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Pass the TExES

Seventh Edition

Core SubjectsCore Subjects4-8

Also available from

Ed Publishing:Pass the TExES

Core Subjects EC-6

EXCELLENT STUDY CONTENT, WORKSHEETS, EXERCISES, AND INTERACTIVE STUDY MODULE!

by Vickie Hester, Ph.D., Kim Elmore, M.A.,Judy Mattair, Ph.D. & Paola Docemascolo, M.S.

with Mark Mentze, M.Ed., M.A.

FOR TEXAS TEACHERSA test prep program for the TExES Core Subjects

exam #211 for grades 4-8.

13Pass the TExES - Ed Publishing Generalist 4-8

Domain IEnglish Language Arts and Reading

Competencies 1-9

31% of the test


Key Words:PhonemesPhonologyMorphologySyntaxLexiconSemanticsPragmaticsDiscoursePhonemic AwarenessListening, Speaking, Reading and Writing

• Knows and teaches basic linguistic concepts, and the developmental stages in the acquisition of oral language, and recognizes that individual variations occur within and across languages.

• Knows characteristics and uses of informal and formal oral language assessments and uses multiple, ongoing assessments to monitor and evaluate students' oral lan-guage skills.

• Provides language instruction that acknowledges students' oral language skills and that builds on these skills to increase students' oral language proficiency.

• Plans, implements and adapts instruction that is based on

informal and formal assessment of students' progress in oral language development and that addresses the needs, strengths and interests of individual students, including English-language learners (ELLs), in accordance with the English Language Proficiency (ELPS).

• Recognizes when oral language delays or differences war-rant in-depth evaluation and additional help.

• Knows how to provide explicit, systematic oral language insruction and supports students' learning and use of oral language through activities in one-to-one and group set-tings.

D E S C R I P T O R H I G H L I G H T S

14

1. Oral Language

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTE: Refer to the lettered descriptors under each Competency in the ETS/SBEC study material (in the back of this manual). Analyze each descriptor, and synthesize it down to a paraphrase that is meaningful to you, using no more than 5 words. List those phrases in order on the lines above.It will help to letter the lines above. When complete, record them again on Worksheet 4 in Appendix I.

Key Descriptors


1. Oral Language

A. BASIC LINGUISTIC CONCEPTS The teacher must understand each develop-mental concept of oral language. They include:• Phonemes - speech sound, target sound,

utterance: smallest unit of speech in a language.

• Phonology - producing the basic sound units of language.

• Morphology - word formation in a language including inflection, derivation, and compounding. Morphology (root word “morph” = change) is the study of how the meaning of a word is changed when a morpheme (in English, root words, pre-fixes and suffixes) is added.

• Syntax - the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences.

• Semantics - relating to the meaning of words, groups of words, signs, symbols and phrases. Semantics is critical to language acquisition. Semantics studies how meaning is built, understood, deciphered and explained, and includes topics such as: • how word meanings change over time • how meaning is changed by the addi-

tion or deletion of morphemes• how words may work together to form

a single idea (“drop off ”, “turn into”) the connotations, or variation of mean-ings attached to similar words (tired, sleepy; angry, furious)

• similes and metaphors (sings like a bird, sharp as a tack)

• idioms (raining cats and dogs, hungry as a horse)

• Pragmatics - the appropriate use of language; rules for communicating

effectively and responding to the needs of one’s listeners. Pragmatics is the way meaning is implied by context and expres-sions. Example: “She’s a real genius!” may mean “She’s extremely smart”, or “She’s not very smart”, depending on the conversation or writing that surrounds the sentence. - Rules of politeness (language registers,

speaker must determine which register to use, i.e., speaking to the President of the United States, speaking to an old friend, or speaking to a stranger, hence, different registers of politeness). - Conversational skills - Extended discourse

Related Concepts: Morpheme – Morphemes are the

smallest unit of meaning in a language; a part that changes the meaning. Examples: -ed happened in the past, such as talk -> talked -ing is happening now, such as fly -> flying re- again, such as visit -> revisit pre- before, such as view -> preview spect to look (root word)

Discourse - Discourse is a conversation or dia-logue between two people. It can also relate to the jargon and vocabulary of a specific group of people such as doctors or teachers.

Competency 1:The teacher understands the importance of oral language, knows the developmentalprocesses of oral language, and provides a variety of instructional opportunities forstudents to develop listening and speaking skills.

continued


1. Oral Language, cont’d.

B. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT The teacher recognizes that development in phonemes, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics occur in and across languages; however, there is usually a continuum of progress starting with early acquisition of a language.

C. THE EIGHT PHONEMIC AWARENESS ACTIVITIES

1. Isolation - Students hear individual sounds in words.

Teacher: What’s the first sound you hear in “top”?

Students: The first sound is /t/. Teacher: What is the last sound you

hear? Students: The last sound is /p/.

2. Identity - Students hear and identify the same sound in different words.

Teacher: What sound is the same in teacher, table, and tree?

Students: The beginning sound, /t/.

3. Categorization - Students identify which word is different in a list of words, based on sounds.

Teacher: Which word doesn’t belong – cat, king or face?

Students: Face doesn’t belong because it doesn’t start with /k/.

4. Blending – Students put sounds togeth-er to make a word.

Teacher: What words is /k/ /a/ /t/? Students: /k/ /a/ /t/ is cat!

5. Segmentation – Students break words into their individual sounds and/or count the number of sounds in a word. It is the opposite of blending.

Teacher: How many sounds are in “fan”? Students: /f/ /a/ /n/, three sounds.

6. Deletion – Students remove a sound from a word and identify what remains.

Teacher: What word is clap without /k/? Students: Clap without /k/ is “lap”.

7. Addition – Students create a new word by adding a sound.

Teacher: What word do you have when you add /s/ to the beginning of “top”?

Students: Stop!

8. Substitution – Students change one sound in a word to a different sound and identify the new word.

Teacher: I’m thinking of a word that sounds like man but starts with /r/. What’s my word?

Students: Ran!

D. TYPES OF VOCABULARY AND RELATIONSHIPS

There are four types of interrelated vocabu-laries that we all use when we communicate. They typically develop in the listed order, and build upon each other.

Gaps or weaknesses in one area yield gaps and weaknesses in other areas.

1. Listening vocabulary - the words we need to know to understand what we hear

2. Speaking vocabulary - the words we use when we speak

Segmentation - breaking a word down into phonemes (individual sounds)

1

2

3


3. Reading vocabulary - the words we need to know to understand what we read

4. Writing vocabulary - the words we use in writing

• Teaching ELA requires use and develop-ment of all four areas. Encourage students to BUILD and USE their vocabularies.

• Students may need lesson adaptations (such as bilingual books, reduced writing assignments, etc.) to serve their individual needs.

E. ASSESSMENT The assessment of strengths, needs, and inter-ests of the students are what drive curricular decisions. • Strengths are what the teacher should

focus on with all students in order to build confidence and motivate oral development.

• Needs dictate what and how to teach students; they are diagnosed by both formal and informal means.

• Interests of students should be as closely aligned with teacher objectives as possible in order to promote ownership of learning.

F. LANGUAGE DELAYS Recognition of speech and oral language delays should be made early and the necessary steps taken to provide:

• Warranted in-depth evaluations (i.e. physical, developmental, intellectual, emotional, etc.)

• Additional help inside and outside of school.

• Interventions needed for diagnosed problems, areas of weakness, etc.

G. PAIR AND GROUP ACTIVITIES Meaningful and purposeful conversation, dramatic play, language play, stories, songs, rhymes, games, discussions, questioning, etc., are used by the teacher to promote oral lan-guage usage. After lessons have been modeled correctly, students must practice the skills learned which will relate to easier connections of spoken language to print.

H. CULTURAL DIVERSITYPromote language development and cultural diversity for all English Language Learners by responding to student strengths, needs, inter-est, and cultural diversity.

I. RICH LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT• The goal of every language program

should be to develop language skills across the four ELA strands—listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

• A rich language environment includes pro-viding students opportunities within all content areas to speak and listen for a vari-ety of purposes. The silent classrooms of the past are not reflective of today’s best teaching practices. To develop oral lan-guage skills, student must be allowed to use their language—for academically appropriate discussions and collaboration.

• Students should have clear language objec-tives and expectations. Expectations and objectives should:– Be based on the TEKS– Be clearly communicated to students– Build language skills in listening,

speaking, reading, and writing


continued

Types of VocabularyGaps in any area affect those that build on it.

Writing vocabulary

Reading vocabulary

Listening vocabulary

Speaking vocabulary



– Be measurable– Be written in a child-friendly, compre-

hensible fashion– Be posted in the room

J. BUILDING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

• Fostering Comprehensible InputTeachers build students’ comprehension of new language by providing opportunities for students to listen and understand. Specific supports include:- Speaking slowly and clearly- Using sentence complexity that match-

es student skill levels- Explaining complex concepts and

vocabulary- Avoiding or explaining idioms and

expressions- Adding movement, gestures, visuals,

props, and non-verbal clues that help students gather meaning

- Activating students’ prior knowledge- Using hands-on learning activities

• Fostering CommunicationTeachers build communication of new lan-guage by providing opportunities for stu-dents to speak and to respond to directives. Specific supports include:- Clarifying, demonstrating and repeat-

ing directions and requests- Offering students opportunities to use

language in a supported setting- Praising effort and communication

attempts- Providing engaging topics to discuss- Focusing on communication and

meaning as opposed to language cor-rectness and form

- Modeling correct language usage- Using cooperative grouping for learn-

ing activities and discussion

• Fostering Critical ThinkingTeachers should build critical thinking skills for all learners, though often second language learners have difficulty engaging with academic concepts at higher levels due to language abilities. For these students, teachers must:- Assess students’ knowledge and skills

despite language needs by allowing stu-dents to demonstrate thinking in a variety of ways.

- Focus on content and big ideas.- Allow students to demonstrate. - Use graphic organizers and project-

based learning.- Engage parents to support lessons at

home.

K. INTERRELATEDNESS OF LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING, AND WRITING

Language skills include both receptive and expressive natures.

Expressive language – language used to express one’s ideas, needs, and feelings • Specifically, speaking and writing • Language that proceeds from a person

Receptive language – language that is used to understand the thoughts, needs, and feelings of others • Specifically, listening and reading• Language that flows into a person

✓ All forms of language allow communica-tion, and are interdependent.

✓ These skills tend to develop in a predict-able order – listening, speaking, reading, and then writing.

✓ Delays in one area of language develop-ment will hinder growth in other domains.



L. HOME LANGUAGEThe home language can be used by the teacher to celebrate and respect cultural, linguistic, and home backgrounds for oral language develop-ment. By doing so, the teacher becomes more biliterate and bicultural.

M. ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGEInterrelate oral language and written language by preview-review, discussion, and questioning. Explicitly discuss and preview different types of speech and written dialogues.

Oral language skills are built through:• Meaningful and purposeful conversa-

tions— with each other, and with adults.

• Games, role-plays, discussions, col-laboration, shar-ing, presenting, and reading.

• Explicit instruc-tion into the dif-ferences between formal and informal speech, and between speech and writing.

• Listening for a variety of purposes and evaluating the effectiveness of communica-tion – the communication of others and of their own attempts.

• Using technology to build oral language skills: books on tape, listening center, music, computer games, smart board.

N. SPEECH AND PRINTConnect spoken and printed language by “read-alouds.” Reading aloud builds motivation to learn to read while providing an excellent model of spoken text. Although reading aloud to older children is not as researched as reading aloud to younger children, a few studies have shown that the benefits of reading aloud to upper elementary/middle school students are

significant. Among the benefits are increases in students' accessibility to texts, motivation, engagement in learning, positive attitudes toward reading, background knowledge in con-tent areas, and fluency.

O. VARIOUS AUDIENCESOral language should be used for various audi-ences, purposes, and occasions (i.e., register of language, informing others of a variety of information, persuading others to act, or, criti-cal listening for point of view).

P. LISTENINGListening should be taught in a variety of

active, purposeful listening contexts.• Listening for a variety of purposes

and evaluating the effectiveness of communication—the communica-tion of others and of their own attempts.

Q. SELF EVALUATINGStudents evaluate their spoken messages

and those of others.• Focus positive attention on attempts

and successes.• Use private consultation on areas for

development.• Keep language goals attainable.• Be specific and clear.• Build background for students using

explanations and visuals.• Keep feedback centered on big ideas and

key vocabulary.• Encourage journaling for students to

record their language learning. • Use teacher-student journals to allow

students to ask and receive clarification in a private setting.

• Have students rephrase what they’ve learned to illuminate misconceptions and to assure language clarity.

continued


1. Oral Language, cont'd.

P. TECHNOLOGYTechnology can be used to develop students’ communication skills. Use technology to build

oral language skills: books on tape, lis-tening center, music, computer games, smart board, etc. Ten reasons for implementing tech-nology in the class-room:

1) If used correctly, will help prepare students for their future careers, which will inevita-bly include the use of wireless technology.

2) Integrating technology into the classroom is a great way to reach diversity in learning styles.

3) It gives students the chance to interact with their classmates by encouraging collabora-tion.

4) Technology helps the teachers prepare stu-dents for the real world environment. As our nation becomes increasingly more tech-nology-dependent, it becomes even more necessary that to be successful citizens, stu-dents must learn to be tech-savvy.

5) Integrating technology in education every day helps students stay engaged. Today’s students love technology so they are sure to be interested in learning if they can use the tools they love.

6) With technology, the classroom is a happier place. Students are excited about being able to use technology and therefore, are more apt to learn.

7) When mobile technology is readily avail-able in the classroom, students are able to access the most up-to-date information quicker and easier than ever before.

8) The traditional passive learning mold is broken. With technology in the classroom the teacher becomes the encourager, advis-er, and coach.

9) Students become more responsible. Technology helps students take more con-trol over their own learning. They learn how to make their own decisions.

10) Student can have access to digital textbooks that are constantly updated and often more vivid, helpful, creative, and less expensive than heavy textbooks.

R. FAMILIES AND PROFESSIONALSAlways collaborate with families and profes-sionals to promote student oral language skills and how to best teach these skills. Document intervals of phonology and phonological aware-ness evaluations to demonstrate progress.


2. Early Literacy Development

Key Words:Phonological and Phonemic AwarenessAlphabetic PrincipleDecodingWord ChunksAlphabetic SkillsReading Comprehension

• Understands the significance of phonological and pho-nemic awareness for reading.

• Understands the alphabetic principle and typical patterns of students’ alphabetic skills development.

• Understands that comprehension is an integral part of early literacy.

• Understands that not all written languages are alphabet-ic and that many alphabetic languages are more phonet-ically regular than English.

• Understands that literacy acquisition generally develops in a predictable pattern from prereading to conventional literacy.

• Understands that literacy development occurs in multi-ple contexts through reading, writing, speaking and using various media.

• Knows characteristics of informal and formal literacy assessments.

• Knows how to select, administer and use results from informal and formal assessments of literacy acquisition.

• Knows how to use ongoing assessment.• Analyzes students’ errors in reading and responds to

individual students’ needs in achieving literacy.• Selects and uses appropriate instructional materials.


________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTE: Refer to the lettered descriptors under each Competency in the ETS/SBEC study material (in the back of this manual). Analyze each descriptor, and synthesize it down to a paraphrase that is meaningful to you, using no more than 5 words. List those phrases in order on the lines above.It will help to letter the lines above. When complete, record them again on Worksheet 4 in Appendix I.

Key Descriptors


2. Early Literacy Development

A. PHONOLOGICAL AND PHONEMIC AWARENESS

This is the ability of the student to recognize the sounds in spoken language and how they can be segmented (pulled apart), blended (put back together), and manipulated (added, delet-ed, and substituted).• Phonological awareness does not involve

print.• Phonics involves print and sound together

like graphemes – written letter(s) that repre-sent a spoken sound. For example, a student writes the letter “B” when they hear the sound /b/.

Phonological Awareness Phonological Awareness involves several cate- gories and, in English, develops in a specific order, distinguishing and manipulating sounds from chunks of sound to individual sounds.

Teachers must understand the developmental stages of phonological awareness (what they are) as well as their progression (the order in which they develop).• Determine where a child is in their pho-

nological development.

• Plan activities that help them build to the

next level.• When children first learn to hear sounds,

they begin by hearing “chunks” of sounds.• This progresses as they learn to take apart

words into beginning sound (onset) and “word family” (rime). (See additional expla-nation below.)

• Finally, children learn to hear individual sounds (phonemes) and to play with these sounds, or manipulate them.

1. Working with Words and Word “Chunks”• Segmenting Words in Sentences – breaking

sentences into individual words, usually using claps or stomps.

Example – “Clifford” (one clap) “ate” (one clap) “pizza” (one clap)

• Segmenting Words into Syllables – clapping and breaking words into smaller parts that include a vowel.

• Segmenting Compound Words – breaking compound words into the smaller words from which they are built.

Phonemic Awareness The ability to hear and manipulate the sound that is spoken.

Competency 2:The teacher understands the foundations of early literacy development.

If the student lacks the ability to hear the sounds, the student will NOT be able to

decode the new word.

Since phonological awareness is necessary for spelling, students who lack phonological skills

will also have challenges with spelling.

If a student has trouble spelling, the teacher must revisit phonological awareness.

Teachers must examine spelling tests to deter-mine not only whether the child knows the specific tested words, but also to assess the

child’s phonological skills.

continued

Phonological Awareness

1. Sound Chunks

Words in asentence

Syllables

2. Onsets and Rimes

Dividing words into onsets and rimes

Creating rhymes using onsets and rimes

3. Phonemes

Isolation

Identity

Blending and Segmenting

Addition and Deletion Substitution


2. Working with Individual Phonemes • These activities should be a planned part of

your everyday instruction.• They do not take much time, and should be

practiced in the form of discussion, collabora-tion, or games.

• In the upper grades, phonemic activities fit well into word study, vocabulary lessons, and spelling.

• Teachers should assess students’ phonemic skills regularly, and plan instruction that meets students’ individual needs.

• Assessment must be done 1:1 (because in a group, it is difficult to determine each child’s ability and needs)

B. BUILDING PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS

Research shows that children do best when they only work on one or two types of phonemic awareness activities. Natural pairings are:• Isolation (present and master alone)• Identity and categorization• Blending and segmentation• Addition and deletion• Substitution

1. In each type of phonemic awareness activity, begin having students manipulate the first sound, then move to the last sound, and end with the middle sound (vowel), as this moves from simplest to most complex. Master each sound placement (first, last, middle) before moving to the next.

2. The two that show the most gain are blending and segmenting.

3. Each type should be mastered before moving to the next.

4. Phonemic awareness does not take a long time…two to three minutes each day, and makes a great “sponge” activity (a short activ-ity that can fill up “extra” minutes when a lesson wraps up early, or when a class is in line waiting).

5. Phonological and phonemic awareness activi-

ties should resemble games. The children will love playing them and will rapidly build skills. The state lists language games, infor-mal interactions, and direct instruction as preferred teaching methods.

Example: Teaching Phonemic Blending - “I Say It Slowly, You Say It Fast” game: Teacher explains that she will say the sounds in a word slowly. Children take turns saying it fast.

6. Building these skills seems like games, but requires explicit teaching, practice, and

individual practice.

C. ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE According to Leiberman and Leiberman (1990), the Alphabetic Principle is:• The ability to associate sounds with letters

and to use these sounds to form words• The understanding that words in spoken lan-

guage are represented by letters in print• Sounds in words have a predictable relation-

ship with the letters that represent these sounds

Mastery of the Alphabetic Principle is crucial to developing literacy skills—the ability to read and write. The lack of alphabetic skills divides poor readers from accomplished readers.

Graphophonemic Awareness is the under-standing that a sequence of written letters rep-resents a sequence of spoken sounds. Graph = Write, Phone = Sounds, so the word literally means to write (letters) that represent sounds (phonemes). Without these skills, a child will have a difficult time reading.

Decoding is using graphophonemic awareness to “figure out”, “sound out” new words. Unless the reader can convert the “code” (the lines and symbols, or letters written on the page) into sounds, he or she will not be able to make sense of what is read.

2. Early Literacy Development, cont’d.


Letter-Sound Knowledge refers to a student’s ability to apply graphophonemic awareness and decode written words.

This is the understanding that the sequence of letters in written words represents the sequence of sounds (or phonemes) in spoken words.

English Letter-Sound AssociationsPhoneme Spelling(s) and Example Words/A/ a (table), a_e (late), ai (main), ay (way)/a/ a (cat)/b/ b (bet)/k/ c (cape), k (key), ck (pick)/d/ d (dog)/E/ e (me), ee (feet), ea (leap), y (baby)/e/ e (pet), ea (head)/f/ f (fix), ph (phone)/g/ g (gas)/h/ h (hot)/I/ i (I), i_e (bite), igh (light), y (sky)/i/ i (sit)/j/ j (jet), dge (edge), g[e, i, y] (gem)/l/ l (lamp)/m/ m (my)/n/ n (no), kn (knock)/O/ o (okay), o_e (bone), oa (soap), ow (low)/o/ o (hot)/p/ p (pie)/kw/ qu (quick)/r/ r (road), wr (wrong), er (her), ir (sir), ur (fur)/s/ s (say), c[e, i, y] (cent)/t/ t (time)/U/ u (future), u_e (use), ew (few)/u/ u (thumb), a (about), e (loaded), o (wagon)/v/ v (voice)/w/ w (wash)/ks/ or /gz/ x (box, exam)

/y/ y (yes)/z/ z (zoo), s (nose)/OO/ oo (boot), u (truth), u_e (rude), ew (chew)/oo/ oo (book), u (put)/oi/ oi (soil), oy (toy)/ou/ ou (out), ow (cow)/aw/ aw (saw), au (caught), a[l] (tall)/ar/ ar (car)/sh/ sh (ship), ti (nation), ci (special)/hw/ wh (white)/ch/ ch (chest), tch (catch)/th/ or /th/ th (thick, this)/ng/ ng (sing), n (think)/zh/ s (measure)

• Graphophonemic knowledge is the relationship of printed letters to spoken language.

• Student can recognize, name, and produce the letters of the alphabet.

• Students use letter-sound knowledge and syllables to decode written language.

• Teacher uses a variety of syllable strategies to read beginning reading texts.

Assessing Older StudentsHave students write all of the letters in a set, such as all of the consonants, all of the vowels, or all of the letters/letter combinations that can make a specific sound.

D. COMPREHENSION IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF FLUENCY

Reading Comprehension is the process of con- structing meaning from written texts, based on a complex coordination of a number of interrelat-ed sources of information. Reading comprehen-sion has many components, all of which work together to build understanding of what is read:• The ability to understand and demonstrate

a concept in a variety of ways: visual, oral, and written.

continued



• The process of assimilating information either visually, auditorially, or kinestheti- cally, by relating to one’s prior knowledge and schemata

• Getting meaning from what is said, in print, or visualized, and being able to impart that meaning to others in a manner in which they understand

• Encompasses the understanding of what has been read aloud, and what has been read by the student. Factors include oral back-ground, prior reading experience, language background, and characteristics of text (i.e. narrative, informational, persuasive, non-standard text, inferential, etc.).

E. ALPHABETIC VS. PHONETICNot all written languages are alphabetic and many alphabetic languages are more phonetical-ly regular than English. Hence, the need to understand the difference between decodable words and words that require word analysis skills which will enhance the ability to differen-tiate instruction for each student

F. BUILDING ALPHABETIC SKILLS• Environmental Print – Parents can help

children develop alphabetic skills in many ways, including by pointing out words within the child’s environment. Teachers should maintain a “word-rich environ-ment”, or a setting in which words are post-ed throughout the classroom to allow stu-dents greater exposure to words and letters.

• Word Walls – An effective classroom tool that utilizes environmental print, word walls are alphabetized, interactive displays of learned words or words that are about to be learned.

• Systematic, Explicit Instruction – Teaching words and sounds in a regular, planned way, coupled with frequent review will help stu-dents build alphabetic skills.

• Multisensory Techniques – Teaching words and sounds using multiple senses and meth-ods help students master skills more rapidly, and retain these skills over time. Examples: practicing writing words in dif-ferent types of environments; listening to audio books, etc.

G. ASSESSING ALPHABETIC SKILLS Assessing students’ alphabetic knowledge and decoding skills provides important information for language teachers. Identifying weak skills and providing early intervention will help stu-dents to progress in all areas of learning.

Nonsense Word Decoding - To assess a stu-dent’s ability to use letter-sound knowledge to decode words, a nonsense word test is adminis-tered. In these tests, the student reads a list of “non-words” and the teacher records decoding strengths and weaknesses. Example: toul-dermnt, greedly, pixed, bunderness. If the teacher is administering a nonsense word test, he/she is evaluating the student’s decoding skills.

Skills Observation Recording - It is important to keep a chart that records the observed and assessed skills of each student. Look for patterns and find areas of weakness. Use assessment data to plan individualized instruction that helps each child grow.

H. PREDICTABLE PATTERNS Literacy development occurs through reading, writing, and oral language. Therefore, read-alouds and daily writing should be incor-porated in lesson planning at every level of lit-eracy.• Phonological Awareness is critical to devel-

oping reading and spelling skills.• It can be taught, even to struggling adult

readers.



• It does not take a great amount of time – roughly 20 hours over a school year.

• Blending and segmenting have the greatest impact.

• Independent practice is important, and teachers must engage families to help build skills.

• For learners who are behind, teaching sounds and words simultaneously yields rapid growth.

• Phonological Awareness develops in a predictable pattern. Knowledge of this pattern is critical to success on this test, and in the classroom.

I. INFORMAL AND FORMAL LITERACY ASSESSMENTS

Purposes and Types of Assessment Assessments can be easily divided into two cate-gories: informal and formal.

Informal assessments are generally instructor-designed. As the name suggests, these assess-ments are less systematic and regimented than conventional assessments. Informal tests include:• teacher observations of student body lan-

guage during questioning• the types of questions the students them-

selves are asking• work samples such as daily work portfolios.

Advantages• often are visual• provide immediate feedback on the effec-

tiveness of daily instructional tasks and activities

• allow the instructor to quickly adapt pre-sentation to increase student performance

• easy to adjust without extensive planning and preparation time

• can provide a more clear image of the abili-ties of certain student populations (dis-abled, second-language learners, students

who don’t perform well under the pressures of formal testing)

• provide the instructor with solid information about emotional, social, and motiva- tional factors which affect students’ learning

The greatest advantages of informal tests are their practicality in regard to preparation and grading time, and their adaptability to student and situational need.

Disadvantages• results can be unreliable if not coupled with

formal assessment• lack standardization• do not reflect accurately for some students

(shy, other social factors)• portfolios and projects can be influenced by

student creativity and social factors (avail- ability of materials, parental assistance)

Formal assessments are more regimented and structured. Formal assessments are in general less forgiving than informal assessments. However, they provide specific information about student knowledge that cannot be gained through informal assessment alone. These assessments can be either norm-referenced or criterion-referenced. A norm-referenced exami-nation compares a student’s performance to other students' who have taken the test. For example, the ITBS (Iowa Test of Basic Skills), a test of basic skills, measures a student's national

continued



12. Number Theory, cont’d.NotesGeometric Formulas


13. Mathematical Reasoning

Key Words:Patterns

Sequences

Algebraic Manipulation

Function

Multiple Representations

Inequality Rule

• Uses inductive reasoning to identify, extend and create patterns using concrete models, figures, numbers, etc.

• Formulates implicit and explicit rules to describe and construct sequences verbally, numerically, graphically and symbolically.

• Makes, tests, validates and uses conjectures about pat-terns and relationships in data presented in tables, sequences or graphs.

• Gives appropriate justification of the manipulation of algebraic expressions.

• Illustrates the concept of a function using concrete mod-els, tables, graphs and symbolic and verbal representa-tions.

• Uses transformations to illustrate properties of functions and relations and to solve problems.


Key Descriptors:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTE: Refer to the lettered descriptors under each Competency in the ETS/SBEC study material (in the back of this manual). Analyze each descriptor, and synthesize it down to a paraphrase that is meaningful to you, using no more than 5 words. List those phrases in order on the lines above. It will help to letter the lines above. When complete, record them again on Worksheet 4 in Appendix I.


A. PATTERNS USING MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONSSequences: Sets of elements generated by using a consistent patternExamples:

Concrete (Visual) Model

Predict the number of triangles in the next two layers. Extend the sides of the triangle and the lines parallel to them to draw the next two layers.

Abstract Model: Create the numerical pattern.

Table: Graph:

Verbal Description: The value of a function for variable N is two times the variable minus one. Algebraic Equation: Write an algebraic formula using N as a variable to predict the value of any function in the sequence. F(N)=2N-1 NOTE: The sequence can be generated from any of the representations. You can use any one of the representations to create the others.

Competency 13:The teacher understands and uses mathematical reasoning to identify, extend, and analyze patterns and understands the relationships among variables, expressions, equations, inequalities, relations, and functions.

Variable Function Value

1 1+0 1 2 2+1 3 3 3+2 5 4 4+3 7 5 5+4 9 n n+(n-1) 2n-1

continued

13. Mathematical Reasoning


B. FUNCTIONS USING MULTIPLE REPRESENTATION

Function: a set of points (x,y) with exactly one distinct value of y for every value of x

Modes of representation: Verbal, pictorial, tabular, graphical, symbolic

Verbal: A couple is planning to put a rug in one corner of their family room, leaving a strip of floor the same width on two sides of the room. The dimensions of the room are 4 meters by 6 meters. Write an expression to represent this function.

Pictorial:

Graphic:

Symbolic:

C. MANIPULATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS/EQUATIONS/ INEQUALITIES Algebraic Expressions: Terms separated by ÷ or - symbols; there is no equal sign or inequality sign.

Examples:

• Operations on Algebraic Expressions

1. Addition and Subtraction: Terms are sepa-rated by addition or subtraction symbols—there is no equal or subtraction symbols—there is no equal sign or inequality sign.

Example:

2. Multiplication: multiply coefficients, multiply variables

Examples:

3. Division: factor and simplify

Examples:

x = width of uncarpeted floorƒ(x) = (6 - x)(4-x)ory = 24 - 10x+ x2

3x + 2v 5x2 - 3x + 23m2k3 - 2mk3 + 5m2k

(3m2k3 - 2mk3 + 5m2k) - (6m2k3 - mk3 + 8m2k)3m2k3 - 2mk3 + 5m2k - 6m2k3 + mk3 - 8m2k- 3m2k3 - mk3 - 3m2k

7x(x - 3) = 7x2 - 21x(2x - 1)(x + 2) = 2x2 + 4x - x - 2 = 2x2 + 3x - 2

12x - 6 = 6(2x-1) = (2x-1) 6 6

x2 + 7x + 6 = (x + 6)(x + 1) = (x + 6) x + 1 x + 1

Width of Uncarpeted Floor

Are

a

Carpet in a Room

Tabular:

13. Mathematical Reasoning, cont’d.


4. Equations: Must have an equal sign

Example: Solve for x

5. Inequalities:

Remember the Inequality Rule. When multiply-ing or dividing by a negative number, the direc-tion of the inequality symbol switches.

Examples:

Examples:

Example 1: In 2004 AAA estimated that the cost of operating a new Ford Taurus was 71 cents per mile. This did not include the car payment. Select the inequality that represents total car expenses of $700 to $1000 per month, including a car payment, if m represents the average number of miles traveled in a month and p represents the monthly car payment.

Solution: Remember that your money expres-sions must be in the same denomination. Change the 71 cents to .71 so it is expressed in dollars. The car payment “p” stays constant each month and the upkeep costs change depending on mileage driven. The answer is b.

Example 2: Using the sequence below, continue the pattern and generate a description of the process for determining the sum of the interior angles of a polygon in terms of the number of sides of a polygon.

a. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to three hundred sixty degrees times the number of sides minus two.

b. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to one hundred eighty degrees times the number of sides.

c. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to one hundred eighty degrees times the number of sides minus two.

d. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to three hundred sixty degrees times the number of sides.

Solution: This is a pattern within a pattern problem. Draw in the diagonals for the last two polygons. Look at the number of triangles in each polygon and determine how this is related to the number of sides. Recall that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. So the sum of the angles of any polygon is the number of triangles formed by a diagonal from one ver-tex times 180 degrees. Using the number of sides of the polygon this would be the number of sides minus two times 180 degrees. The answer is c. If you are comfortable with formu-las, you might convert each of the options to formula form.

13. Mathematical Reasoning, cont’d.

Directions of inequality reverses due to division by a negative.

This means any number greater than or equal to 7 will bea solution.

a. 700 ≤ 71m + p ≤ 1000

b. 700 ≤ .71m + p ≤ 1000

c. 700 ≤ 71(m + p) ≤ 1000

d. 700 ≤ .71(m+p) ≤ 1000

GivenUse Distributive PropertyCombine like termsSubtract 3x from both sidesAdd 27 to both sidesDivide both sides by 11

7(2x-5)+8=3(x+4)-614x-35+8=3x +12-6

14x-27=3x+614x-3x-27=3x-3x+611x-27+27=6+27

11x=33x=3


14. Applications of Linear Functions

Key Words:Linear Functions

Direct Variation

Graphs

Tables

Line of Best Fit

Inequalities

Systems

Slope

x-intercept

y-intercept

Domain

Range

Equation

• Demonstrates an understanding of the concept of linear function.

• Demonstrates an understanding of the connections among linear functions, proportions and direct variation.

• Determines the linear function that best models a set of data.

• Analyzes the relationship between a linear equation and its graph.

• Uses linear functions, inequalities and systems to model problems.

• Uses a variety of representations and methods to solve systems of linear equations and inequalities.

• Demonstrates an understanding of the characteristics of linear models.


NOTE: Refer to the lettered descriptors under each Competency in the ETS/SBEC study material (in the back of this manual). Analyze each descriptor, and synthesize it down to a paraphrase that is meaningful to you, using no more than 5 words. List those phrases in order on the lines above. It will help to letter the lines above. When complete, record them again on Worksheet 4 in Appendix I.

Key Descriptors:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


14. Applications of Linear Functions

A. LINEAR FUNCTIONS CHARACTERISTICS1. Linear: all variables have a power of 1. Example: y = 3x + 2

2. Slope: constant rate of change, ratio of change in y over change in x, ratio of rise to run

• Designations:

• Slope: positive (m>0), goes up-right and down-left, negative (m<0), line down-right and up-left, zero (m=0), line is horizontal (left-right), undefined (m = undefined), line is vertical (up-down)• Absolute value of slope: greater than 1 (|m|>1), line more vertical (vertical stretch)• Absolute value of slope: less than 1 (|m|<1), line more horizontal (vertical shrink)

3. Intercepts: where the graph crosses the x or y axis

• x-intercept: y-coordinate is always 0, point is (x-intercept, 0)

• y-intercept: x-coordinate is always 0, point is (0, y-intercept)

4. Linear Function Forms:

• Slope-intercept:

y = mx + b, m = slope b = y-intercept

Example: y = 3x + 5 slope is and y-intercept is (0,5)

• Point-slope: y - y1 = m(x - x1) m = slope

(x1 - x1) is a specific point

Example: y - 3 = 2 (x + 2) slope = 2 (-2, 3) 3 y - 3 = 2 (x - -2) 3

• Standard: Ax + By = C where A, B, C are integers

Example: 5x + 4y = 20

B. REPRESENTATIONS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS

This section will present a situation and then show multiple representations of the linear relationship.

Linear Functions are used to model situations which involve a constant rate of change.

They can be modeled using concrete materials, tables of values, graphs and function equations.

Example:The graph below indicates the rela-tionship between the amount of money Sam owes if he makes the same weekly payment on his debt.

a. Create a table of values.b. Create a function.c. What was Sam’s debt in the beginning?d. What was the rate at which the debt was

decreasing?e. When did the debt reach $0?

Solution:a. Table - Transfer values from the graph.

The rate of change or slope is therefore,

The y-intercept is (0,40).

Competency 14:The teacher understands and uses linear functions to model and solve problems.

m = y2 - y2 = Dy x2 - x1 Dx

31

Changein

Time(wks)

Weeks DebtOwed

($)

ChangeinAmt.ofDebt

0 40

2 2 30 -10

2 4 20 -10

2 6 10 -10

2 8 0 -10-10 = -5° = -5 2 1

continued

Debt paid by Sam

Number of Weeks

Deb

t O

we

($)


b. Function—since you have the slope and the y-intercept, use the slope-intercept form.

c. You can use the graph, the table or the function to answer this question.

The y-intercept answers this question. Sam’s debt was $40 at the beginning.

d. You can use the graph, the table or the function to answer this question.

The slope answers this question. The debt was decreasing by $5 per week.

e. You can use the graph, the table or the function to answer this question.

The x-intercept answers this question. The debt reaches $0 after 8 weeks.

C. PROPORTIONS AND DIRECT VARIATIONS• Proportion: Equal ratios

Example: A scale model of a proposed building is constructed using the scale 2 cm = 1.8 m.

Find the constant of proportionality and write a specific equation expressing meters in terms of centimeters.

Solution: Let x = linear measures on the model and y = linear measures on the building

The constant of proportionality is 0.9.

• Direct variation: a special case of a linear function with y-intercept = 0.

Example: The number of gallons of gasoline used depends on the number of miles traveled.

Suppose a car uses 5 gallons of gasoline to travel 120 miles. Create a table that will help you create a function for this situation.

Solution: You know that if you don’t travel, you don’t use the gasoline. To calculate the rate of change, divide miles by gallons.

Since this is a direct variation, the function is m(g) = 24•g or miles = 24•(# gallons)

D. LINEAR FUNCTION TO MODEL DATAThis simply means to look for the best line to go through the data. If you are looking at a graph, find a reasonable slope and y-intercept to write the func-tion. If you are given a table, plot the data and find a reasonable slope and y-intercept to write the func-tion. You are just using the skills you already have.

Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities

• Equations: You have two equations. If you graph these linear equations, the point of intersection is a common solution.

In this case the point of intersection is (4,2). If you substitute these values into the two equations, you will get a true statement.

y = -5x + 40

y = 1.8 mx 2 cm

2y = 1.8 x

y = .9x

120 miles = 24 miles 5 gal per gal.

Gallons Miles

0 0

5 120

10 240

14. Applications of Linear Functions, cont’d.


Example 2: Which of the following activities would best help develop the concepts of acute, obtuse and right angles?

a. Each student is given an acute, obtuse and right angle and is instructed to measure the angle measures with a protractor.

b. The students are instructed to copy the definitions from a classroom display (e.g. blackboard, Powerpoint®, overhead, etc)

c. The students are put into groups of three and given a sheet of 20 angles and asked to categorize them as acute, obtuse or right.

d. The student investigates the angle measures of a set of angles identified as right and conjectures a definition based on observa-tion. Similar investigations are made for acute and obtuse angles.

Solution: The correct answer is d.

26. Learning Mathematical Skills, cont’d.

Piaget’s Stages of Development

Birth to 2 Years of AgeSensorimotor StageFirst stage of child’s mental development

which mainly involves sensation and motor skills such as hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, moving, manipulating, biting, chewing, etc. In this stage the child does not know that physical objects remain in exis-

tence when out of sight.

2-7 Years of AgePreoperational StageIn this stage children use

their mental ability to rep-

resent events and objects in

various ways like using

symbols, gestures and com-

munication...they are not

yet able to conceptualize

abstractly and need con-

crete physical situations to

help with understanding

concepts.

7-11 Years of AgeConcrete-Operational Stage

At this stage the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical struc-

tures that explain physi-cal experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage.

Math problems can be solved with numbers and not just objects.

11 years to Adulthood

Formal-Operational Stage

Children become more sys-

tematic and reasonable; they

reason tangibly and are also

capable of reasoning and

thinking in more abstract,

hypothetical and idealistic

terms.


Domain III:

Social StudiesCompetencies 29-35

23% of the test


29. History

Key Words:Native Americans

European Colonization

The American Revolution

Civil War

Reconstruction

Reform Movements

• Knows traditional points of historical reference• Knows how important events, people, and issues shaped

Texas, U.S., and world history• Understands how various factors influenced the development

of societies• Knows common characteristics of societies past and present• Understands chronology and how it applies to history• Uses different methods to interpret past events in context

and from several points of view• Understands similarities and differences between Native

American groups in Texas and the West before the arrival of European settlers

• Understands the causes for and effects of European Colonization

• Understands the issues America faced in its early years• Understands westward expansion and its effects on U.S.

development• Knows the social, political, and economic factors that led to

the Civil War• Has in-depth knowledge of the events of the Civil War and

Reconstruction• Understands 19th century reform movements• Understands important events and issues of the 20th century• Understands the contributions of various cultural and reli-

gious groups• Analyzes ways contemporary societies reflect historical

events


Key Descriptors

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: Refer to the lettered descriptors under each Competency in the ETS/SBEC study material (in the back of this manual). Analyze each descriptor, and synthesize it down to a paraphrase that is meaningful to you, using no more than 5 words. List those phrases in order on the lines above.It will help to letter the lines above. When complete, record them again on Worksheet 4 in Appendix I.


29. History

I. HISTORYTexas teachers must be familiar with “histori-cal points of reference,” which are briefly out-lined below. Familiarize yourself with these points, paying careful attention to how each shaped our state and our government.

A. NATIVE AMERICANSTexas teachers should be able to compare and contrast various Native American tribes throughout Texas and the Western Hemisphere. Below is a list of the prime attri-butes of each group.

1.NativesoftheWesternHemisphereThe major Native American groups of the Western Hemisphere were the Incas, the Mayas, and the Aztecs. The Incan empire stretched from Ecuador to northern Chile. The Aztecs dominated northern Mexico, while the Mayans flourished in the rain forests of Guatemala. Their influence continues today; their positive achievements included the following: • advanced agricultural methods • tribute systems • advanced communication systems• skilled artisans • highly specialized and stratified societies• imperial administration • schools

2.NativesoftheUnitedStatesWhen the Europeans came to America, about 10 million Native Americans lived in all parts of the United States. All lived off the land and were • hunters

• gatherers• farmersThey were resourceful in making tools and had advanced skills in: • horsemanship• farming• buffalo hunting • building homes

Many historians count the cooperative gov-erning systems many nations had in place to be among their greatest contributions to modern society. In many parts of America, Native American tribes met on a regular basis to share news, methods, and culture, as well as to make cooperative governmental decisions. None had a system of writing, nor did they have many scientific advances.

3.TexasNativesScientists believe that the earliest Texans arrived about 11,000 years ago, following herds of mammoth and mastodon. The earliest groups lived in the Gulf Coastal Plains (Caddo, Coahuiltecans, Karankawas) and were hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Plains nations (Tonkawa, Lipan Apache, Comanche, Kiowa) were mostly nomadic, skilled buffalo hunters. The most sedentary tribes (Pueblo, Jumano, Concho, Tigua) occupied the Mountains and Basins region. Contributions from these groups included:• Caddo – built the first buildings in

Texas (beehive shaped huts made from wooden frames covered with grass or reeds); also known for advanced farming methods

Competency 29:The teacher understands and applies knowledge of significant historical events and developments, multiple historical interpretations and ideas, and relationships between the past, the present, and the future, as defined by the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS).

continued


• Karankawas - created dugout canoes, small ships carved from the trunks of trees to facilitate their nomadic lifestyle (dependent on fishing)

• Coahuiltecans - nomadic hunters and trappers, enslaved Cabeza de Vaca and other Spanish explorers

• Lipan Apaches and Comanche – buffalo hunters who tamed wild mustangs, becoming skilled horsemen

• Pueblo – built elaborate homes and cities using adobe (sun-dried mud) bricks

B. EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Europe engaged in a strong push for exploration. England, Spain, and France sent explorers to establish colonies in the Americas. • The French claimed lands in Canada,

around the Great Lakes, and all along the Mississippi River.

• Spain claimed territory that is now Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Mexico, and Central and South America.

• England established colonies in the Caribbean, and thirteen colonies along

the east coast of America. Colonization had some clearly positive

effects, creating communities and trade routes that facilitated cultural exchange. However, these were forged at the expense of the indigenous peoples of the area; their populations were ravaged by displacement, disease, warfare with the Europeans, and enslavement.

1. Reasons for European Exploration • To locate a new passage to the Far East

(for trade)• To map uncharted areas• To find treasure (gold, silver, gems, artifacts)• To claim new lands and set up

colonies• To convert people to Christianity

2.SignificantExplorersColumbus (1492, 1493,

1498)• led expeditions to South

America for Spain.• landed in South

America.• opened cultural

exchange between the east and the west (Columbian exchange)

De Pineda (1519). • led first expedition into Texas.• explored Gulf Coasts for Spain (Florida,

Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico) De Vaca (1527 -1535).• Part of a Spanish mission to claim land

along the Gulf, he became stranded in Florida when his ships did not return from a supply run to Cuba.

• Built rafts and skirted the coast, eventually wrecking near East Island, Louisiana; continued on foot with a slave called Esteban, eventually coming to Texas.

• Encountered Caddo Indians near Houston; impressed with their sophisti- cation and tales of wealth inland, he mapped and wrote about the area in detail, creating our first written record of America.

• His tales of Cibola, a fabled city of gold, greatly influenced subsequent explorers including Coronado and De Soto.

Coronado (1540-1542). • Sent by Spain to find fabled city of gold,

reported by De Vaca.• Traveled much of the Texas Panhandle.• First Europeans to see Palo Duro Canyon.• Went home empty handed La Salle (1682-

1685) a French explorer.• Led expedition in 1682 from a French

colony in Canada down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico, claiming land for France on both sides of the river.

• In 1684, led another expedition from

29. History, cont’d.


France to start a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River; sailed past the river and mistakenly landed in Texas.

• Built the first French colony in Texas, Ft. St. Louis, near Galveston.

3.TheThirteenEnglishColonies • In 1607 the first permanent English

colony was established in Jamestown, Virginia. In less than six months, more than half of the settlers had died from disease, starvation, and attacks from Native Americans.

• In 1620, Pilgrims (religious dissidents) set up a strict, parochial colony of Puritans in Massachusetts, Plymouth colony.

• Roger Williams set up a colony in Rhode Island that advocated religious freedom for all, including Native Americans.

• William Penn established a colony for Quakers in Pennsylvania. The Quakers opposed violence, slavery, and war, and advocated religious tolerance for all people.

4.ImportantPeople • William Bradford – Second governor of

Plymouth colony; in 1621 he ordered the first Thanksgiving, sharing harvest with the Wampanoag Indians.

• Roger Williams – banished from Plymouth colony, advocated religious freedom, established Rhode Island colony.

• John Smith – Established trade relations with the Powhatan Indians; bargained for food for the starving Plymouth settlers.

• Pocahontas – Daughter of the Chief of the Powhatan Indians; convinced her father to spare John Smith and help the settlers.

• John Rolfe – member of Jamestown, began tobacco industry in America; married Pocahontas and brought her to England ensuring peace with the

Powhatan Indians.• Squanto – A Pawtuxet Indian who

taught the Plymouth Pilgrims how to hunt, fish, and grow crops, thereby saving the lives of many.

5.TheMayflowerCompact• An agreement written on the Mayflower,

a ship which carried the Pilgrims to America.

• This agreement established the govern- ing laws of the new colonies.

6.Missions,Presidios,andEarlyTownsAfter La Salle built a French colony in Texas, Spain became worried about protecting their claims in Texas. They brought Franciscan monks to build missions – religious settle-ments in Texas. By 1740, there were more than 20 missions in Texas. Later they added forts called Presidios to protect the missions (and Spain’s territorial claims). Missions were built to:• Solidify Spain’s territorial claims

(primary purpose).• Open and protect trade routes.• Spread the Christian faith to the

Native Americans.• Provide a safe center for working

and learning.

C. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763)

This conflict, between British and French col-onies, instigated issues between the colo-nists and England, which eventually led to the American Revolution. During the war, most Native American tribes sided with the French, fearing the British would take their ancestral homelands. The British won.

Causes of the War• Britain and France were

at war, causing conflict between their colo-nies in America.

continued



• The British colonies want-ed land owned by the French colonists for fur trading.

Results of the War• France lost the majority of

its territory and power in North America.• England’s land expanded to include all

of the French lands east of the Mississippi River, except New Orleans, which became Spanish territory.

• Spain’s holdings expanded to include all of the French territory west of the Mississippi River, and New Orleans.

• England tightened its hold on the colonies, restricting freedom and levying large taxes to help offset the costs of the war.

D. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1776- 1785)

By 1775, tensions were high between England and their American colonists. England had passed laws that prevented colonists from being elected to Parliament; at the same time, Parliament passed many laws that levied taxes on the colonists. Angry colonists called this “taxation without representation,” which became an instigation and a battle-cry for the revolt. For nine years, colonists fought the British with the aid of France. In 1781, British general Cornwallis surrendered to Washington after the Battle of Yorktown. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

Causes of the Revolution• Progressively direct, internal taxes were

levied against the colonists in order to pro-vide support to mother England. In order to keep peace with the Native Americans, Parliament passed The Proclamation of 1763, a bill that said colonists could not settle west of the Appalachian Mountains. Settlers felt this was a local decision and the government should not interfere.

• In 1765, the Stamp Act was passed, which levied taxes against the colonists on almost everything printed on paper – legal documents, almanacs, diplomas, and playing cards. This law united the colonists against British rule, and resulted in

many bloody demonstrations and riots.• Parliament passed the Townshend Acts

in 1767, which taxed glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea. The colonists refused to buy these items, so the tax was finally repealed on everything except tea.

• In 1768, 4,000 British soldiers were moved into Boston, and the colonists were required to provide room and board to the soldiers. On March 5, 1770, several townsmen got into an argument and threw snowballs at a group of soldiers. The soldiers opened fire on the unarmed crowd, killing five colonists. This became a highly publicized story known as the Boston Massacre; it fueled the fires for colonial independence.

• Parliament passed the Tea Act of 1773 which forbade the colonists from buying non-English tea, which was still taxed as a way of demonstrating England’s right to tax the colonies. The colonists strongly opposed the tax, and when the British East India Company brought three ships loaded with tea into Boston harbor, mer-chants refused to sell the tea, and local authorities refused to allow the ships to off-load their cargo. On December 16, colonists dressed as Mohawk Indians boarded the ships and tossed 342 chests of tea into the bay. This is known as the Boston Tea Party. Similar incidents occurred throughout the colonies until British tea was boycotted completely.

• To punish the colonists, England passed laws that were more rigid than ever, igniting a revolt. The colonists dubbed these new laws “Intolerable Acts,” and



held the First and Second Continental Congresses, meetings of representatives from each colony. In these meetings, colonial leaders began discussing revolution and agreed to form an American Continental Army, led by George Washington.

Results of the Revolution• The colonies became an independent

nation, the United States of America.• Britain recognized the new country and

gave up rights to the land east of the Mississippi River, to Canada in the north, and Florida in the south.

• A new government was elected.

E. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENTBelow is a listing of important documents and terms related to the newly formed Democratic government of America.

1. TheDeclarationofIndependence• stated that governments must recognize

civil rights.• governments are formed to protect their

citizens’ rights.• spelled out the insults, abuse, taxation

issues, and other problems colonists had under British rule.

• stated colonies’ intent to form a new government.

2. TheArticlesoftheConfederation• first American Constitution. • provided for a government with no monarch. • a weak central government, and stronger

state governments. • each state decided for itself, and issues that

affected all were decided by majority vote.

3. TheConstitution• the highest law in the United States. • provides for citizens to elect their represent-

ing officials.

• provides for the sharing of power between state and national government.

• designates branches of government – legisla-tive (Congress), executive (President), and Judicial (the Supreme Court).

• delineates a system of checks and balances, whereby each branch can be controlled by the other two branches.

4.TheBillofRights• safeguards the rights of the people.• guarantees basic rights – freedom of speech,

freedom of the press, freedom of religion, etc.

F. The War of 1812The War of 1812 was fought between Britain and the newly formed U.S. During the war, the British captured and burned Washington, D.C., though the U.S. eventually won the conflict. This battle was important because it set the stage for other nations to recognize the United States as a viable, independent country.

Causes of the War• England and France were capturing U.S.

ships and interfering with trade.• The U.S. believed England was still interfer-

ing with the colonies, as well as providing weapons to the natives (so they could attack the colonies).

• The U.S. wanted to take new territories – Canada (Britain) and Florida (Spain).

Results of the War• England recognized U.S. boundaries.• American industry flourished because.

Americans had to make their own goods as opposed to relying on imports from England.

• The United States became recognized by other countries.

continued



G. WESTWARD EXPANSION• After the Revolution, American territory

increased due to an American belief known as “Manifest Destiny.” This belief encompassed the idea that America was destined by God to encompass the land from the east coast to the Pacific Ocean.

• Louisiana Purchase (1803) – Jefferson purchased French lands west of the Mississippi

• Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804- 1806) – Explorers sent to find a water route from the source of the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean, mapped much of the Continental U.S., made trade relations with the Native Americans living there, and paved the way for westward expansion.

• Sacajawea – (1805) A Shoshone Indian woman who served as a guide and

translator for Lewis and Clark• Florida Purchase (1819) – Florida was

purchased from Spain• The Trail of Tears and Resettlement of

Native Americans (1830-1832) – removed Native Americans from their ancestral homes onto government reservations. Due to harsh traveling conditions and lack of supplies, many died during the journey.

• Texas joined the Union (1845) - including parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming

• Oregon Territory (1846) – Washington, Oregon, Idaho and most of Montana

• Transportation during westward expansion- Wagon trains – Settlers moving to

new lands traveled by covered wagon

- Stagecoach - The Pony Express- Canals- Railroads

• Mexican land acquisition from Mexican- American War (1848) – California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada

• Mexico land purchase (1853) – the southern parts of New Mexico and Arizona

• Homestead Act of 1862 – gave land to any settler who lived and farmed it for five years; instrumental in the settlement of central and western regions of the U.S.

• Alaska (1867) – purchased from Russia• Hawaii (1898) – annexed by the U.S.

1.ImmigrationPatternsandDiffusionPeople came to Texas for many reasons:• to make a better life• inexpensive land• democracy• religious freedom

Major cultural groups in Texas:• Old-stock Anglo-Americans• Upper South/Southerners• Lower South/Southerners• Direct European (groups)• Hispanic / Mexican-Americans• African-Americans• Native-Americans

2. Culture,Settlement,andDiffusion Diffusion is the process by which an idea

or innovation is transmitted from one individual or group to another across space – the way innovations and ideas travel through society. Texas is composed of distinct culture groups, each with its own way of life. The exchanges of cultur-al ideas and practices, as well as the phys-ical properties of the land, have greatly influenced Texas, both in the past and the present.



H. TEXAS REVOLUTION (1820-1840) 1.ImportantEvents

• 1821 – Stephen F. Austin, the “Father of Texas,” brought white, American settlers to Texas.

• 1830 – Mexico refused to allow any more U.S. settlers into the territory, creating tension and a cry for independence.

• 1835 – The Texas Revolution began with the Battle of Gonzalez.

• 1836 – The Texas Declaration of Independence was created and issued.

• 1836 – The Battle of the Alamo; 5,000 Mexican soldiers attacked and killed 186 Texans (almost everyone there), including William B. Travis, David Crockett, and Jim Bowie.

• 1836 – The Massacre at Goliad; 300- 400 Texas soldiers were taken prisoner by the Mexican army. Later, the prison- ers were paraded through the streets and killed.

• 1836 – General Sam Houston defeated Mexican General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto.

• 1836 – The Republic of Texas, an independent country, was formed, and the Texas Constitution was written.

• 1839 – Texas joined the United States.• 1845 – The new Texas Constitution was

written.

2.ImportantPeople• Stephen F. Austin, “The Father of Texas”

(because he brought settlers to Texas)• Sam Houston, first general of the Texas

army, first President of the Republic of Texas

• Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, arrogant Mexican general who led the assaul against the Texas army, and later President of Mexico (1833)

• William B. Travis, commander of the Alamo• James Bowie and David Crockett,

important statesmen who fought and died at the Alamo

I. THE MEXICAN WAR (1846-1848)After Texas joined the Union, conflicts contin-ued with Mexico and Santa Anna. President Polk pushed to buy more Mexican lands (because of his strong belief in the Manifest Destiny). The U.S. won the war after taking over Mexico City, Mexico’s capital.

Causes of the War• Mexico was against Texas joining the

Union• Disputes regarding the southern border

of Texas (U.S. claimed it was the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River, farther to the north)

• The U.S. wanted to own more land, which Mexico refused to sell

Results of the War• Mexico agreed that the southern border

was the Rio Grande.• Mexico sold the U.S. California,

Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming

• U.S. size and power increased

J. CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)1. TheIssueofSlavery• Abolitionists - those who wanted to abol-

ish slavery.• The Underground Railroad - a secret

movement that helped slaves escape (safe houses, hiding places, etc.).

• The Compromise of 1820 and The Compromise of 1860 - decided if new states joining the union would be free states or slave states; attempted to balance

continued



those for and against the issue in Congress

• The Dred Scott Decision - Dred Scott, a slave who had moved with his master to the free state of Illinois, sued for his free-dom. The Supreme Court decided that because Scott was “property,” he could not sue for his freedom. This enraged Abolitionists and fueled the fires for Civil War.

• The Lincoln-Douglas Debates - Public political debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas (during the 1858 senate election). Slavery was hotly debated, drawing large crowds and national attention to the issue.

2. ANationDivided• 1860 Secession begins (South Carolina

is the first to secede).• 1861 South fires on Fort Sumter, Civil

War begins.• 1861 Battle of Bull Run - first major

land battle of the Civil War.• 1862 Battle of Antietam - first major

land battle to take place on Northern soil.

• 1863 Emancipation Proclamation - Lincoln declared all slaves freed.

• 1863 Battle of Gettysburg - bloodiest battle of the war, a turning point for Northern victory.

• 1864 Sherman’s army burns Atlanta• 1864 Lee surrenders to Grant at

Appomattox.• 1865 Lincoln assassinated.

Causes of the War• Slavery - the issue at the heart of the war.• Northern (industrial) vs. Southern (agri-

cultural) Ways of Life.• Free labor vs. paid labor - Southern

economy was based on the free labor provided by slaves.

• States’ rights - The north held that no state could secede (leave the nation), while the south felt that individual states could vote to do so.

Results of the War• Slavery ended, though blacks were not

given equal rights. They could not vote, join their state army, serve on a jury, or testify against whites in court.

• Secession was no longer allowed• The U.S. government was reconstructed

to change civil rights and citizenship laws.

3. TexasintheCivilWarOnly a small percentage of Texas families owned slaves, though most Texans felt that states should make their own decisions regarding this and most issues. Texas joined the Confederacy and was a formidable force in many battles. During the Battle of Vicksburg, a small band of Texans held a pass against an entire platoon of northern soldiers, took the entire platoon hostage, and took their weapons. Few Civil War bat-tles were fought on Texas soil.

K. RECONSTRUCTION• After the Civil War and Lincoln’s assassi-

nation, there was a period of intense restructuring in the United States. These are the key aspects of Reconstruction:• The 13th Amendment was passed,

outlawing slavery.• Freedman’s Bureau was created to

help the newly freed slaves with food, housing, and employment.

• The Civil Rights Act of 1866 gave citizenship to all persons born in the U.S.

• Men from the former Confederacy were required to take an oath of loy-alty to the Union.

• The 14th Amendment was passed,



Year Invention Inventor

1793 Cotton Gin Eli Whitney

1700s- Cattle Drives and Cattle Industry n/a 1870s

1814 Steam Engine George Stephenson

1830 Sewing Machine B. Thimonnier

1831 Refrigerator Jacob Perkins

1836 Revolver Samuel Colt

1838 Telegraph Samuel Morse

1856 Pasteurization Louis Pasteur

1862 Plastic Alexander Parkes

1869 The Transcontinental Railroad Union and Central (1869) – first railroad line to cross the continent Pacific Railroad Companies

1865- Oil Industry – Spindletop Anthony Lucas 1945

1876 Telephone Alexander Graham Bell

1903 Gas Powered and Manned Airplane William and Orville Wright

1908 Mass Automobile Production (via Assembly Line) Henry Ford

1920 First Commercial Radio Station n/a

1927 First Television Transmission n/a

1928 Penicillin Alexander Fleming

1947 Transistor Bell Labs

giving citizenship rights to freed slaves.

• The 15th Amendment was passed, giving voting rights to all male citizens over the age of 21, including freed slaves.

• Jim Crow laws passed by southern states legalized segregation (separate waiting areas in public places).

• Ku Klux Klan, a secret society of white supremacists, was formed and engaged in acts against African Americans and those that supported them.

• The Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction and called for federal troops that were stationed in southern states to be removed.

L. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES, AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

In the 1800s, many significant technological advances increased the flow of goods and ser-vices throughout the U.S. In the 1900s, man-ufacturing capabilities of the U.S. grew signif-icantly. Products changed from hand-made to machine-made, increasing output and wealth. Below is a list of significant technological advances that impacted trade and industry in the U.S. and Texas. In addition, around the turn of the century, cities began to grow, and Americans became increasingly urban. Before 1870, less than 25% of Americans lived in cities (most lived on farms or in small, rural towns). By the mid-1900s, more than half of all Americans lived in cities.

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M. SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898Spain and the United States fought in the Philippines and Cuba.

Causes of the War• The Maine, a U.S. battleship was mysteri-

ously sunk (killing 260 people) while serving as a peace-keeping force near Cuba while Cuba was engaged in a battle for independence from France.

• Many Americans felt we should support the Cuban freedom efforts; others felt the U.S. should take over Cuba as many American businesses had holdings there.

• Two major newspapers in New York were in a heated competition for readers. They sensationalized the sinking of the Maine, which stirred Americans for war.

Results of the War• Cuba gained limited independence from

Spain• The U.S. gained territory, including

Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.• The U.S. became a recognized leader in

international affairs.

N. WORLD WAR I (1914-1918)World War I, the “war to end all wars,” began in 1914 and involved several countries from all over the world. The U.S. joined the con-flict in 1917.

Causes of the War• European industrial countries had large

world empires, were very competitive, and wanted to increase their holdings.

• Countries formed alliances - agreements to defend each other in case of attack.

• Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir apparent for the Austrian-Hungarian throne, was

assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria declared war on Serbia, which triggered WWI, as alliances brought other countries into the war.

• The U.S., neutral at the beginning of the war, turned against Germany when German U-boats sank the Lusitania, an unarmed passenger ship. Twelve hundred people were killed, including 100 Americans. That, and the sinking of other, unarmed American merchant ships, led to the U.S. declaring war on Germany in 1917.

• Despite the early war in Serbia, Germany was held responsible for starting the war. Between August 1-4, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and invaded Belgium.

Results of the War• World War I ended with the Treaty of

Versailles, a harsh agreement that pun-ished the Germans severely.

• Germany lost territory to Belgium, Denmark, France, and Poland

• The size of Germany’s army was reduced• Germany was forbidden to have subma-

rines and aircraft• Germany was fined $33 million in damages

to other nations (which they never paid)• The League of Nations was formed.

O. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSAfter World War I, President Woodrow Wilson founded the League of Nations to fos-ter peace among the nations of the world.

Allies Central Powers Belgium Austria Great Britain Bulgaria France Germany Italy Hungary Japan The Ottoman (Turkish) Empire United States



Though the League solved some disputes and prevented war, it eventually failed because it required that all member nations agree, which rarely happened, and it had no military forces to enforce its decisions.

P. SUFFRAGEIn the early 1900s, women had limited legal rights, educational and career opportunities and could not vote. Many women were dis-appointed when the Civil War ended and males—both black and white—were allowed to vote but women were not. Despite hard-ship and abuse, many women banded together and pushed for equal rights for women. These rights were granted when the 19th Amendment to the Constitution was passed in 1920.

Q. THE GREAT DEPRESSIONFollowing the industrial boom of the 1920s, many companies had produced more goods than they could sell. The stock market crashed in 1929, leaving many businesses and people bankrupt. This was the starting point of the Great Depression, a time of extreme poverty and hardship. The economy began to recover with the inception of President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, though it did not fully come to an end until World War II. The New Deal created Federal Agencies to fund and manage:• emergency relief (FEMA)• the elderly, orphans, and the disabled

(Social Security)• excess farm production (Agricultural

Adjustment Act)• the development of the Tennessee Valley

Authority (TVA)• environmental improvement (Civilian

Conservation Corps)• labor unions (National Labor Relations

Board)

R. WORLD WAR II (1939-1945)Nazi Germany, led by Adolph Hitler, invad-ed and conquered one nation after another in Europe. The U.S. remained neutral until December 7, 1941, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.Causes of the War• Germany, Italy, and

Japan were led by dictators who instilled zealous civic conceit and created potent police systems to enforce their doctrine.

• WWI’s Treaty of Versailles left Germany financially devastated and humiliated.

• The Axis countries wanted to conquer neighboring territories.

Results of the War• Economic hardship for most countries as

a result of vast expenditures related to the war.

• Millions of Europeans lost their homes.• Japan created a new constitution and

built a more democratic government.

• Germany was segregated into four parts. Three segments became West Germany, an independent democracy, and the last became Communist East Germany.

• The United Nations was formed.• The U.S. and the Soviet Union became

the world’s superpowers, dominating the world’s political stage.

Allies Axis China Germany Great Britain Italy France Japan Soviet Union Soviet Union (after 1941) (before 1941) United States (after 1941)

continued



Important Events• The Holocaust - German-led genocide of

11 million people, mostly Jews• The Bombing of Pearl Harbor - December

7, 1941, Japan bombed U.S. forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

• The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - On August 6, 1945, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. On August 9, 1945, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan. These attacks ended the war. Japan surrendered on September 2.

Important People• Winston Churchill - Inspirational leader

of Britain that took a strong stand against Hitler.

• Adolf Hitler - Leader of Germany from 1934 and leader of the National Socialist (Nazi) Party. Using his persuasive speaking skills, he appealed to Germany’s sense of nationalism and economic needs to create an authoritarian regime. Under his leader-ship, Germany invaded Poland, occupied most of Europe, and pushed for racial genocide of the Jewish people.

• Douglas MacArthur - Commander of the U.S. forces in the Pacific.

• Robert Oppenheimer - Leader of the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb.

• Franklin D. Roosevelt - Only American President to serve four terms, leader of U.S. for most of WWII.

• Harry Truman – Vice President, became President upon Roosevelt’s death; ordered the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

S. THE UNITED NATIONSThe United Nations was founded after WWII to maintain world peace.

T. THE KOREAN WAR (1950-1953)After WWII, Korea was divided into two coun-tries, one democratic and one communist. At the request of the United Nations, the U.S. sup-plied aid to democratic South Korea.

Causes of the War• North Korea attempted to take over South

Korea. • The U.N. demanded a withdrawal, which

was refused.• The U.N. sent troops and supplies from

15 allied countries (including the U.S.) to support South Korea.

Results of the War• There was no declared victor. Korea

remains divided both fundamentally and physically.

• A United Nations cease-fire agreement was signed by North Korea in 1953.

U. THE VIETNAM WAR (1957-1975)This war was between Communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam. The U.S. supported South Vietnam with weapons and troops. In 1973, the U.S. withdrew due to America’s anti-war sentiments.

Causes of the War• North Vietnam wanted to take over the

south and be one country under Communist rule.

• The U.S. wanted to stop the spread of Communism.

Results of the War• Korea became united with Communist

North Korea in control.• Nearly a million refugees left Vietnam;

many settled in the United States



V. THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (1954-1968)

After Reconstruction, blacks were still badly treated. They were segregated from whites and often worked as sharecroppers and other extremely low-paying jobs. African Americans began to push for equal rights, and a period of civil unrest ensued.

Important Events• 1954 Brown v. Board of Education -

Supreme Court ruling called for desegre-gation of schools.

• 1955 Emmett Till’s Murder - This teenage African-American boy was beaten and murdered for whistling at a white woman. Publicity that followed his mother’s deci-sion to hold an open-casket service (revealing the abuse he suffered) gave a face to the problem.

• 1955-1956 Montgomery Bus Boycott - Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to white passengers and was arrested. Black leaders organized a boycott of the bus system which lasted for 381 days, until the segregation ordinance was removed.

• 1955-1965 Mass Mobilization - Boycotts, freedom rides, sit-ins, marches.

• 1963 The March on Washington - More than 200,000 demonstrators marched for freedom and jobs, and then gathered in front of the Lincoln Memorial, where King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech.

Important People• Martin Luther King,

Jr. - Civil Rights lead-er who advocated peaceful demon-stra-tions for civic change; assassinated 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee.

• Rosa Parks - “The Mother of the Civil Rights Movement” (see previous column).

W. THE PERSIAN GULF WAR (1991)At the request of the U.N. and with the sup-port of 30 member countries, the U.S. fought against Iraq when they illegally invaded Kuwait.

Causes of the War• Iraq wanted to take over Kuwait’s oil

fields, and wanted access to the Persian Gulf (for oil transport).

• Iraq considered Kuwait to be part of their country.

• Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein wanted con-trol of the Muslim world.

Results of the War• Iraq was defeated and its army was

reduced.• Economic hardship was created for the

Iraqi people due to trade sanctions imposed after the war.

• Hussein remained in power, and rebuilt his forces.

• The U.N. cease-fire agreement called for Iraq to allow U.N. inspectors to look for and destroy Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.

X. THE ATTACK ON AMERICA - (2001)On September 11, 2001, the terrorist group Al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, hijacked four airplanes in America. Two were crashed into the World Trade Center (the Twin Towers) in New York City, and one was crashed into the U.S. Pentagon. The attacks killed thousands. The final plane, thought to be aimed at the White House, went down in Shanksville, PA, due to a passenger uprising against the terrorists.

continued



Domain IV:

ScienceCompetencies 36-58

23% of the test


1 (36). Safety Precautions

Key Words:Responsible Behavior

Guidelines

Safety

• Understands safety regulations and guidelines for sci-ence facilities and science instruction.

• Knows procedures for and sources of information regarding the appropriate handling, use, disposal, care

and maintenance of chemicals, materials,specimens and equipment.

• Knows procedures for the safe handling and ethical care and treatment of organisms and specimens.


Key Descriptors

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



1 (36). Safety Precautions

A. GUIDELINES• Students must never be left unsuper-

vised with laboratory equipment• There should be no eating or drinking

in the laboratory• The teacher must demand responsible

behavior from all students• Very clear instructions must be given

explaining any assignment using laboratory equipment or chemicals before students proceed with the assignment

• Work areas should be clean and students should keep only what is necessary for the assignment on the bench top

• Students must be told to inform the teacher if any problem arises during the assignment

• Suitable clothing must be worn when completing a laboratory assignment.

B. PROPER HANDLING OF MATERIAL• Know the locations and operating

procedures of all safety equipment; know where the fire alarm and the exits are located.

• Chemical waste must be disposed of properly. The teacher must be consulted before pouring any liquid down the drain. Insoluble materials are to be disposed of in the proper waste containers, not in the sink. Cracked or broken glass should be placed in the special contain-er for “Broken Glass.”

• Students should never use broken glassware• The teacher should be in possession of

MSDSs for chemicals used in the laboratory.

• Chemical containers should be carefully labeled and students instructed to read all labels carefully before handling material

• Rules and regulations for the proper handling of material should be posted throughout the laboratory

C. PROPER HANDLING OF ORGANISMS AND SPECIMENS

• The teacher should be familiar with safety guidelines such as NABT Guidelines for the Use of Live Animals, Working with DNA & Bacteria in Precollege Science Classrooms or other safety guidelines from organizations such as NIH, the American Chemical Society, Flinn Scientific, etc.

• The teacher should discuss safety procedures with students before the beginning of each laboratory assignment.

Teachers need a basic understanding of proper laboratory etiquette. Before begin-ning each laboratory assignment, instructors must discuss safety procedures with students; teachers must always be alert that students are following all safety rules and regulations.

Competency 1 (36):The teacher understands how to manage learning activities to ensure the safety of all students.


37. Tools and Technology

Key Words:Precision

Accuracy

Error

International System of Units

Tools

Pictorial Representations of

Information

• Selects and safely uses appropriate tools, technologies, materials and equipment needed for instructional activi-ties.

• Understands concepts of precision, accuracy and error with regard to reading and recording numerical data from a scientific instrument.

• Understands how to gather, organize, display and com-municate data in a variety of ways (e.g., charts, tables,

graphs, diagrams, written reports, oral presentations, maps, satellite views).

• Understands various units of measure such as the International System of Units (SI or metric system), light years and degrees Celsius, and performs unit con-versions within measurement systems.


Key Descriptors

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



37. Tools and Technology

A. TOOLSScience is the study of the natural world, not by anyone in particular. It is important to realize that anyone can be a scientist, as long as there are questions that are being asked and a desire to learn about the world around you. Professional scientists can only make comments on what their senses can tell them about the world, but oftentimes human senses are limited. Therefore, scien-tists use tools to aid them in their research. There are some basic tools that all scientists should know about. • Graduated Cylinder - This is a long

container for measuring volume. Remember to always read the number which the bottom-most part of the meniscus is touching, while keeping your eye level with the meniscus.

• Balance or scale - This is used for measuring weight and determining mass. There are many different types of balances, such as mechanical balances, digital balances, and spring scales.

• Pipette - This is used to transfer a certain volume of liquid; again, there are different types of pipette.

• Microscope - A cornerstone of scientific laboratories. Used to view small objects; again, there are different types of micro scopes, such as a compound light micro scope, and a dissecting microscope.

• Bunsen burner - Creates a flame that is used for heating and sterilization.

• Test Tubes - Containers which hold liquid and in which chemicals can be mixed.

• Rulers• Hot plates - Used to heat objects.• Beakers and Flasks - Used to contain

liquids.• Computers• Dissecting tools

B. MEASUREMENTS• Precision - The ability to produce the

same value or result; also can be thought of as the number of digits used to record a measurement or which a measuring device is capable of providing

• Accuracy - A measure of how close a measured value is to the true value.

• The Bulls eye analogy - To distinguish between precision and accuracy. Imagine a target in which the bulls eye is our true value. If you shoot a few arrows and they land relatively close to the bulls eye, but far apart from each other, then this is an illustration of accuracy (your arrows, or measurements, were close to the true value); if instead, your arrows land far from the bulls eye, but all in a bunch, where they are all close to one another, then this is an illustration of precision (you produced relatively the same result with all your throws). A good scientific measurement is both precise and accurate.

• Error - The difference between a computed, estimated, or measured value and the true value that is caused by random, and inherently unpredictable fluctuations in the measurement instru- ments. The deviation can be small and inherent in the structure and functioning

Competency 37:The teacher understands the correct use of tools, materials, equipment and technologies.

continued


37. Tools and Technology, cont’d.

Common Water MeasurementConversion Chart

Fractions/DecimalsInches/Millimeters


of the system and be within acceptable limits or can be due to lack of care or mistakes made by the investigator. A related term is standard deviation, which is a measure of the dispersion of random errors about the mean value.

• Bias - A prejudice, usually of the investi-gator, that can inhibit impartial judg-ment and cause certain results to be more likely to happen than should be the case; bias can therefore invalidate an experiment.

C. COMMUNICATION OF RESULTSHistorically, science has never really been an introverted discipline. Those who explore the natural world communicate their obser-vations and conclusions to keep the world informed and further the understanding of mankind in order to apply new scientific knowledge and technology. Scientists have found convenient ways to communicate scientific results.• Chart - A way of representing informa-

tion pictorially.• Table - Organizes numbers and infor-

mation into tables and rows.• Graph - A type of chart which has an

x and y axis used to represent the relationship between variables; there are different types of graphs, such as line graphs and bar graphs

• Diagram - A pictorial representation, such as a drawing.

• Written and Oral reports

D. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

Most of us in America are familiar with inch-es, yards, etc. But the scientific community has declared the existence of an international system of measurement that is unwavering no matter what country you go to. This is to make sure scientists of different countries can understand each other. This system is called The Metric System, also known as The International System of Units (SI).• Length is measured in meters• Time is measured in seconds• Mass is measured in grams• Electric current is measured in amperes• Thermodynamic temperature is mea-

sured in Kelvin• Amount of substance is measured in

moles• Luminous intensity is measured in candela

Teachers must be able to handle with ease all the tools likely to be encountered in a school laboratory, being familiar with the measurement taking procedure and being able to convey this knowledge to students. Teacher must be capable of stimulating stu-dents to use different methods of presenting their data.

37. Tools and Technology, cont’d.


38. Scientific Inquiry and the History of Science

Key Words:Scientific Method

Experiment

Controlled Experiment

Control Group

Experimental Group

Data

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Serendipity

Ethics

• Understands the characteristics of various types of scientific investigations.

• Understands how to design, conduct and communicate the results of a variety of scientific investigations.

• Understands the historical development of science.• Understands the roles that logical reasoning, verifiable evi-

dence, prediction and peer review play in the process of gen-erating and evaluating scientific knowledge.

• Understands principles of scientific ethics.

• Develops, analyzes and evaluates different explanations for a given scientific result.

• Demonstrates an understanding of potential sources of error in an investigation.

• Demonstrates an understanding of how to communicate and defend the results of an investigation.

• Demonstrates an ability to identify, review and evaluate legiti-mate sources of scientific information.


Key Descriptors

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



38. Scientific Inquiry and the History of ScienceCompetency 38:The teacher understands the process of scientific inquiry and the history and natureof science.

A. THE SCIENTIFIC METHODScience is essentially a process used to under-stand natural phenomenon, and the domain of this process is not restricted to men in white lab coats; indeed, all individuals can use the scientific process to understand the world they live in. Over the years, however, professional scien-tists have somewhat formal-ized this process, breaking it down into steps, to maintain a certain “code of conduct” in the scientific community.

• Observation. A good scientist, whether wearing a white lab coat or not, is constantly observing the world around himself or herself. One characteristic that is fundamental to science is curiosity; not only does a scientist observe, or notice, things, but he or she must be curious enough to ask questions such as “Why does this happen?” or “What is the reason behind that?” Observing the world also includes reading what has been observed and concluded by others, for another characteristic fundamental to science is that it is cumulative; the scientific knowledge of today would not be here had it not been able to benefit from what was learned yesterday.

Example: Before the invention of refriger-ators, meat was hung out at butcher shops and people needed to make daily trips to their local butcher if they wanted to eat meat. After the meat was hung out for a while, flies appeared where there were no flies. Obviously, a great many people observed the flies buzzing around their heads.

• Question. The scientist then asks the ques-tion that he or she is curious to answer. The question must be relatively simple, in that a

well-thought out experiment may give some insight into the answer to the question. Example: Many astute minds of the pre-refrigerator era thought it logical to assume that the newly buzzing flies were created from the decaying meat. Indeed, it was a common belief at the time that life could

spring from dead or decaying matter; this was the idea of spontaneous generation.

To approach this problem, scientists asked themselves the question, “Where do the flies come from?”

• Hypothesis. In formulating a hypothesis, you are essentially putting forth a tenta- tive explanation for what you have observed. What you have observed is the effect, and your hypothesis is a potential cause. Hypotheses rely heavily on past experience, facts, and general principles. This potential cause gives the scientist a starting point on which to base further study of the initial observation.

Example: A scientist by the name of Francesco Redi was not convinced by the idea of sponta-neous generation (as was the case for other scientists) and so came up with his own hypothesis. He hypothesized that “flies are not created by the decaying meat; flies can only hatch from eggs laid by other flies.”

continued


• Experimentation. A scientist then makes a prediction based on his or her hypothesis and tests this prediction. An experiment is an artificial situation created by a scientist in order to verify whether his or her hypothe-sis/prediction is supported or not. The experimental design refers to all the sub-jects, tools, and specific procedures found in a particular experiment.

Example: Francesco Redi’s hypothesis that flies can only hatch from eggs laid by other flies led him to predict that if he somehow protected meat from contact with flies, no new flies would be found on the meat, no matter how rotten it was. Redi placed wide-mouthed jars in which were con-tained pieces of meat in a butcher shop; the ONLY thing that differed among them was how “open” they were to the outside

environment. One jar was completely open, another was completely sealed with a lid, and a third was covered with gauze.

• Data Collection. A scientist must observe what happens in the experiment and collect data, the results of the experimental procedure. Data should be quantitative and objectively measurable. It is not enough to say “Oh, I’m going to see how this person reacts to this drug;” rather, a scientist must have a list of behaviors or conditions which he or she is looking to test as an indication of reaction to the drug.

Example: Redi recorded the presence or

absence of flies, and most importantly maggots, in each jar. Flies were seen enter-ing the open jar. Later, maggots, then more flies were seen on the meat. In the gauze-covered jar, no flies were seen in the jar, but were observed around and on the gauze, and later a few maggots were seen on the meat. In the sealed jar, no maggots or flies were ever seen on the meat.

• Conclusions. At this point, the scientist analyzes the data and comes up with a statement as to whether his or her hypothesis is supported or rejected. Conclusions of experiments, along with the experimental design and the results, are communicated to other scientists usually in the form of articles published in scientific journals. This communication ensures that all scientists are aware of breaking news and that all scientific work is constantly subject to peer review and critique.

Example: What Redi observed was that flies entered the completely open jar and laid eggs on the meat; a while later, mag-gots hatched and then grew into other flies. The jar that was completely sealed had no flies whatsoever growing on the meat because no flies got in to lay eggs; instead flies would land on the lid, lay eggs, mag-gots would hatch, and these would mature into flies. The jar covered with gauze pre-sented an intermediate situation in which there were a few flies on the meat in the jar; indeed, only some of the eggs that were laid on the gauze were able to fall through openings in the gauze onto the meat. Therefore, flies were found on meat only in situations where other flies had access to the meat and laid their eggs. It seems that the hypothesis “flies only come from other flies” is supported. Indeed, historically this experiment was but one of many nails in the coffin of spontaneous generation.

38. Scientific Inquiry and the History of Science, cont’d.



B. THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

• Controlled experiments In a sense, all scientific experiments are

controlled, because the scientist is the one creating the experiment, manipulat-ing the situation and comparing the results to some standard. More precisely, though, a controlled experiment is one in which a variable, called the indepen-dent variable, is manipulated to reveal the effect on another variable, called the dependent variable, while all other variables in the situation are held fixed. The scientist has control over the independent variable, while he or she can only measure the dependent variable. Two classes of groups are present in this type of experiment: the control group and the experimen - tal group, which differ only with respect to the independent variable. In our example of the Redi experiment, the independent variable was the degree of “openness” of the jars, while the dependent variable was the presence of flies. The control group was the open jar, while there existed two experimental groups, slightly different in their degrees of openness, gauze-sealed, and lid-sealed. An important note to be made is that in these types of experiments, more than one subject should always be included in the group to prevent individual variations, errors, or statistical phenomena to influence the outcome; indeed, Redi actually used several of each type of jar. Furthermore, the experimental design should be such that another researcher can perform the experiment and achieve the same results. In the case that this is not so, the original experiment would be invalid because the results are most likely due to some kind of personal bias.

• Descriptive studies. Estimation rather than testing is emphasized in these types of studies. They tend to be simpler and easier to conduct the experimental studies, but can provide background from which experimental studies emerge. Descriptive studies help to generate hypotheses, rather than test them.

• Serendipity. Luck rather than estimation or testing is emphasized in this situation. Actually, serendipity is not just “discovery

by accident,” but involves the notion that the scientist possesses some kind of knowledge that allows him or her to take advantage of unexpected results. One example of serendipity is the discovery of aspartame, while another is the discovery of penicillin.

• Do-it-yourself. Sometimes scientists are desperate and do not follow any of the above-mentioned paths of scientific inquiry. Take the scientist who was desperate to convince the medical community that bacteria play an important role in the cause of stress. Instead of retiring to a psychiatric hospital because he was called crazy (see below), he drank a beaker of bacteria to cause himself to get an ulcer and prove the bacteria were the cause of it!

C. SCIENCE AS A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL PROCESS

Modern-day scientific knowledge would not

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exist were it not for past scientists who per-formed many of the basic experiments that today we take for granted. Indeed, science is a historical process, with each new scientist building on the knowledge of others that came before him or her. Science is also a cul-tural process, benefiting from the input of many different cultures and cultural perspec-tives.• Ignaz Semmelweiss. 1800s. One of the

first investigators to propose aseptic techniques after running some rudimen tary experiments to figure out why women were dying during childbirth. Pasteur’s germ theory was not accepted yet so Semmelweis was deemed crazy and eventually ended up in a psychiatric hospital where he died.

• Louis Pasteur. 1800s. Germ theory. “Life is a germ, and a germ is Life.”

• Rosalind Franklin. 1950s. Often unsung heroine in the search for the structure of the DNA dou-ble helix. Without her X-ray crystallo-graphic studies, Watson and Crick might not have arrived at their groundbreaking discovery. Did not share the noble prize for this because she died of ovarian cancer (possibly work-related).

• George Washington Carver. 1900s. Born into slavery, he eventually became a famous botanist; advocated crop rota-tion practices and agricultural extension programs.

• Ellen Ochoa. 1900s-present day. First Hispanic woman to become an astronaut.

D. ETHICSHuman beings are creatures with values and these values cannot, and should not, be sepa-rated from science. These values, however, must not interfere with an ethical approach to sci-entific inquiry. Generally, ethics deals with what is right and wrong; science has powerful implications for society and so it is necessary to establish a code of ethics for scientific inquiry. For example, a scientist cannot invent whatever hypothesis he or she likes; hypothe-ses must agree with observations, or they are not acceptable. Results obtained from scientif-ic inquiries, furthermore, must be subject to

peer review, or critiqued by other scientists, in order to apply different perspectives and therefore validate an experimental design and its conse-quences.

• Error. Since no scien-tist can test his or hypo-thesis under every condi-

tion possible in the universe, no hypothesis can be conclusively proved as true or false in absolute. In this sense, all scientific results are susceptible to error. Putting the inherent nature of scientific study aside, though, errors also result from the direct action of humans. Sometimes a scientist does not have enough time to allow a phenomenon to properly unfold or he or she does not have the proper tools to observe some phenomenon; mistakes happen and scientists who acknowledge these mistakes immediately are not usually con-demned. Mistakes caused by carelessness or deliberately falsifying data, however, are criti-cized very harshly in the scientific community and could cost a scientist his or her reputa-tion.


The scientific method is stressed as a set of rules to follow when undertaking scientific inquiry; the teacher must be aware of slight variations on the scientific method and various

ways of undertaking scientific study. Proper ethical behavior for the pursuit of knowledge should be foremost on the teacher’s mind when explaining scientific endeavors.


SCIENTISTS AND INVENTORS

Alexander Graham Bell - Invented the telephone.Rachel Carson - Founder of environ-mental science.George Washington Carver - Botanist who was called the “farmers best friend.”Francis Crick and James Watson - Discovered the structure of the DNA molecule.Marie Curie - Physicist who discovered radioactivity.Leonardo da Vinci - Inventor and artist from the Renaissance.Thomas Edison - Invented the light bulb, phonograph, and the motion picture.Albert Einstein - Developed the Theory of Relativity and the equation E=mc2.Henry Ford - Invented the Model T Ford, the first mass produced car.Ben Franklin - Inventor and Founding Father of the United States.Galileo - First used the telescope to view the planets and stars.Jane Goodall - Studied chimpanzees in the wild for many years.Johannes Gutenberg - Invented the printing press.Stephen Hawking - Discovered Hawking Radiation and wrote A Brief History in Time.Antoine Lavoisier - Father of modern chemistry.Isaac Newton - Discovered the theory of gravity and the three laws of motion.Louis Pasteur - Discovered pasteurization, vaccines, and founded the science of germ theory.The Wright Brothers - Invented the first airplane.

TYPES OF SCIENTISTS

While we often talk about a person being a “scientist”, there are actually many different types of scientists. This is because most scientists study and become experts in a specific field of science.Astronomer - Studies the planets, stars, and galaxies.Botanist - Studies plant life.Chemist - Studies chemistry and the behavior, proper-ties, and composition of matter.Cytologist - Studies cells.Ecologist - Studies the relationship between living organisms and the environment.Entomologist - Studies insects.Geneticist - Studies genes, DNA, and the hereditary characteristics of living organisms.Geologist - Studies the properties of matter that makes up Earth as well as the forces that shaped it.Marine biologist - Studies the living organisms that live in the ocean and other bodies of water.Microbiologist - Studies microscopic life forms such as bacteria and protists.Meteorologist - Studies the Earth’s atmosphere includ-ing the weather.Nuclear physicist - Studies the interactions and make up of the atom.Ornithologist - Studies birds.Paleontologist - Studies prehistoric life and fossils including dinosaurs.Pathologist - Studies diseases caused by pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.Seismologist - Studies earthquakes and the movements of the Earth’s crust.Zoologist - Studies animals.

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