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term "elegy," which

originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly

describes a poem of mourning. An elegy may also reflect something

that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a

reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something

mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry.[140][141]

Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propertiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mourninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegiachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funeralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Machadohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Machadohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Manley_Hopkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_de_Pizanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Copehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_R._Espyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X._J._Kennedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogden_Nashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Carrollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doggerelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_dactylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerihewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Carrollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Maria_Barbosa_du_Bocagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan


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Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, Chidiock Tichborne, Edmund

Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Milton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Turner

Smith, William Cullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann

Wolfgang von Goethe, Evgeny Baratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, Walt

Whitman, Louis Gallet, Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez,

William Butler Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.

Verse fable

Ignacy Krasicki

The fable is an ancient literary genre, often (though not invariably) set

in verse. It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphized

animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a

moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter

and rhyme patterns.[142]

Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, Vishnu Sarma,

Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson, Biernat of Lublin, Jean

de La Fontaine, Ignacy Krasicki, Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás

de Iriarte, Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce.

Prose poetry

Charles Baudelaire, by Gustave Courbet

Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and

poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (a.k.a. the

"short short story", "flash fiction"). While some examples of earlier

prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly

regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its

practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur

Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé.[143] Since the late 1980sespecially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire

journals, such as The Prose Poem: An International Journal,[144]

Contemporary Haibun Online[145] devoted to that genre.

Speculative poetrySpeculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry, (of which weird or

macabre poetry is a major subclassification), is a poetic genre which

deals thematically with subjects which are 'beyond reality', whethervia extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrapolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Baudelairehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_short_storyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_acronyms_and_initialisms:_A#AKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Courbethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Baudelairehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Biercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Krylovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Iriartehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Iriartehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Samaniegohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biernat_of_Lublinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Henrysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_de_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Sarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasickihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilkehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Butler_Yeatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Ram%C3%B3n_Jim%C3%A9nezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Machadohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Gallethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Whitmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Whitmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tennysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evgeny_Baratynskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Turner_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Turner_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Miltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Spenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Spenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chidiock_Tichbornehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Kochanowskihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Manrique


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as in horror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science

fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes

seen as the "father of speculative poetry".[146]

See also! Glossary of poetry terms

! List of poetry groups and movements

! Outline of poetry

! Poetry reading

! Rhapsode

Notes

1 Jump up^ "Poetry". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2013.

2 Jump up

^ "Poetry". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2013.

3 Jump up

^ "Poetry". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, LLC. 2013—Based on the

Random House Dictionary

4 Jump up

^ Strachan, John R; Terry, Richard, G (2000). Poetry: an introduction.

Edinburgh University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8147-9797-6.

5 Jump up

^ Eliot, TS (1999). "The Function of Criticism". Selected Essays. Faber

& Faber. pp. 13–34. ISBN 978-0-15-180387-3.

6 Jump up

^ Longenbach, James (1997). Modern Poetry After Modernism. Oxford

University Press. pp. 9, 103. ISBN 0-19-510178-2.

7 Jump up

^ Schmidt, Michael, ed. (1999). The Harvill Book of Twentieth-CenturyPoetry in English. Harvill Press. pp. xxvii–xxxiii. ISBN 1-86046-735-0.

8 Jump up

^ Hoivik, S; Luger, K (3 June 2009). "Folk Media for Biodiversity

Conservation: A Pilot Project from the Himalaya-Hindu Kush".

International Communication Gazette 71 (4): 321–346. doi:

10.1177/1748048509102184.

9 Jump up

^ Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hannah M (1996). The Odyssey Re-Formed .

Cornell University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 0-8014-8335-2.. Others suggest

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8335-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1748048509102184http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86046-735-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510178-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-180387-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9797-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/poetry?s=thttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poetryhttp://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/poetry?q=poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_poetry_groups_and_movementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_poetry_termshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_fiction


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that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. Goody, Jack (1987). The

Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press.

p. 98. ISBN 0-521-33794-1.

10 Jump up

^ Ebrey, Patricia (1993). Chinese Civilisation: A Sourcebook (2nd ed.).

The Free Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-0-02-908752-7.

11 Jump up

^ Sanders, NK (trans.) (1972). The Epic of Gilgamesh (Revised ed.).

Penguin Books. pp. 7–8.

12 Jump up

^ Abondolo, Daniel (2001). A poetics handbook: verbal art in the

European tradition. Curzon. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7007-1223-6.

13 Jump up^ Gentz, Joachim (2008). "Ritual Meaning of Textual Form: Evidence

from Early Commentaries of the Historiographic and Ritual Traditions".

In Kern, Martin. Text and Ritual in Early China. University of

Washington Press. pp. 124–148. ISBN 978-0-295-98787-3.

14 Jump up

^ Habib, Rafey (2005). A history of literary criticism. John Wiley &

Sons. pp. 607–609, 620. ISBN 978-0-631-23200-1.

15 Jump up

^ Heath, Malcolm, ed. (1997). Aristotle's Poetics. Penguin Books.

ISBN 0-14-044636-2.

16 Jump up

^ Frow, John (2007). Genre (Reprint ed.). Routledge. pp. 57–59.

ISBN 978-0-415-28063-1.

17 Jump up

^ Bogges, WF (1968). "'Hermannus Alemannus' Latin Anthology of

Arabic Poetry". Journal of the American Oriental Society 88: 657–70.

doi:10.2307/598112. Burnett, Charles (2001). "Learned Knowledge ofArabic Poetry, Rhymed Prose, and Didactic Verse from Petrus Alfonsi to

Petrarch". Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A Festschrift for

Peter Dronke. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 29–62.

ISBN 90-04-11964-7.

18 Jump up

^ Grendler, Paul F (2004). The Universities of the Italian Renaissance.

Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 239. ISBN 0-8018-8055-6.

19 Jump up

^ Kant, Immanuel; Bernard, JH (trans.) (1914). Critique of Judgment .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-8055-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11964-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F598112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28063-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044636-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23200-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98787-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1223-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-908752-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33794-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number


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Macmillan. p. 131. Kant argues that the nature of poetry as a self-

consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level

among the verbal arts, with tone or music following it, and only after that

the more logical and narrative prose.

20 Jump up

^ Ou, Li (2009). Keats and negative capability. Continuum. pp. 1–3.

ISBN 978-1-4411-4724-0.

21 Jump up

^ Watten, Barrett (2003). The constructivist moment: from material text

to cultural poetics. Wesleyan University Press. pp. 17–19.

ISBN 978-0-8195-6610-2.

22 Jump up

^ Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008). "Translation as a Blending of Cultures". Journal of Translation 4 (1).

23 Jump up

^ Highet, Gilbert (1985). The classical tradition: Greek and Roman

influences on western literature (Reissued ed.). Oxford University Press.

pp. 355, 360, 479. ISBN 978-0-19-500206-5.

24 Jump up

^ Wimsatt, William K, Jr; Brooks, Cleanth (1957). Literary Criticism: A

Short History. Vintage Books. p. 374.

25 Jump up

^ Johnson, Jeannine (2007). Why write poetry?: modern poets defending

their art . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 148.

ISBN 978-0-8386-4105-7.

26 Jump up

^ Jenkins, Lee M; Davis, Alex, ed. (2007). The Cambridge companion to

modernist poetry. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–7, 38, 156.

ISBN 978-0-521-61815-1.

27 Jump up^ Barthes, Roland (1978). "Death of the Author". Image-Music-Text .

Farrar, Straus & Giroux. pp. 142–148.

28 Jump up

^ Connor, Steven (1997). Postmodernist culture: an introduction to

theories of the contemporary (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 123–128.

ISBN 978-0-631-20052-9.

29 Jump up

^ Pinsky 1998, p. 52

30 Jump up

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20052-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_the_authorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Bartheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-61815-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-4105-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-500206-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://pnglanguages.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008-1-01.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8195-6610-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4724-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number


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^ "Examples of English metrical systems". Fondazione Universitaria in

provincia di Belluno. Retrieved 10 December 2011.

45 Jump up

^ Fussell 1965, pp. 23–24

46 Jump up

^ Kiparsky, Paul (September 1975). "Stress, Syntax, and Meter".

Language 51 (3): 576–616. doi:10.2307/412889.

47 Jump up

^ Thompson, John (1961). The Founding of English Meter. Columbia

University Press. p. 36.

48 Jump up

^ Pinsky 1998, pp. 11–24

49 Jump up^ Pinsky 1998, p. 66

50 Jump up

^ Nabokov, Vladimir (1964). Notes on Prosody. Bollingen Foundation.

pp. 9–13. ISBN 0-691-01760-3.

51 Jump up

^ Fussell 1965, pp. 36–71

52 Jump up

^ Nabokov, Vladimir (1964). Notes on Prosody. Bollingen Foundation.

pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-691-01760-3.

53 Jump up

^ Adams 1997, p. 206

54 Jump up

^ Adams 1997, p. 63

55 Jump up

^ "What is Tetrameter?". tetrameter.com. Retrieved 10 December 2011.

56 Jump up

^ Adams 1997, p. 6057 Jump up

^ James, ED; Jondorf, G (1994). Racine: Phèdre. Cambridge University

Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-0-521-39721-6.

58 Jump up

^ Corn 1997, p. 65

59 Jump up

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Alliteration". In Gaylord, Alan T. Essays on the art of Chaucer's verse.

Routledge. pp. 195–228. ISBN 978-0-8153-2951-0.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-2951-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39721-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.tetrameter.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01760-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01760-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F412889http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.unibl.eu/pdf/examples_metrical_systems.pdf


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criticism. Blackwell Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-631-23290-2.77 Jump up

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^ McTurk, Rory, ed. (2004). Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic

Literature and Culture. Blackwell. pp. 269–280.

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^ Freedman, David Noel (July 1972). "Acrostics and Metrics in HebrewPoetry". Harvard Theological Review 65 (3): 367–392. doi:10.1017/

s0017816000001620.

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^ Kampf, Robert (2010). Reading the Visual – 17th century poetry and

visual culture. GRIN Verlag. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-3-640-60011-3.

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^ Bohn, Willard (1993). The aesthetics of visual poetry. University of

Chicago Press. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-0-226-06325-6.

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^ Sterling, Bruce (13 July 2009). "Web Semantics: Asemic writing".

Wired . Retrieved 10 December 2011.

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^ Barfield, Owen (1987). Poetic diction: a study in meaning (2nd ed.).

Wesleyan University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8195-6026-1.

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^ Sheets, George A (Spring 1981). "The Dialect Gloss, Hellenistic

Poetics and Livius Andronicus". American Journal of Philology 102 (1):58–78. doi:10.2307/294154.

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^ Blank, Paula (1996). Broken English: dialects and the politics of

language in Renaissance writings. Routledge. pp. 29–31.

ISBN 978-0-415-13779-9.

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^ Perloff, Marjorie (2002). 21st-century modernism: the new poetics.

Blackwell Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-631-21970-5.

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