neurological med surg
DESCRIPTION
Neurological Med SurgTRANSCRIPT
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Chapter 61
Management of Patients With Neurologic Dysfunction
Chapter 61
Management of Patients With Neurologic Dysfunction
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Altered Level of Consciousness (LOC)Altered Level of Consciousness (LOC)• Level of responsiveness and consciousness is the most
important indicator of the patient's condition
• LOC is a continuum from normal alertness and full cognition (consciousness) to coma
• Altered LOC is not the disorder but the result of a pathology
• Coma: unconsciousness, unarousable unresponsiveness
• Akinetic mutism: unresponsiveness to the environment, makes no movement or sound but sometimes opens eyes
• Persistent vegetative state: devoid of cognitive function but has sleep-wake cycles
• Locked-in syndrome: inability to move or respond except for eye movements due to a lesion affecting the pons
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness—Assessment
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness—Assessment
• Assess verbal response and orientation
• Alertness
• Motor responses
• Respiratory status
• Eye signs
• Reflexes
• Postures
• Glasgow Coma Scale
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
QuestionQuestion
The body temperature of an unconscious patient is never taken by which route?
A.Axillary
B.Mouth
C.Rectal
D.Tympanic
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
AnswerAnswer
B
The body temperature of an unconscious patient is never taken by mouth. Rectal or tympanic (if not contraindicated) temperature measurement is preferred to the less accurate axillary temperature.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Decorticate Posturing Decerebrate Posturing
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness— Diagnoses
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness— Diagnoses• Ineffective airway clearance
• Risk of injury
• Deficient fluid volume
• Impaired oral mucosa
• Risk for impaired skin integrity and impaired tissue integrity (cornea)
• Ineffective thermoregulation
• Impaired urinary elimination and bowel incontinence
• Disturbed sensory perception
• Interrupted family processes
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Collaborative Problems/Potential ComplicationsCollaborative Problems/Potential Complications
• Respiratory distress or failure
• Pneumonia
• Aspiration
• Pressure ulcer
• Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
• Contractures
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness— Planning
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Altered Level of Consciousness— Planning• Goals may include:
– Maintenance of clear airway
– Protection from injury
– Attainment of fluid volume balance
– Maintenance of skin integrity
– Absence of corneal irritation
– Effective thermoregulation
– Accurate perception of environmental stimuli
– Maintenance of intact family or support system
– Absence of complications
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions
• A major nursing goal is to compensate for the patient's loss of protective reflexes and to assume responsibility for total patient care. Protection also includes maintaining the patient’s dignity and privacy.
• Maintaining an airway
– Frequent monitoring of respiratory status including auscultation of lung sounds
– Positioning to promote accumulation of secretions and prevent obstruction of upper airway—HOB elevated 30°, lateral or semiprone position
– Suctioning, oral hygiene, and CPT
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Maintaining Tissue IntegrityMaintaining Tissue Integrity• Assess skin frequently, especially areas with high potential for
breakdown
• Frequent turning; use turning schedule
• Careful positioning in correct body alignment
• Passive ROM
• Use of splints, foam boots, trochanter rolls, and specialty beds as needed
• Clean eyes with cotton balls moistened with saline
• Use artificial tears as prescribed
• Measures to protect eyes; use eye patches cautiously as the cornea may contact patch
• Frequent, scrupulous oral care
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions• Maintaining fluid status
– Assess fluid status by examining tissue turgor and mucosa, lab data, and I&O.
– Administer IVs, tube feedings, and fluids via feeding tube as required—monitor ordered rate of IV fluids carefully.
• Maintaining body temperature
– Adjust environment and cover patient appropriately.
– If temperature is elevated, use minimum amount of bedding, administer acetaminophen, use hypothermia blanket, give a cooling sponge bath, and allow fan to blow over patient to increase cooling.
– Monitor temperature frequently and use measures to prevent shivering.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Promoting Bowel and Bladder FunctionPromoting Bowel and Bladder Function
• Assess for urinary retention and urinary incontinence
• May require indwelling or intermittent catherization
• Bladder-training program
• Assess for abdominal distention, potential constipation, and bowel incontinence
• Monitor bowel movements
• Promote elimination with stool softeners, glycerin suppositories, or enemas as indicated
• Diarrhea may result from infection, medications, or hyperosmolar fluids
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Sensory Stimulation and CommunicationSensory Stimulation and Communication• Talk to and touch patient and encourage family to talk to
and touch the patient
• Maintain normal day night pattern of activity
• Orient the patient frequently
• Note: When arousing from coma, a patient may experience a period of agitation; minimize stimulation at this time
• Programs for sensory stimulation
• Allow family to ventilate and provide support
• Reinforce and provide and consistent information to family
• Referral to support groups and services for family
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Monro-Kellie hypothesis: because of limited space in the skull, an increase in any one of components of the skull—brain tissue, blood, and CSF—will cause a change in the volume of the others
• Compensation to maintain a normal ICP of 10–20 mm Hg is normally accomplished by shifting or displacing CSF
• With disease or injury ICP may increase
• Increased ICP decreases cerebral perfusion and causes ischemia, cell death, and (further) edema
• Brain tissues may shift through the dura and result in herniation
• Autoregulation: refers to the brain’s ability to change the diameter of blood vessels to maintain cerebral blood flow
• CO2 plays a role; decreased CO2 results in vasoconstriction, increased CO2 results in vasodilatation
Increased Intracranial PressureIncreased Intracranial Pressure
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Brain with Intracranial Shifts Brain with Intracranial Shifts
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
QuestionQuestion
Is the following statement True or False?
The earliest sign of increasing ICP is a change in LOC.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
AnswerAnswer
True
The earliest sign of increasing ICP is a change in LOC. Slowing of speech and delay in response to verbal suggestions are other early indicators.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ICP and CPPICP and CPP
• CCP (cerebral perfusion pressure) is closely linked to ICP
• CCP = MAP (mean arterial pressure) – ICP
• Normal CCP is 70–100
• A CCP of less than 50 results in permanent neurolgic damage
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Manifestations of Increased ICP: EarlyManifestations of Increased ICP: Early
• Changes in LOC
• Any change in condition
– Restlessness, confusion, increasing drowsiness, increased respiratory effort, purposeless movements
• Pupillary changes and impaired ocular movements
• Weakness in one extremity or one side
• Headache—constant, increasing in intensity or aggravated by movement or straining
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Manifestations of Increased ICP: LateManifestations of Increased ICP: Late
• Respiratory and vasomotor changes
• VS: Increase in systolic blood pressure, widening of pulse pressure, and slowing of the heart rate; pulse may fluctuate rapidly from tachycardia to bradycardia; temperature increase
– Cushing’s triad: bradycardia, hypertension, bradypnea
• Projectile vomiting
• Further deterioration of LOC; stupor to coma
• Hemiplegia, decortication, decerebration, or flaccidity
• Respiratory pattern alterations including Cheyne-Stokes breathing and arrest
• Loss of brainstem reflexes—pupil, gag, corneal, and swallowing
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Assessment
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Assessment
• Frequent and ongoing neurologic assessment
• Evaluate neurologic status as completely as possible
• Glasgow Coma Scale
• Pupil checks
• Assessment of selected cranial nerves
• Frequent vital signs
• Assessment of intracranial pressure
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ICP MonitoringICP Monitoring
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Intracranial Pressure WavesIntracranial Pressure Waves
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Location of the foramen of Monro for calibration of ICP monitoring systemLocation of the foramen of Monro for calibration of ICP monitoring system
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
LICOX Catheter SystemLICOX Catheter System
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Diagnoses
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Diagnoses
• Ineffective airway clearance
• Ineffective breathing pattern
• Ineffective cerebral perfusion
• Deficient fluid volume related to fluid restriction
• Risk for infection related to ICP monitoring
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Collaborative Problems/Potential ComplicationsCollaborative Problems/Potential Complications
• Brainstem herniation
• Diabetes insipidus
• SIADH
• Infection
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Planning
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Increased Intracranial Pressure— Planning
• Major goals may include:
– Maintenance of patent airway
– Normalization of respirations
– Adequate cerebral tissue perfusion
– Respirations
– Fluid balance
– Absence of infection
– Absence of complications
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions• Frequent monitoring of respiratory status and lung
sounds and measures to maintain a patent airway
• Position with head in neutral position and elevation of HOB 0–60° to promote venous drainage
• Avoid hip flexion, Valsalva maneuver, abdominal distention, or other stimuli that may increase ICP
• Maintain a calm, quiet atmosphere and protect patient from stress
• Monitor fluid status carefully; every hour I&O during acute phase
• Use strict aseptic technique for management of ICP monitoring system
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Intracranial SurgeryIntracranial Surgery
• Craniotomy: opening of the skull
– Purposes: remove tumor, relieve elevated ICP, evacuate a blood clot, control hemorrhage
• Craniectomy: excision of portion of skill
• Cranioplasty: repair of cranial defect using a plastic or metal plate
• Burr holes: circular openings for exploration or diagnosis, to provide access to ventricles or for shunting procedures, to aspirate a hematoma or abscess, or to make a bone flap
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
QuestionQuestion
What is the purpose of burr holes in neurosurgical procedures?
A.Make a bone flap in the skull.
B.Aspirate a brain abscess.
C.Evacuate a hematoma.
D.All of the above.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
AnswerAnswer
D
The purpose of burr holes in neurosurgical procedures is to
make a bone flap in the skull, aspirate a brain abscess, and
evacuate a hematoma.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Burr HolesBurr Holes
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Preoperative Care: Medical ManagementPreoperative Care: Medical Management
• Preoperative diagnostic procedures may include CT scan, MRI, angiography, or transcranial Doppler flow studies
• Medications are usually given to reduce risk of seizures
• Corticosteroids, fluid restriction, hyperosmotic agent (mannitol), and diuretics may be used to reduce cerebral edema
• Antibiotics may be administered to reduce potential infection
• Diazepam may be used to alleviate anxiety
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Preoperative Care: Nursing ManagementPreoperative Care: Nursing Management
• Obtain baseline neurologic assessment
• Assess patient and family understanding of and preparation for surgery.
• Provide information, reassurance, and support
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Postoperative CarePostoperative Care
• Postoperative care is aimed at detecting and reducing cerebral edema, relieving pain, preventing seizures, monitoring ICP, and neurologic status.
• The patient may be intubated and have arterial and central venous lines.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery— Assessment
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery— Assessment
• Careful, frequent monitoring of respiratory function including ABGs
• Monitor VS and LOC frequently; note any potential signs of increasing ICP
• Assess dressing and for evidence of bleeding or CSF drainage
• Monitor for potential seizures; if seizures occur, carefully record and report these
• Monitor for signs and symptoms of complications
• Monitor fluid status and laboratory data
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery—Diagnoses
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery—Diagnoses
• Ineffective cerebral tissue perfusion
• Risk for imbalanced body temperature
• Potential for impaired gas exchange
• Disturbed sensory perception
• Body image disturbance
• Impaired communication (aphasia)
• Risk for impaired skin integrity
• Impaired physical mobility
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Collaborative Problems/Potential ComplicationsCollaborative Problems/Potential Complications
• Increased ICP
• Bleeding and hypovolemic shock
• Fluid and electrolyte disturbances
• Infection
• Seizures
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery—Planning
Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient Undergoing Intracranial Surgery—Planning• Major goals may include:
– Improved tissue perfusion
– Adequate thermoregulation
– Normal ventilation and gas exchange
– Ability to cope with sensory deprivation
– Adaptation to changes in body image
– Absence of complications
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Maintaining Cerebral PerfusionMaintaining Cerebral Perfusion
• Monitor respiratory status; even slight hypoxia or hypercapnia can effect cerebral perfusion
• Assess VS and neurologic status every 15 minutes to every hour
• Strategies to reduce cerebral edema; cerebral edema peaks 24–36 hours
• Strategies to control factors that increase ICP
• Avoid extreme head rotation
• Head of bed may be flat or elevated 30° according to needs related to the surgery and surgeon preference
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions• Regulating temperature
– Cover patient appropriately.
– Treat high temperature elevations vigorously; apply ice bags, use hypothermia blanket, administer prescribed acetaminophen.
• Improving gas exchange
– Turn and reposition every 2 hours.
– Encourage deep breathing and incentive spirometry.
– Suction or encourage coughing cautiously as needed (suctioning and coughing increase ICP).
– Humidification of oxygen may help loosen secretions.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions
• Sensory deprivation
– Periorbital may impair vision, announce presence to avoid startling the patient; cool compresses over eyes and elevation of HOB may be used to reduce edema if not contraindicated.
• Enhancing self-image
– Encourage verbalization.
– Encourage social interaction and social support.
– Attention to grooming.
– Cover head with turban and, later, a wig.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
InterventionsInterventions
• Monitor I&O, weight, blood glucose, serum and urine electrolyte levels, and osmolality and urine specific gravity.
• Preventing infections
– Assess incision for signs of hematoma or infection.
– Assess for potential CSF leak.
– Instruct patient to avoid coughing, sneezing, or nose blowing, which may increase the risk of CSF leakage.
– Use strict aseptic technique.
• Patient teaching for self-care
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
SeizuresSeizures
• Abnormal episodes of motor, sensory, autonomic, or psychic activity (or a combination of these) resulting from a sudden, abnormal, uncontrolled electrical discharge from cerebral neurons
• Classification of seizures
– Partial seizures: begin in one part of the brain
• Simple partial: consciousness remains intact
• Complex partial: impairment of consciousness
– Generalized seizures: involve the whole brain
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Specific Causes of SeizuresSpecific Causes of Seizures• Cerebrovascular disease
• Hypoxemia
• Fever (childhood)
• Head injury
• Hypertension
• Central nervous system infections
• Metabolic and toxic conditions
• Brain tumor
• Drug and alcohol withdrawal
• Allergies
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Plan of Care for a Patient Experiencing a SeizurePlan of Care for a Patient Experiencing a Seizure
• Observation and documentation of patient signs and symptoms before, during, and after seizure
• Nursing actions during seizure for patient safety and protection
• After seizure care to prevent complications
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
HeadacheHeadache
• AKA cephalgia
• One of the most common physical complaints
• Primary headache has no known organic cause and includes migraine, tension headache, and cluster headache
• Secondary headache is a symptom with an organic cause such as a brain tumor or aneurysm
• Headache may cause significant discomfort for the person and can interfere with activities and lifestyle
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Assessment of HeadacheAssessment of Headache• A detailed description of the headache is obtained.
• Include medication history and use.
• The types of headaches manifest differently in different persons and symptoms in one individual may also may change over time.
• Although most headaches do not indicate serious disease, persistent headaches require investigation.
• Persons undergoing a headache evaluation require a detailed history and physical assessment with neurologic exam to rule out various physical and psychological causes.
• Diagnostic testing may be used to evaluate underlying cause if there are abnormalities on the neurologic exam.
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Management of Headache: PainNursing Management of Headache: Pain
• Provide individualized care and treatment
• Prophylactic medications may be used for recurrent migraines
• Migraines and cluster headaches requires abortive medications instituted as soon as possible with onset
• Provide medications as prescribed
• Provide comfort measures
– Quiet, dark room
– Massage
– Local heat for tension
Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Nursing Management of Headache: TeachingNursing Management of Headache: Teaching
• Help patient identify triggers and develop a preventive strategies and lifestyle changes for headache prevention
• Medication instruction and treatment regimen
• Stress reduction techniques
• Nonpharmacologic therapies
• Follow-up care
• Encouragement of healthy lifestyle and health promotion activities