nepal carya nrtya of nepal

Caryā Nŗtya of Nepal: When "Becoming the Character" in Asian Performance Is Nonduality in"Quintessence of Void"Author(s): Syed Jamil AhmedSource: TDR (1988-), Vol. 47, No. 3 (Autumn, 2003), pp. 159-182Published by: The MIT PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1147056Accessed: 19/11/2009 00:41

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Carya Nttya of Nepal

When "Becoming the Character" in Asian Performance Is Nonduality in

"Quintessence of Void"

SyedJamil Ahmed

Enquiring into what it means for Asian performers to "become the character," Phillip Zarrilli examines kalarippayautu (a South Indian martial art), kathakali, and noh, and concludes with the following note: "Asian performance is founded on the assumption that the world constituted in the performance is not separate from the world outside the performance"(I99o:146). He then cites James Brandon who says, "The [Asian] performing arts are not viewed as being different from some real world; they are one manifestation of the one world which encompasses all" (in Zarilli 1982:2-3).

Unfortunately, Zarrilli does not clarify or dwell at greater length on the nature of "the world"-constituted in the performance or outside of it. How- ever, Brandon's references to "some real world," and "one world which encompasses all" do seem to indicate that both Brandon's and Zarrilli's assumptions are based on the atma-doctrine of the Upanisadic-Brahmanical tradition of South Asian philosophy, which "conceive[s] reality on the pattern of an inner core or soul (atman), immutable, and identical amidst an outer region ofimpermanence, and change, to which it is unrelated or but loosely related" (Murti [1955] I998:IO). Indeed, Zarrilli does touch upon the "Indian understanding of the self" in the penultimate stage of his paper by quoting a concept from the Chandogya Upani?ad (chapter 6, sections 8- 16), which is tat tvam asi, translated as "that art thou" (Radhakrishnan 1953:456-67):

Tat tvam asi is a giant philosophical/cosmological backdrop on which Indian life both ordinary and esoteric is projected. "You are that" asserts a fundamental identity between microcosm and macrocosm, the individual self and the universe: a person can become one-with and join- with; there is no object set over against a subject. (Zarrilli 1990:145)

Then Zarrilli refers to Diana Eck's exposition of the concept ofdarsan in order to show-or attempt to show-that "[t]his joining-with suffuses daily life. A

The Drama Review 47, 3 (T179), Fall 2003. Copyright ? 2003 New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

159

I60 SyedJamil Ahmed

Hindu from childhood takes the deity into herself/himself in the act of darsan-seeing the deity" (I45). A kathakali performer, in his view, does the same "seeing." For him, the "correspondence" and "resonance" between the microcosm and the macrocosm, the self and the universe-which an Indian (traditional?) performer joins with ease-provides a vital "cultural context for the performer's psychophysical process." Such a context, Zarrilli seems to im- ply, is profoundly important for the "fundamental psychophysical unity in the act of doing," and a "sense of ineffable presence which the accomplished Asian actor embodies when he 'becomes the character.'" In such moments, he claims, "through the interior psychophysical process, he is that character" (I990:I46).

When South Asian Is Not Indian = Hindu

To be fair to Zarrilli, he offers new insights into the three performance gen- res. However, certain assumptions about the "Asian performer" and the process of "becoming the character" need to be closely examined. To begin, Zarrilli assumes that Indian = Hindu. What about the Buddhists, the Mus- lims, and the Christians? Consider what happens if you replace Hinduism with Buddhism in Zarrilli's vision of India. Buddhism denies atman, and shows that "there is no inner and immutable core of things; everything is in flux" (Murti I998:IO). Contrasting the positions of the Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions, Murti points out:

The Brahmanical systems took the real as Being, Buddhism as Becom- ing; the former espoused the universal, existential and static view of Re- ality, the latter the particular, sequential and dynamic; for one space, for the other time, is the archetype. (Murti I998:I2)

Immediately, Zarrilli and Brandon's "worlds" begin to crumble, "correspon- dences" and "resonance" melt away. For, if there is no atman, i.e., no inner and immutable core or soul, then who is "you" and who is "that" in the Upa- nisadic statement of tat tvam asi? Zarrilli's problem is that he reduces a complex interplay of innumerable systems of South Asian philosophy into one statement from the Upani,ad, which, if I may add, I am personally quite fond of. But when the most vocal elements of the Euro-American academecia are going full-steam at deconstructing and challenging monolithic constructs when dealing with their own cultures, why this fondness for constructing monoliths when dealing with Asian performances?

Also, of course, India is not the whole of South Asia, historically or cultur- ally. Never in the entire history of South Asia, including the empires of the Mauryas, the Guptas, and the Mughals, has South Asia been united-until the British conquest. The "India" Zarrilli is referring to unconsciously encompasses all of South Asia. That India is a colonial construct. The 20th century has seen the deconstruction of Orientalism and the reconstruction of "Indi- anness," which equates the culture of all the peoples of South Asia with the nation that has New Delhi as its capital and Hinduism as its undeclared state religion (clearly reflected in the way the ultra-right BharatiyaJanata Party gov- ernment ruling the country has dealt with the Babri Mosque issue).' One could spend a lifetime writing newer versions of Orientalism to show how Gor- don Craig's melodious flute of Kysna and Artaud's Balinese dance still haunt centers of Euro-American academecia devoted to the ineffable mysteries of Indian/Asian performances.

Those who are ardent devotees of the mysteries should heedJoan Erdman's

Carya Nrtya 16i

conclusions regarding the rise and fall of the myth of "Indian dance." This dance was invented in early 20th century in the works of Mata Hari, Ruth St. Denis, and Pavlova as a category of European Orientalism which viewed India as Hindu. By the I930s, "the idea of oriental dance had become a segue to ancient treasures of the East, which were rediscovered and, in India, reinvented" (Erdman I996). The reinvented corpus included bharatanatyam, kathakali, kathak, manipuri, odissi, and more. The movement culminated in "the

post-World War II positioning of dance by independent India as a represen- tative of ancient heritage, and high cultural rank in the world of new nations." However, the myth began to crumble from the I98os onward when Indian art- ists began to recognize "that their dances, and others which had qualified for 'classical' status, were contemporary interpretations and interpolations" (293- 97). Any analysis of"traditional Indian theatre," including the kathakali that Zarrilli so fondly discusses, must take into account the historical construct of "Indianness" that Erdman presents. After all, much of tradition all over the world is invented.

Keeping these deconstructions in view, I would like to engage in this paper in (re)evaluating the matter of"becoming a character" by examining a Nep- alese ritualistic dance, the Carya Nrtya (lit., Dance As a Spiritual Discipline). I will show that Zarrilli's "world" is a problematic construct when viewed from a Buddhist perspective.

The Ritual Context of Carya Nrtya

Carya NVtya pertains to Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism. The practitioners claim (not without some legitimacy) that the Vajrayana priests of Kathmandu

Valley in Nepal have practiced this highly esoteric form of dance as a part of their ritual known as sadhand for over a thousand years. The tradition possibly goes back to the seventh or the eighth century, when some of the mahdsiddhas (the Great Realized Ones) introduced it in the valley (Pradhan I996:76). To- ward the end of the first millennium C.E., the dance was well-known among the Vajrayana Buddhists of Bengal-possibly even in other parts of South Asia.

Today, it can be seen only in Kathmandu Valley. Since 1957 some of the dances

..........

1. From left: Manik Bajra- charya, Uppa Shakya, Ritu Bajracharya, Bunu Sher- stha, and Kiran Bajra- charya of the Dance Mandal in the dance of the Panca Buddhas, at Achhe- wore Mahavihara in Patan, 1995. (Courtesy of Prajwal Vajracharya)

I62 SyedJamil Ahmed

have been performed in public. However a large number are stilljealously protected from the noninitiated by the Vajrayana priests.

Sadhana can be practiced only by the initiated. A person who wishes to engage in sadhana (i.e., the sadhak) has to be guided by a Vajrayana priest who is to act as his or her spiritual preceptor. To the priest the person has to prove her sincerity and purity of purpose, as well as unconditional devotion. Before initiation, the person also has to carry out a number of devotional and purificatory practices. At the initiation ceremony, the preceptor selects a mantra (sacred words of power), a chosen deity appropriate to the character type of the person seeking initiation, and introduces him or her to the maydala (a sacred circle of symbolic forms enclosed within a square with four entrances) of the chosen deity. It is only then that the initiated is permitted entry into a wide body of written teachings supplemented by explanatory oral instructions. Once initiated, it is expected that the spiritual obstructions in the initiated person have been removed and the person has been empowered by the preceptor to engage in sadhana (Harvey 1990:260).

The chosen deity is a holy being who acts as the tutelary deity of the initiated. Each deity belongs to a group of five "families" of the Pafica Buddhas (the Five Buddhas or five abstract aspects ofBuddhahood), and each "family" is associated with a particular fault in the personality of human beings. The Five Buddhas, recognized as the five Conquerors, are Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi. Vairocana is the conqueror of ignorance and bewilderment, which he transmutes into his wisdom-quality of primordial awareness. Aksobhya conquers anger and aggression by transmuting them into his wisdom-quality of mirrorlike clarity. Ratnasambhava conquers greed and envy, transmuting them into equanimity. Amitabha transmutes desire, lust, and passion into discriminating awareness. Amoghasiddhi transmutes jealousy and envy into all-accomplishing wisdom. The deities of the five families are further classified into four different types-male or female, peaceful or wrathful-to correspond to variations in human character. The Five Buddhas mentioned above are also the male peaceful type of deities. Each of them has a corresponding female deity, conceived as his consort. Arya Tara (the Green Tara), the consort of Amoghasiddhi, is one of the most pop- ular female peaceful deities. Male wrathful deities are known as Herukas while the female wrathful deities are known as Dakiiis. Representing hate-free anger, these deities are coupled so that each Heruka has a Dakiri. Vajrapaqi, a fierce emanation of Aksobhya, is an oft-propitiated deity. By choosing one of these wrathful deities "for strong, unconventional people who are disgusted with the impermanent world and its dreary rounds of rebirths," it is expected that the heart of the initiate will open up "by devastating his hesitations, doubts, confusion, and ignorance" (Harvey 1990:261-62).

A sadhana is always based on a particular deity and usually includes acts of purification, meditation, recitation of mantras corresponding to the chosen deity, visualization of the deity, and concluding rites (which includes the "dedication of merit"2). Particularly important is the involvement of the three faculties: body, voice, and mind. The body is held erect and ritual hand gestures (mudras) are executed; the voice chants mantras; and the mind is focused on visualizing the deity. In some sadhanas, the Vajrayana priests and their initiated disciples, instead of or in addition to chanting mantras, sing esoteric songs, known as Carya Gita, which describe the deities. In addition, the body, instead of being held still, executes movement that interprets the song. More often, the movement is rendered by the dancer(s) and the song by the singer(s). With the mind focused on the visualization of the deity, the dancer seeks to become one with the deity. The singer's visualization is enhanced by the dancer's movements. This part of the sadhana is known as Carya N:tya.

Carya Nrtya 163

Components of Carya Nrtya

Having set the ritual context, it is necessary to give a brief account of sepa- rately identifiable components of Carya N'tya before attempting to discern a performance. The following description covers the visual setting, the aural elements, the olfactory-savory stimuli, the movements, and the dancers.

The Visual Setting

Carya NVtya is performed in almost all the bahas (monasteries; Sanskrit: vi- hara) of Kathmandu Valley. It may be performed in the daytime or at night inside the agam, a two-roomed "shrine of tantric deities where the secret tantric rites of Vajrayana Buddhism are performed" (Locke I980:I5). The dance is performed in the inner sanctum, on a maridala drawn in front of the deity. The basic function of the mandala is:

to portray the luminous world [...] of a specific holy being, with other holy beings particularly associated with it arrayed about it. [...] It can, in fact, be seen as a two-dimensional Stupa-temple which contains the actual manifestations of the deities represented within it. (Harvey 1990:264)

Carya NVtya may also be held in any other sanctified place where the mardala of the deity is drawn on a platform.

During a ritual performance, the Vajrayana priests are dressed in the jama (a long white garment that covers the entire body), the traditional garment of Newar Buddhist priests. Specific ornaments and garments of the deity are worn over the jama. The ornaments worn are the mukuta (crown), the kunda- lam (earring), the kanthika (necklace), the rucakam (bracelets for arms and legs), and the mekhalam (belt). The crown can be of various forms, such as the so- called jafd mukuta (lit., "the crown of hair"), the cakra mukuta (the crown showing the Wheel of Law), and the mani mukuta (the crown showing the three Jewels, signifying Enlightenment). Often, the Vajrayana priests wear a type of crown with five separate parts, which are colored according to the colors of the Five Buddhas: red, green, blue, yellow, and white. A sixth ornament, the sutra (sacred thread), may also be added. Traditional masks are mostly made of metal. However, those made of papier-mache and baked clay are also used at present (Kala-mandapa 1986:6-7; Pradhan 1996:91, 95).

The Aural Element

During a performance, a group of musicians sing Carya songs to music rendered on small cymbals (ta), large cymbals (vabhu), hourglass drums (damaru), small double-ended drums (kota), and a kind of trumpet (pn'aita). (The five types of musical instruments, as a group, are known as pancatala.) In addition to these traditional instruments, the Nepalese sitar (surabTia) and the harmo- nium are added nowadays.

The Carya songs are composed in hybrid Sanskrit (Sanskrit mixed with Ne- wari). Essentially, they are all in praise of various deities (as will be seen in the following section). So far, Ratna Kaji Vajracharya, a renowned Carya dance master, has collected and published 240 Carya songs by 75 Vajracaryas. These are rendered in 32 forms of rdga (melodies), and ten forms of tala (metres) (Baj- racharya 2002). However, not all of them are danced to; some are simply re- cited or sung.

I64 Syedjamil Ahmed

2. Uppa Shakya of the Dance Mandal in the dance

of Arya Tdra at the Hotel Vajra. (Photo by Ashoke Panta)

The Olfactory-Savory Stimuli

Olfactory and savory stimuli contribute to the de- sired objective of the ritual. Hence it is important to burn incense in the shrine. Panca Sali, or five kinds of rice wine, are also essential. However, in many rituals, their presence is symbolic, functioning as an of-

fering to the deities. In some rituals, though, drinking the wine is considered essential.

Movement

The range of movement in Carya NVtya can be broadly categorized as (I) vigorous for the "wrathful" deities, and (2) gentle for the "compassionate" deities.3 In the dances of the compassionate deities, the performers often pause momentarily to make graceful use of held positions. When in motion, the

body often is gently curved but held upright. The

dynamic quality of these dances is a sustained calmness. Another characteristic feature is the small but met-

rically rhythmic step patterns. However, some dances of the "wrathful" deities also use running steps and leaps. In these, the dancers move rapidly and energetically. They employ varied levels of movement, ranging from near crouching to upright. In all the dances, the focus is mostly on the hands and the face, and design in space rather than rhythm is emphasized.

Using a small dancing space, the dancers create in- tricate gesture designs, close to as well as away from the body. Most of the dances are characterized by elegant hand movements using mudras, and codified standing postures, or sthanakas. However, the articulation of hands and feet is not as detailed as in bharatanatyam. Underlying the movements may be:

the observation that states of mind generally express themselves in a person's stance, and gesture. [...] Ritual mudras are seen as working on the reverse of this principle: by making various gestures, certain states of mind may be stimulated or enhanced. (Harvey 1990:266)

A specific set of mudras and sthanakas are considered to be of prime importance. Most of the Tantric texts on Carya NVtya have specified a variety of mudras, which, except for a few, are not codified as in the Ndatyadastra. According to some practitioners of the dance, no codified system of gestures, body stances, or choreography existed in earlier times. The practitioners used their bodies freely to communicate the meaning of the song in a manner which would be understandable to the other (non-dancing) participants of the ritual.

Carya Nrtya does not seek to generate rasa or aesthetic experience (the pleasure and satisfaction derived by the spectators while witnessing a performance).4 However, some dances focus more on the aspect of compassion, and others on wrath. What is emphasized depends on the nature of the deity in whose honor the dance is performed.

The Dancers and the Participants

Each dance may be performed solo, by a pair, or by a group. Usually the dances are given only by male Vajracaryas. When a male deity and his s'akti

Carya Nrtya 165

(female component) are shown, a male Vajracarya impersonates the female deity. In some special rituals, both male Vajracaryas and their female consorts participate. Initiated participants sit on three sides of the maidala.5

Discerning a Performance of Caryd Nrtya

To "discern" is to behold and to apprehend. To discern is also to penetrate, to know, and to make out. Carya NVtya as a cultural expression embedded in the network of meanings produced by the act of discerning can itself be a site for a postmodern discourse on performance. Even though that is not the di- rection I wish to head at present, I would nevertheless like to make it clear that I have not beheld the dance in a ritual context. To do so would mean the work of a lifetime because it is a part of an extremely complicated ritual in which one can only participate after initiation. At the same time I should add that I am familiar with Sahajayana6 tradition which is still common among the Bauls of Bengal.

Carya Nrtya As "Authentic" Ritual

Carya NVtya is meant for daily practice and is essentially a meditation discipline, a vehicle for bodily and spiritual transformation. It is performed as a part ofVajrayana rituals, specially during Tantric initiations, celebrations (such as gaza cakra), and important ceremonies of worship (such as the tdhd sinhah pujd, ahoratra pijd, cakra pija). If the dance is not included, it is believed that the rituals will be ineffective.

Carya NVtya begins with salutation of the four cardinal directions, and ends with reverence offered to the deity. A performance is composed of a number of dances in honor of the deity and his consort in whose shrine the Carya NVtya takes place.

A brief description of the taha sinhah puja, as provided by Michael Allen, may help to comprehend Carya NVtya performance in its ritual context. The ceremony Allen observed took place sometime in the early I970s,7 at the home of a Vajracarya family who began its preparation two weeks in advance. The room where the puja was to be held was divided into two parts: an inner part for those with higher initiation, and an outer part for the remaining participants. Both the parts were decorated with maidalas of Cakrasambhara and Yogambara.8 A painted clay vessel (kalasa) filled with water and infused with the spirit of Ganesa was placed in the inner room. Beside it was placed a Vaj- radevi9 maidala (with a pair of intersecting triangles), another kalasa infused with the spirit of Vajradevi, and then a tray with pafica sali. Beside the tray stood a lamp (sukunda) and a container with curd. A large Vajradevi maidala was painted on a platform in the outer room. Musicians and helpers sat on its two sides. Another tray of paiica sali was placed in front of the maQdala. The sponsors of the ritual sat on the two sides ofpafica sali, facing the maidala. Five Vajracarya priests sat in front of the pafica sali, also facing the maidala. After a number of rituals, the Vajracarya Kumari ofMu Baha was brought in and was seated cross-legged at the center of the maidala in the outer room, while a metal crown was placed on the maidala of the inner room. For the remaining period of the puja (about five hours), she and the wife of the principal priest were Vajradevi, and were worshipped as such. Allen has not provided detail of Carya NVtya, however, he cites a ritual handbook used by the priests, according to which the wife of the principal priest should become possessed at two points of the pfija, and her husband is to dance at these and other points (1996:91 -96).

166 SyedJamil Ahmed

Carya Nrtya As Cultural Tourism

For less fortunate "cultural tourists" like me, who are not prepared to un- dertake a lifetime's arduous journey in sadhana, Carya NVtya is available regularly in Kathmandu, at least in one hotel, less regularly at the National Theatre where the state-sponsored dance troupe of the Rastriya Nach Ghar may give a performance or, for those seeking longer lessons, at the University of Kathmandu. And if you have a bit of money, you may even hold a private show of your own. In all probability, almost all of the troupes will promise you the authentic dance, and prove to you that all others perform merely spurious versions.

A performance of Carya Nrtya given by Prajwal Vajracharya and his company the Dance Mandal, witnessed at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center in Kathmandu on 2 May 1999, was comprised of eight dances, of which I will briefly discuss three. Prajwal Vajracharya stressed that Carya NTtya as performed in Vajrayana temples is different from that witnessed at the Center. However, the manner in which the songs, music, and body movement were rendered and the overall impression are similar. I should also add that Prajwal Vajracharya offered a workshop on the day following the performance.

PANCA BUDDHA

The dance of the Pafica Buddhas (see plate I) is the dance of the five tran- scendental Buddhas discussed earlier. It was given by five dancers who represented the five Buddhas: Vairocana (in white dress), Aksobhya (in blue), Ratnasambhava (in yellow), Amitabha (in red), and Amoghasiddhi (in green). Each Buddha was distinguished by a particular posture and mudra. The mudra for Aksobhya was Earth Touching (bhumisparsa), that of Ratnasambhava was Giving (varada), of Amitabha was Meditating (dhydna), of Amoghasiddhi was Protecting (abhaya), and Vairocana was Teaching (dharmacakra). The movement for these compassionate deities was characteristically gentle, graceful, and calm. The choreography was actually conceived in terms of a "living map- dala," with one of the Buddhas in the center and four others in four cardinal directions, all inside the inner circle of a maipdala. Group movement alternated with individual movement; the Buddha in the center danced during the verse sung in his honor while the four other Buddhas stood holding specific gestures. When the refrain was sung, the four Buddhas danced while the central dancer held still. The following Carya song was performed with the dance (given here in translation from the original in hybrid Sanskrit):

I hail the divine Ak?obhya whose body is the color of the flax flower. He faces east, his vehicle is the elephant and he brings victory over the obstacles, which come from afar.

I remember the Buddha who grants boons to the people of this world round the clock; the lord, the jewel who bestows deliverance on man- kind. (Repeated after each verse.)

I hail the divine Ratnasambhava, whose body is the color of the midday sun. He faces south, his vehicle is the horse and he grants wealth and prosperity.

I hail the divine Amitabha, whose body is the color of the newly risen sun. He shows the posture of meditation and rides a peacock.

I hail Amoghasiddhi who is of green color and who is protected by the seven-hooded snake. His vehicle is the garudi.

I hail Vairocana whose body is like the white water lily. He rides a lion and guards the living beings of the 13 worlds.

Caryd Nrtya 167

I hail this hymn, strung like a garland of flowers, in the year 600 of the Nepal era [1480 A.D.]. I take refuge in Sri Dharmadhatu.

(Refrain) Oh, the great victors, the glorious and famous Vairocana, Ratnasam-

bhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Aksobhya. Oh the Five Buddhas remembered as victors who are of the nature of

the elements of consciousness [skandha]; esteemed as the very bone of the Buddha, they spread their fragrance over the world, illuminate men and are feared by men. (Kala-mandapa I986:I5-17)

The dance visually translated the song with the help of mudras and sthanakas.

ARYA TARA

Arya Tara (or the Green Tara; see plate 2), the consort of Amoghasiddhi, is the protector of suffering beings who are in the process of crossing the ocean of Sansara. A female dancer in green costume gave the dance, which emphasized the aspect of compassion. The following Carya song was performed with the dance:

She sits in the posture of ease, is of green color, one face and two eyes with a glittering crown ofjewels.

All hail to the goddess Arya Tara who pervades the three worlds and protects all against an untimely death.

With her right hand she grants the boon of fearlessness and with her left she holds the blue lotus.

She wears a vesture of five colors and bestows on her devotees the knowledge of the Buddha and liberation.

Ratna Vajracarya sings this verse as an offering to Arya Tara his refuge in birth after birth.

(Refrain) I hail (Arya Tara) who destroys fear and leads people across the ocean of

sorrow; all hail to her who is of the nature of the syllable Svaha. (Kala-mandapa 1986:27)

The dancer entered the performance space with gentle and graceful movement. Upon reaching center stage, she visually translated the song cited above. For this, she manipulated her hands delicately and used a small range of leg movements over a relatively small dancing area. At certain points, she held still positions, displaying mudras in curvilinear sthanakas. All through the dance, she evoked a compassionate deity in sustained calmness and gentle grace. An- other dance performed at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center, which exhibited similar characteristics, was that of Arya Tara and Amoghasiddhi (see plates 3-6).

VAJRAPANTI

Vajrapani (see plates 7-9), a fierce emanation of Aksobhya, is also the protector of the nagas (serpents). Since the latter control the rain, Vajrapari's aid is sought for rain to come or stop. At the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center, the dance of VajrapaVi emphasized the wrathful aspect of the deity. A male dancer performed the dance with his face painted (the lips, the chin, and the eyes in red, and the rest in blue). He wore a tiger skin, a garland of skulls, and a snake around his neck (all theatre props). The following Carya song was performed with the dance:

I68 SyedJamil Ahmed

His flesh is black, he has two arms; he makes a dreadful face and shows his teeth as he comes to the aid of the afflicted.

His hair flies in the air around his trembling head as he terrifies his enemies.

We hail the secret Vajrapaii, the defender of the reign of the Buddha in this age.

In his right hand he holds the vajra and in his left the noose; on his head is a flaming crown.

The protector of the snake deities, he is adorned with jewels and round his loins he wears the tiger skin.

He is a great god, endowed with extraordinary strength-the one who holds the trident in his right hand and destroys the enemies.

(Refrain) He stands firm and permeates the firmament, yet he has no discernable

qualities; as such he is a personification of the very essence of the in- vincible diamond wisdom.

He speaks with force of ignorance and enunciates the principle of the indestructible diamond void. (Kala-mandapa 986:3 1)

The dancer entered the performance space with vigorous movement. In contrast to the dance of Arya Tara, the dance of Vajrapagi used a larger danc-

ing area. The movements exhibited a great degree of forcefulness. There was also an element of rapidity and suddenness in the movements and gestures, which sought to enhance the wrathfulness and ferocity of the deity. In this re-

gard, particularly striking were facial expressions, including eye movements.

Although the dancer held a few curvilinear standing postures, the face was al-

ways given greater emphasis and the legs, very little. In fact, overall gestural design in all still postures seemed to have been composed around the face

(with gaping mouth and projecting tongue). Another effective device in evok-

ing the wrathful deity was the use of abrupt motion, which suddenly broke free from stillness. Another dance performed at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center, which exhibited similar characteristics, was that of Vajra- vira Mahakala (see plates Io and I ).

3. & 4. Aryatara Amo-

ghashidhi by Ritu and Manik Bajracharya of the Dance Mandal in the dance

of Arya Tadr and Amo-

ghasiddhi, directed by Praj- wal Vajracharya, at the

Himalayan Buddhist Medi- tation Center in Kath- mandu, 1999. (Photos by Shahnajjajan)

Carya N[tya I69

Interpreting Carya Nrtya

It is possible to dwell at length on sadhana as a transformative ritual to show that it aims at "multidimensional alteration of the ordinary state of mind, over-

coming barriers between thought, action, knowledge, and emotion," to show how "[t]he invisible world referred to in the ritual is made manifest, and the subject placed within it" (Myerhoff I990:246). One can also analyze sadhana as a three-phase ritual: preliminal, liminal, and postliminal. The preliminal phase involves the purificatory rites while the postliminal phase involves the

concluding rites of dedication of merit. The dance itself can be seen as the liminal phase. It is here that the sadhaks as dancers seek to be "inscribed with their new identities, and initiated into their new powers" (Schechner 2002:58). Another level of analysis could show how the dance is supposed to

generate a complex dialectic of flow (the merging of action and awareness pro- ducing a state in which people "stop being aware of themselves as separate from the actions they are performing" [Csikszentmihalyi I99I:53]) and its op- posite, reflexivity. The dialectic almost appears to engage the sadhak in a "perceptual play with mirrors and masks, with borders and transitions" (Myerhoff 1990:247). But perhaps all these layers, and meanings, of being "inscribed with new identities and new powers," "dialectic of flow and reflexivity," and the

"perceptual play" can be apprehended with something more. This something more concerns "becoming the character." In order to comprehend the com-

plexity of all these layers of meanings, it is necessary to go back to some of the basic philosophic concepts of Mahayana (Madhyamika and Yogacara), and Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism.

Quintessence of Void and Pure Consciousness

Reformulating earlier teachings on ways and means of attaining nirvana, ex-

ponents of Mahayana Buddhism proposed the self-sacrificing ideal of the Bo- dhisattva: one who has wisdom (prajna) as his essence; his goal is nirvaia not for himself alone but for all; and he is motivated to this goal by compassion (karuna). Karuna in Buddhism is indifferent and self-less; it is not motivated by desire to gain merit. Rather, it is "unmotivated graciousness of attitude

170 SyedJamil Ahmed

the Dance Mandal in the

Amoghasiddhi, directed by Prajwal Vajracharya, at the Himalayan Buddhist Medi- tation Center in Kath-

mandu, 1999. (Photos by Shahnajjahan)

shown [...] towards mortal beings" (Ling 198I:I 8- I9). It is a habit of regarding others as oneself, of identifying I with not-I. A Bodhisattva may adopt any updya (strategy, device, or means) to bring a sentient being closer to truth. That truth may be relative or provisional; nevertheless, the relative truth is necessary for moving a step closer to the "absolute truth." The means adopted may be deception, disguise, or even falsehood. Regardless of the nature of the means, what matters is its suitability to realize karupa. Upaya is deemed as a "pedagogic duty, the necessary complement of prajina" (George I999:99), which is direct apprehension of the Four Noble Truths regarding nature, life, and the three characteristic marks of existence (transience, no-self, and suffering) verified experientially.

Two important schools of thought which developed from Mahayana Bud- dhism were the Madhyamika and the Yogacara (Vijfianavada). Reducing everything in life to a continuing process of becoming, Madhyamika philosophy postulates the doctrine of sunya, which shows that "there is no thing-unto- itself, nothing with a self-essence, nothing that cannot be broken up until we reach the great transcendent reality which is so absolute that it is wrong to say that it is or that it is not" (McGovern I968:I4).10 The term "sunya" is often translated as "void," but it is not empty space; the term may be better under- stood as "relative," i.e., "devoid of independent reality" or "devoid of specific character." "Thus sunyata [voidness] is nonentity, and at the same time 'rela- tivity,' i.e., the entity only as in causal relation. [...] It is simply the negation of an independent reality or the negation of specific character" (Takakusu 1956:109-Io). Sunya is not to be interpreted ontologically. It is an unattached intellectual position, rather like a raft for crossing a river. Once the river is crossed, the raft is to be discarded. One who clings to isunya like a religious or philosophical doctrine is like "a customer to whom a merchant has said that he has nothing to sell, and the customer now asks to buy this 'nothing,' and carry it home" (Muller 2002). Sinya is complete nonadherence and nonac- quisition: "dwelling in no special view, holding on to no abstracted Void, ad- hering to no special attainment, assuming no special characteristics, and expecting no special interest of any special merit" (Takakusu 1956: 11). Be- cause there is no desire, sunya is nirvaia. To apprehend isunya is to attain per- fect wisdom (prajina). Sunya is Bodhisattva's prajna, and karuna is his upaya.

Carya Nrtya 171

Bodhisattvahood means the attainment of the Bodhi- mind (bodhi-citta), which is the unified state of vacuity (sunya), and universal compassion (karuia).

Against the contention of the Madhyamika, for whom both the knowing consciousness, and the object known are sunya (because the object depends on the subject, and the subject on the object), the Yogacara school maintains that "to use consciousness to prove the un- reality of consciousness is self-contradictory" (Stew- art 2002).

Realizing the self-evident precondition that "some mode of Consciousness (vijnana) is the conditio sine qua non for all experience," the Yogacara accepted it as the foundation of their doctrine of Consciousness-Only (Stewart 2002). Indeed, the doctrine has striking parallels with phenomenology. Establishing a methodical _ presentation of the mind as consciousness, the school developed a system that has the complete clarification of consciousness into wisdom as its final goal. The school considers nirvada as Pure Consciousness (vij- napti-mdtrata) which is devoid of the notion of the knower ("grasper") and the knowable ("graspable"), subject and object, I and Thou. It is a state of total awareness, and complete understanding-the only truly existent state. All other phenomena are transient-mere fabrication of consciousness. Hence, "I" is illusory.

The Yogacara school shows that consciousness is the awareness of a "self." It is:

the distinction making activity of the mind, both in making and having distinctions, including the states we consider the conscious as well as un- conscious. Consciousness, in making distinctions between self and other, becomes the subject which treats everything else as object. (Zim I995)

The Yogacara school divides consciousness into eight sections. The Eighth Consciousness is the Alaya Vijndna (Repository Consciousness). It is the "kar- maic" storehouse "which contains seeds generated by our unenlightened actions," and from which "arise all our ideas of self, ego, and their respective functions in the external world." It is "beyond dualism of subject and object, or existence or non-existence" (Zim I995). Alaya Vijiana is often compared to a vast ocean, in which the seven other consciousnesses are compared to waves on its surface. At its profound depth, it "goes beyond the individual un- conscious, and can be seen as a universal reality which lies 'within' all beings" (Harvey 1990: o8). Like waves in an ocean, life is continuously changing. Like ocean waves, no two humans are alike. Each living being is "a vortex in the sea of life. The action and interaction of these units one with another, and with the common stream brings about the phenomenal appearance of the Uni- verse" (McGovern I968:I5). The Seventh Consciousness (manas) is the home of illusory ego individuality which defiles the Eighth Consciousness "by at- tributing to it characteristics of a real 'self' that exists in space and time," and the first six "by obscuring them with its concept of the self." The Sixth Con- sciousness (the Mano Vijnana) "collects and coordinates the reports of the senses" (Stewart 2002). It is where cognition and perception take place. In a

172 Syedjamil Ahmed

defiled state, it mistakes the Eighth Consciousness to be the immortal soul. The remaining five are the sense-consciousnesses (Vijnana) of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.

Corresponding to the eight consciousnesses, the enlightened state of Pure Consciousness may be seen to function in the following manner. The five sense consciousnesses function as the wisdom without attachment or distortion; the Sixth as the wisdom with clear awareness of the emptiness of self, and all phenomena; the Seventh as the wisdom which "understands the nature of equality of self and other and of all beings"; and the Eighth as Amala Vijnina, the wisdom of Magnificent Mirror "which reflects the entire universe without distortion" (Zim I995).

Although the Yogacara may appear to be tending toward "substantialism" for accepting the existence of consciousness, especially in the working of Alaya Vijn~na, it is important to remember that:

The "substantialism" of the Yogacara is in fact more apparent than real, as their theories on mind are essentially tentative devices, "skilful means" to be used in conjunction with a series of mediations in leading the practitioner beyond all mental constructions, including all theories, to a direct experience of ultimate reality. (Harvey 1990:106)

Vajrayana (as well as Sahajayana)," branches of Tantric Buddhism, seek to actualize the goals of Mahayana Buddhism with the help of Tantric practice. Tantra is simply an upaya-more than that, as the practitioners would claim, it is the most effective upaya-of attaining liberation in the present life span of a being. This is possible, claims Tantric Buddhism, very much like Maha- yana Buddhism, because every being is a potential Buddha, and Buddhahood is the human body's innate quality. It is also important to remember that adop- tion of Brahmanical deities by Tantric Buddhism was an upaya to bring a particular section of people (those who have faith in deities) closer to truth, even though it was provisional truth. The "deities" may serve as upaya to be visualized in meditation but, beyond that, they are recognized as uiinya.

Deriving its doctrine from the Yogacara School, Vajrayana regards the worldly phenomenon as transient, being only a product of consciousness (vijfiana). False perception of the worldly phenomena leads one to be oblivious of transient nature, which in turn causes suffering. Cessation of suffering is nir- vapa, the extremely blissful state of consciousness (mahasukha). For the Vaj- rayana practitioners, sunya is vajra or the thunderbolt (hence the name Vajrayana or the "vehicle" of vajra). As Advaya-vajra-sangraha, a Vajrayana text explains, sunya "which is firm, substantial, indivisible, impenetrable, incapable of being burnt and imperishable, is called Vajra" (Dasgupta I969:26). The consciousness (vijiinna) of the absolute, and intransient void (sunya as vajra), as intransient as the thunderbolt, is mahasukha. But there are other aspects of vajra as well:

Spiritually, it [vajra] represents the eternal, innate state of Buddhahood possessed by all beings, as well as the cutting edge of wisdom. The personification of this condition and power is Vajrasattva [the sattva of sunya or the quintessence of void], a deity and an abstract principle. (G6mez 1987:376)

Vajrasattva (or the quintessence sunya as vajra) is the nondual state ofprajiia and upaya. The nondual or unified state is often compared with salt melting in

Carya N[tya I73

water, where duality between the two objects ceases to exist. According to the

Gujyasamdja-tantra (XVIII:37), "[t]he bodhi-citta is the unity of voidness and

compassion; it is beginningless and endless, quiescent and bereft of the notion of being and non-being" (in Nakamura I987:333). To attain bodhi-citta is to attain nirviaa because mahasukha is nirvara. As Harvey explains:

The aim of the Vajrayana adept [is] to become conscious of the identity between Vajra-sattva and his "own" empty "nature," so as to "become" such a "being." To do this [is] to gain enlightenment, or siddhi, "suc- cess." (I990:I35)

Carya Nrtya As Sddhandfor Transcending Duality

The ritual of sadhana aims at nonduality of the sadhak with the quintessence of suinya as vajra, i.e., Vajrasattva. The process of achieving the state of nonduality is gradual. As in ordinary meditation, it seeks to calm the waves of the seven consciousnesses on the ocean of Alaya Vijfiana and develop one-pointed concentration on the mental image of the chosen deity (perceived to be in har- mony with the nature of the sadhak) to the point that the deity appears as a vision that is as "real" as the world perceived by the first six consciousnesses. All the deities invoked during sadhana-male or female, wrathful or compassionate-represent various aspects of the enlightened state of mind, i.e., aspects of the Vajrasattva. At the same time, it is also recognized by the practitioners that the deity is nothing but a construct of the mind. It merely serves as an upaya, and beyond that, it is void. Thus, sadhana seeks to develop a realization that "everything is 'thought-only,' no more (or less) real than the vision" (Harvey 1990:266).

In order to achieve the above, the sadhak first learns to generate the mental image of the deity by becoming extremely familiar with images of the deity in paintings, iconic form, and textual descriptions (such as those given in Carya songs), and the mardala world. When one is adept in generating the mental image, s/he learns to "draw [...] on the energies, and spiritual qualities of the archetypal visualized form" by fully identifying with the deity in terms of the external appearance and the mairdala. Like salt melts in water, duality between the dancer and the deity is sought to be nullified. By seeking to identify with the deity, the sadhak seeks to be turned into the deity as much as the deity becomes the sadhak. This act of identification is affected in the dance of Carya Nrtya. By identifying with the evoked deity, the sadhak achieves the aspect of vajra (as sunya), which the deity represents. The Carya songs, which are considered to be "the manifestation of the realisation of unity of emptiness and skillful means" (Bajracharya 2002), serve as aural stimuli as well as disciplined concentration for the goal of the sadhak. The graphic descriptions that some of the songs provide, such as that of Vajrapali ("his flesh is black," "his hair flies in the air," "on his head is a flaming crown") cannot but strike a deep chord in the sadhak, stimulating further his/her visualization. The music, costume, mask, and other accessories; the olfactory and savory stimuli; and the agam (inner sanctum) as the performance space all contribute to the genera- tion of the nondual state.

If the identification is achieved, not only should the sadhak appear as the deity externally (facilitated, of course, by the costume and accessories), but the sadhak also should visualize the Pure Land as represented in the magdala. This act of identification is seen as achieving a lucid state of nonduality between the sadhak and the deity. By achieving nonduality, the sadhak begins to identify with his/her "basic nature purged of faults." The deity "reveals aspects of [the

174 Syedjamil Ahmed

e. & 8s. Ptrajwal Vaj ra -

charya in the dance of hVaj-e a a rapdni, diirecited by Prajwalie w ' " ( v Vajracharya, at the Hotel

Vajra, 1995. (Photos by Sharod Shakya)

sddhak's] character which [s/he] persists in overlooking." The dance should enable the sadhak to "transmute the energy of [his/her] characteristic fault into a parallel kind of wisdom" which the deity embodies. With Ak?obhya Buddha as the "chosen deity," "the brilliance and power of hate and anger may be transmuted into openness and precision of'mirror-like wisdom'" (Harvey I990:26I).

Finally, the sSdhak learns to dissolve the deity into emptiness as nothing but a construct of the mind. By recognizing the deity as nothing but his/her own construct, an aspect of his/her latent personality, the sadhak seeks to experience the insubstantial nature of his/her own being. By repeating visualization, achieving nonduality and dissolution, the sadhak begins to comprehend that

everything in the world is "thought only," neither more nor less real than the vision of the deity: a creation of consciousness. At the same time, by retaining the wisdom gained through the act of achieving nonduality, s/he begins (or should begin), to transcend to the state of Vajrasattva.

The mandala too serves as a means toward integration of the practitioner with the absolute truth-realization of the nondual. The relationship between the circle/s, and the center of the mardala is important:

The circle drawn around stands for the dynamic consciousness of the initiated. The outlying square symbolizes the physical world bound in four directions [...]; and the midmost or the central area is the residence of the deity. Thus the center is visualized as the essence and the circum- ference as the grasping, thus in its complete picture a mandala means

grasping the essence. (Kumar 2000)

The symbol of Buddha "resides" in the center surrounded by circles of en-

lightenment, which the sadhak must achieve in order to gain access to the center. However, the mandala is nothing but a mental construct. It is seen as a

symbolic space visually articulating the journey the sadhak must make. Thus, Carya NVtya seeks to equate the actual dance in the maQdala created in the shrine with a metaphorical journey of the sadhak to the Buddha. Reinforcing the "seeking of nonduality" of the sadhak, and the deity at a physical level of

Carya Ntya 1 75

the dance, the mandala serves to reinforce the same in terms of a "journey." By "seeking nonduality," and making the "journey," the sadhak begins to

equate him/herself with the deity. It is then that the circle/s of the deity's maindala is visualized as the consciousness of the sadhak, the outlying square as his/her physical body. The deity is placed in the temple of the "heart," i.e., the Eighth Consciousness (Alaya Vijinana). Hence, the sadhak's journey in the

176 SyedJamil Ahmed

maidala is a journey to his/her Eighth Consciousness. It is expected that the dance and maidala, aided further by aural (music and songs), savory (wine), and olfactory (burning of incense) stimuli, will serve, or ideally should serve as a powerful experiential vehicle of the senses, which "makes tangible" the ab- straction of metaphysics to enable the sadhak to experience directly the ultimate reality.

"Making tangible" in physical terms is further built up in a dance of a non- celibate male and his female partner, seeking nonduality in a male deity and his consort respectively. The dance may culminate in sexo-yogic union of Yab-Yum "under very controlled meditative conditions, so that lust is directly confronted, and crushed, by transmuting its energy into a form of wisdom" (Harvey I990:267). As Dasgupta explains, "Vajrayana perceives bodhi-citta as the extremely blissful state of consciousness (mahasukha) produced through the yogic union of the male (karuVa as the means or upaya) and the female (sunya as wisdom or prajina) (I969:27). By incorporating the tactile element, the ritual of sadhana brings on board all the five senses to play an active part. By this, the practitioner attempts to engage the five sense-consciousnesses so that they can ultimately function in a purified state of wisdom without attachment or distortion.

For those who do not dance but participate in the ritual nevertheless, the dance functions, or should function, experientially. For them, the aural, savory, and olfactory stimuli are the same as they are for the dancer. Instead of undergoing the act of transcending nonduality through the dance, the ritual participants visualize the deity in the dancer/s.

A neurobiologist would possibly explain the nondual state in sadhana in terms of simultaneous stimulation of the left cerebral hemisphere (the seat of the ergotropic system) and the right cerebral hemisphere (the seat of the tro- photropic system). "Stimulating the left lobe makes one energized, aroused, and alert. [...] Stimulating the right hemisphere loosens a person's ego, dis- solves boundaries between self and other, inner and outer" (Schechner 2002:165). In daily life, one of the systems is dominant. In sadhana, the sadhak induces the simultaneous stimulation by means of music, dance, alcoholic spirit, incense, sexual intercourse, and meditation. When one of the systems is brought fully into activation, it causes a "rebound" which "produces a balance or 'tuning' of the two systems." Consequently:

both systems operate simultaneously-resulting in intense and varied experience such as sexual orgasm, yogic or zen meditation, and trance. [...] In this state of maximum bihemispheric arousal, people feel [...] "one with the universe" or "one with the community," totally without personal self. (Schechner 2002:165, 167)

Vajrayana practitioners may relate the neurobiological explanation in terms of the system of the cakras (internal makeup of seven psychophysical energy centers). Full activation of the ergotropic left lobe is raising kundalini energy (avadhutT, prdaa, or chi), which usually lies dormant in the muladhara (lowest cakra located at the base of the spine), up through the su,umna (a theoretical central channel running along or through the spine)12 to the sahasrara (the seventh or the "thousand-petaled lotus" cakra located above the crown of the head). Activation of the sahasrara achieves maximum bihemispheric arousal. When the sadhak achieves or attempts to achieve nonduality with his/her deity, it is not only in terms of the external appearance and the mandala, but also the internal makeup of the cakras.

For anthropologists, sadhana is a transformative ritual in that it seeks com-

Carya Nftya I77

plete alteration of the ordinary state of mind into a state of nonduality with Vajrasattva. In it, Myerhoff's "invisible world" is "made manifest" by seeking the nondual state where the "subject" is not only placed within the "invisible world" but the latter is also placed within the "subject." Furthermore, by rec-

ognizing the deity to be a construct of the mind, reflexivity is set in a challenging binary relationship with flow. The "perceptual play with mirrors and masks, with borders and transitions" is set in a dialectical relationship of flux. In learning to generate the mental image of the deity, the deity is a mask for the subject, the "other" with which the subject seeks union. In terms of the Upanisadic-Brahmanical tradition, the atman of the self (microcosm) seeks union with the Atman of the Self (macrocosm). During the dance, the deity becomes a mirror of the subject (since it is but an aspect of the subject's dormant personality). In the dissolution phase, the mirror is destroyed. It is turned void-a black hole-emptiness. And hence, the atman of the Upanisadic- Brahmanical tradition is seen as nonexistent.

Sadhana: Authentic or Spurious?

The border-crossings and transitions from the self to the void, from the Upanisadic-Brahmanical to the Vajrayana conceptual "territories" (the latter adopting the framework of the former as an upaya, only to deconstruct it at a later phase) is complex and will vary from individual to individual. However, what is always questionable is how far the ritual is successful. How many ses- sions does it take to achieve the ultimate Vajrasattva as the quintessence of void? How much of each session is retained at the end when the subject "re- enters" daily life "inscribed" with his/her new identities? What effect do the "spectators" carry away with them? How much are they "moved" or "touched"? How much of it is "authentic"? Is not the supposed "achieve- ment" of an aspect of the Vajrasattva nothing but void in itself?

Roy Rappaport argues that the question of "belief" and "disbelief," if not irrelevant, is of subordinate importance. What is of primary importance is that ritual, as a "performance of a more or less invariant sequence of formal acts and utterances, not entirely encoded by the performers" (I999:24), is a social act:

While ritual participation may not transform the private state of the performer from one of "disbelief" to "belief," our argument is that in it the ambiguity, ambivalence and volatility of the private processes are subordinated to a simple and unambiguous public act, sensible both to the performers themselves and the witnesses as well. Liturgical performance is, thus, a fundamental social act, for the acceptance intrinsic to it forms a basis for public orders which unknowable and volatile belief or conviction cannot. (I999:I22-23)

It is possible to follow this position and investigate a question that Schechner poses: "At what moment does a tourist show become itself an authentic theatrical art?" (1983:I46).

The question itself is fascinating for it forces one to investigate the eco- nomic pressures and cultural redundancy that many South Asian performers face in a "globalized" world threatening to erode cultural plurality. It is also possible to investigate the antagonistic relation between a ruling elite (the upper-caste Hindus of Nepal), and a minority religious group (the Newar Buddhists), and examine what role the tourist performances play in what An- tonio Gramsci identifies as hegemony (I971).

Having said that, it is also true that to consider Carya N;tya sans sadhana is

178 Syedjamil Ahmed

9. Prajwal Vajracharya in the dance of Vajrapani, directed by Prajwal Vajra- charya, at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center in Kathmandu, 1999. (Photo by ShahnajJahan)

to extricate a "product" from a "process." It is not so much, as Bharucha claims, that in India (and by extension, in the sympathetic cultural context of Nepal), "the recycling of culture, the conversion of the spurious into the 'authentic,' is a totally alien concept" (1993:37). "Recycling" and "the conversion of the spurious into the authentic" exists all over India, South Asia, Asia-and the entire world. However, the problem with Carya NVtya sans sadhana is that one does not experience-or one does not permit oneself the freedom to attempt to probe into experiencing-nonduality with the quintessence of void. Hence, Carya NVtya sans sadhana can certainly be exquisite, exotic, and whatever else that you may wish to add, but it is not sadhana.

Laying these questions aside for the "believers" and the "seekers of the mysteries of life through rituals," and at the same time also recognizing that sadhana may well be deemed to be an efficacious upaya for some people, I wish to end by going back to the matter of "becoming the character."

Becoming the Character

The analysis so far has demonstrated that the performance of Carya Nvtya, as part of a ritual known as sadhana, seeks transformation of the self, the process of which can be described as a perceptual journey to the void: from the mask to the mirror, and then to the destruction of the mirror.

Schechner reminds us that in strict theatrical terms, "performing rituals is not 'acting'" because "most rituals involve no impersonation" (2002:I62). But does not the first part of the journey (i.e., to the mask, which, more specifically, is the deity) involve impersonation? Carya NVtya, even in a ritual context, bears the strong imprint of"codified acting," which Schechner de- fines as "[p]erforming based on semiotically constructed gestures, movements, songs, costumes, and makeup set by tradition, and passed down from teacher to student by means of rigorous training" (I 56). On the other hand, if the deity is recognized as an aspect of sadhak, then Schechner is correct in pointing out that "those performing rituals are not impersonating others. The ritualist is himself in his designated ritual role" (I63).

The act of impersonation in Carya NVtya involves ajourney from the "self" (the sadhak) to the "other" (the deity). The deity is clearly "characterized" in

Carya Nrtya 179

visual form, and hence cannot but be seen as impersonation of an "other." At the point where the sid- hak seeks to transcend nonduality of the self and the

other, s/he begins to perceive the "mask" as the "mirror." From this point, the "character" is perceived to be "self." The act of nonduality may be taken to be "trance acting," in which "performers are taken over, or 'possessed' by non-human beings [...] more powerful than the performer" (Schechner 2002:I63)-in our case, by deities. However, there is a fine distinction. The sadhak is not "taken over" by a deity, s/he achieves a state of nonduality: s/he is the deity as much as the deity is him/herself. Finally, in the act of "destruction of the mirror," the performer clearly demonstrates that the deity is not "more powerful than the performer" but in fact is only a construct of the mind-void. Most importantly, the performer cognizes that all phenomena are "thought- only."

Performing in Carya NVtya is neither like performing a ritual nor trance acting, nor even codified acting; it lies somewhere in a triangle between the B three. "Becoming the character" in Carya Nrtya may perhaps be best expressed as "becoming self-as- void." Or perhaps, in the Madhymika tradition of reducing everything to void, one could also say that "becoming-self-as-void" itself is void, at which Goffman would perhaps laugh with satisfaction, and add, "the performer can be fully taken in by his own act" (197I:28). Either way, it is not Zarrilli's sim- plified version of Indian/Hindu tat tvam asi.

Notes

i. On 6 December 1992, fanatic Hindu devotees destroyed a I6th-century mosque at Ay- odhya, which was known as the Babri Mosque. The incident sparked riots in which more than 3,000 people are believed to have been killed, including several hundred in Mumbai (Dawn 2002). The Hindus believe that a temple commemorating the birth of Rama originally stood on the site. Mughal emperor Babar had the temple razed and the mosque constructed.

2. "Dedication of Merit" is the practice of dedicating the reward of one's merits for one's own salvation or for the salvation of others.

3. Some of the terms used in this section have been taken from Adshead et al. (I988:22- 24, 34-35).

4. The most frequently used analogy for explaining rasa is that of"tasting food." "Because it is enjoyably tasted, it is called rasa" (Rangacharya I996:55). Just as sensitive people enjoy different tastes of food mixed with different condiments and sauces, "sensitive spectators, after enjoying the various emotions expressed by the actors through words, gestures and feelings feel pleasure etc. This (final) feeling by the spectators is here ex-

plained as various rasa-s ofnaiya" (55). The Natyasastra recognizes eight rasas: the erotic (srngara), the comic (hasya), the pa-

thetic (karuna), the furious (raudra), the heroic (vira), the terrible (bhayanak), the odious (bibhatsa), and the marvelous (adbhuta) (Natyasastra, VI, 15; Ghosh 1967:102). It may be

helpful to note that one of the distinctions between rasa and human emotions is that the former is always vicarious. Human emotions are always accompanied by an urge to act while this feature is completely absent in rasa. Rasas, therefore, are "desireless emotions, sensual impressions which do not generate want" (George 1999:32).

lo. Manik Bajracharya in the dance of VajravTra Ma- hdkala, directed by Prajwal Vajracharya, at the Hima- layan Buddhist Meditation Center in Kathmandu, 1999. (Photo by Shahnaj

Jahan)

I80 SyedJamil Ahmed

5. Unless otherwise noted, all information on Carya Nrtya given in this section has been gathered from personal communication with Prajwal Vajracharya, a Carya Nrtya performer, and Min Bahadur Sakya, Director, Nagarjun Institute of Exact Method, Patan, on I, 2, and 4 May 1999.

6. A branch of Tantric Buddhism believed to have been founded by the Kashmiri yogin Lui-pa in the second half of the 8th century. Extant Sahajayana literature projecting its doctrine, such as Dohdkosa and Carya Gfti, were composed in Apabhrafia and early Bengali languages respectively, possibly from the 8th to the Ioth centuries. These texts belong to the same tradition as that of Carya GFta of the Newari Buddhists. Sahajayana practitioners are also known to perform dance with their songs.

7. Allen does not specifically say when and where the ceremony was conducted. However, in the foreword, P.R. Sharma mentions that the research was carried out in Kathmandu between September 1973 andJanuary 1974 (Allen I996:v).

8. Two male Vajrayana deities. Cakrasambhara is a manifestation of a four-faced and twelve-armed deity known as Sambhara whose consort is Vajravarahi. Literally, the name Cakrasamvara denotes "joined to the wheel," which is interpreted to mean, "joined to the wheel of wisdom and bliss." Yogambara is a three-faced and six-armed

deity whose consort is Prajia-jiian. 9. A female Vajrayana deity.

IO. As Cai Zongqi points out:

[T]here exist many important parallels in methods, strategies, and rationale between [contemporary deconstructive philosophy and Madhyamika Buddhism]. Recently, a number of scholars have discovered significant parallels in the Der- ridean negation and the Madhyamika prasnaga (reductio ad absurdum). (I993:389)

I1. Although the Sahajiyas never cared to formulate their doctrine in coherent consistency, what can be deciphered from Dohakosa and Caryd GCti appears to be an unsystematized amalgamation of Yogacara and Madhyamika philosophy.

12. Practitioners believe that the cakras are bioplasmatic energy fields composed of ions, free protons, and electrons. In the nonpractitioners, the susumna is closed while the two subsidiary ducts (Ici and Piiigala) running on either sides are open. Correct meditation is supposed to open the susumna. When sahasrara is activated, the adept attempts to im- mobilize all the three ducts, thereby retaining mahasukha.

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SyedJamil Ahmed is a theatre practitioner based in Bangladesh, and Associate Pro-

fessor at the Department of Theatre and Music, University of Dhaka. He trained at the National School of Drama (India), did his MA at the University of Warwick, and his PhD at the University of Dhaka. His publications include Acinpakhi Infinity: Indigenous Theatre in Bangladesh (University Press Limited, 2000) and In Praise of Niranjan: Islam, Theatre, and Bangladesh (Pathak Samabesh, 2001).

nepal carya nrtya of nepal

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