Native America v. Native America v. AmericaAmerica

A Tumultuous RelationshipA Tumultuous Relationship

The Question:The Question:

►Evaluate the validity of this Evaluate the validity of this statement: The relationship statement: The relationship between Native Americans and between Native Americans and Americans (1620-present) has Americans (1620-present) has always been negative.always been negative.

Background : Pre-Background : Pre-colonizationcolonization

• Southwest: Southwest: large large irrigation irrigation systems, systems, large large towns, etctowns, etc

• Great Great Plains: Plains: sedentary sedentary farming, farming, permanent permanent settlementsettlements, some s, some nomadic nomadic tribes tribes hunted hunted buffalobuffalo

• East: East: greatest greatest food food sources—sources—farming, farming, hunting, hunting, gathering gathering all all togethertogether

Three categorizations:Three categorizations:

American view of American Indians

As Neighbors

As Landowners

As citizens

As Neighbors:As Neighbors:EncounterEncounter

ExchangeExchange

►The Good: Exchange of crops, The Good: Exchange of crops, animals, farminganimals, farming

►The Bad: Importation of disease The Bad: Importation of disease and violenceand violence

Relationship with SpanishRelationship with Spanish

► Conquistadores, encomiendasConquistadores, encomiendas came as conquerorscame as conquerors way more men than women= way more men than women=

intermarriageintermarriage

Relationship with FrenchRelationship with French

► fur tradefur trade didn’t want to establish substantial didn’t want to establish substantial

townstowns needed Nat. Am help with finding furneeded Nat. Am help with finding fur some intermarriagesome intermarriage

Relationship with BritishRelationship with British Settlement, New SocietySettlement, New Society forced to be amicable because of needforced to be amicable because of need

► Established trading in New EnglandEstablished trading in New England► came to build a new societycame to build a new society► paganism threat to religious societypaganism threat to religious society► more self-reliant, more hostilemore self-reliant, more hostile

1675: King Philip’s War1675: King Philip’s War Wampanoags direct response to colonial Wampanoags direct response to colonial

attempt to apply their laws to tribeattempt to apply their laws to tribe Killed over 1000 settlers in 3 yearsKilled over 1000 settlers in 3 years 1676: Mohawks allied with colonists kill 1676: Mohawks allied with colonists kill

Metacomet (King Philip)Metacomet (King Philip)

RevolutionRevolutionPick Your HorsePick Your Horse

► ~ 13,000 warriors ~ 13,000 warriors fought on the fought on the British side British side

► Americans Americans resented tribal resented tribal help to Brits help to Brits

wanted to treat wanted to treat them as a them as a conquered peopleconquered people

Noble SavagesNoble Savages

Others saw them as needing to be Others saw them as needing to be civilized (Jefferson)civilized (Jefferson)

Isolation and EradicationIsolation and Eradication1830s-1840s1830s-1840s

““noble savage” idea had become noble savage” idea had become “savage” especially in West (remember “savage” especially in West (remember common man)common man)

AssimilationAssimilation1880s-1940s1880s-1940s

► return to idea that return to idea that Indians are Indians are civilizablecivilizable Offshoot of Offshoot of

Progressive eraProgressive era

► ““Kill the Indian, Kill the Indian, save the Man”save the Man”

Indian Boarding SchoolsIndian Boarding Schools►creation of Indian creation of Indian

boarding schoolsboarding schools No languageNo language No traditions No traditions No familiesNo families Sent out to white Sent out to white

families on breaks to families on breaks to work as servantswork as servants

1879: Carlisle Indian 1879: Carlisle Indian Industrial School (PA)Industrial School (PA)

Conservation of CultureConservation of Culture1935-19501935-1950

► Indian New DealIndian New Deal► Romanticization of Romanticization of

American Indian American Indian cultureculture Many stereotypes Many stereotypes

still prevalent still prevalent

Self-Determination:Self-Determination:American Indian MovementAmerican Indian Movement

1970s1970s► AIMAIM

Grew out of Civil Rights Movement of 1960sGrew out of Civil Rights Movement of 1960s reclamation of tribal land reclamation of tribal land Much more forceful than other movementsMuch more forceful than other movements

► 75 takeovers of federal buildings or land75 takeovers of federal buildings or land► 1969: Alcatraz, 1972: Trail of Broken Treaties, 1973: 1969: Alcatraz, 1972: Trail of Broken Treaties, 1973:

Pine Ridge (Wounded Knee)Pine Ridge (Wounded Knee)

As LandownersAs Landowners

Go West, Young ManGo West, Young Man

►Land issue: Land issue: westward movement of settlers creates westward movement of settlers creates

tensions with Native American tribestensions with Native American tribes

French and Indian War:French and Indian War:Stuck in the Middle with YouStuck in the Middle with You

1748: Iroquois grant trading rights to 1748: Iroquois grant trading rights to English merchants in interiorEnglish merchants in interior

tensions build until war breaks out in tensions build until war breaks out in 1754 (Fort Necessity, Fort Duquesne)1754 (Fort Necessity, Fort Duquesne)

Almost all tribes aligned with FrenchAlmost all tribes aligned with French Iroquois aligned with GB, but also Iroquois aligned with GB, but also

essentially didn’t fight at allessentially didn’t fight at all

Back to Where We StartedBack to Where We Started

War ends with Peace War ends with Peace of Paris (1763)of Paris (1763)►white settlers begin white settlers begin

crossing into valley crossing into valley immediatelyimmediately

Pontiac’s Rebellion Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)(1763)

Proclamation of 1763Proclamation of 1763►improved British improved British

relations with Native relations with Native AmericansAmericans

►line didn’t workline didn’t work

Land in the New RepublicLand in the New Republic

► Western Western FrontierFrontier

Land Land ordinances of ordinances of 1784-87 led 1784-87 led to border to border conflictsconflicts

Sign on the Dotted LineSign on the Dotted Line

1784, 85, 86: 1784, 85, 86: Iroquois, Iroquois, Choctaws, Choctaws, Cherokee, Creek, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaws all Chickasaws all signed treaties signed treaties with government with government ceding landceding land

ResistanceResistance

1791: Little Turtle led Shawnee, Miami and 1791: Little Turtle led Shawnee, Miami and Delaware in battles near Ohio border Delaware in battles near Ohio border

1795: Miami signed Treaty of 1795: Miami signed Treaty of GrenvilleGrenville

►lots of land for lots of land for recognition of recognition of claim to the part claim to the part they keptthey kept

►first recognition first recognition by US gov’t of by US gov’t of sovereignty of sovereignty of Indian nationsIndian nations

More Tricky TreatiesMore Tricky Treaties

► 1801: Jefferson: 1801: Jefferson: assimilate or move assimilate or move west of Mississippiwest of Mississippi

Give up claims in Give up claims in Northwest TerritoryNorthwest Territory

► Harrison manipulated Harrison manipulated treatiestreaties

by 1807: US had by 1807: US had treaty rights to treaty rights to Eastern Michigan, Eastern Michigan, Southern Indiana, Southern Indiana, most of ILmost of IL

land taken in GA, land taken in GA, MI, TNMI, TN

Tecumseh and the ProphetTecumseh and the Prophet

Rise of the Prophet (Tenskwatawa)Rise of the Prophet (Tenskwatawa)►brought tribes together through religion (so rolled over brought tribes together through religion (so rolled over

to politics and military)to politics and military) Prophet’s brother was TecumsehProphet’s brother was Tecumseh

► led secular unification of all tribes of Mississippi Valleyled secular unification of all tribes of Mississippi Valley 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe1811: Battle of Tippecanoe

Indian RemovalIndian Removal1830-1839 1830-1839

1.1. Remember: Remember: savagesavage

2.2. Fear of Fear of unending unending violence in violence in WestWest

3.3. Desire for Desire for landland

Congressional LegislationCongressional Legislation

►1830: Removal 1830: Removal ActAct provided funds provided funds

for negotiating for negotiating treaties that treaties that would remove would remove tribes to Westtribes to West

►1834: Indian 1834: Indian Intercourse ActIntercourse Act created Indian created Indian Territory west of Territory west of MississippiMississippi

Dislocation of Five Civilized Dislocation of Five Civilized TribesTribes

►1830: Choctaws removed1830: Choctaws removed►1835: Treaty of New Echota with 1835: Treaty of New Echota with

Cherokee Cherokee ►1836: Creeks 1836: Creeks ►1837: Chickasaw 1837: Chickasaw ►1838: Trail of Tears1838: Trail of Tears

SummarySummary

by 1839:by 1839:►All important Indian societies moved All important Indian societies moved

westwest►100 mill acres of land ceded100 mill acres of land ceded► received $68 mill received $68 mill ►32 mill acres of less usable land in 32 mill acres of less usable land in

exchangeexchange

Westward Expansion—the Far Westward Expansion—the Far WestWest

Government policyGovernment policy► 1851: each tribe assigned its own treaty instead of 1851: each tribe assigned its own treaty instead of

“One Big Reservation” idea“One Big Reservation” idea► allowed government to take most desirable land and allowed government to take most desirable land and

separate Indians physically and politicallyseparate Indians physically and politically

ResistanceResistance Continual fighting from 1850s-1880sContinual fighting from 1850s-1880s treaties of 1867=temporary peacetreaties of 1867=temporary peace new settlers moved into lands guaranteed to tribes in early new settlers moved into lands guaranteed to tribes in early

1870s1870s federal government stopped recognizing tribes as federal government stopped recognizing tribes as

independent entities independent entities would no longer negotiate with chiefswould no longer negotiate with chiefs

Indian Wars EndIndian Wars End►Fierce fighting through Civil WarFierce fighting through Civil War►1874-1886: Geronimo fought from bases in 1874-1886: Geronimo fought from bases in

Mexico and ArizonaMexico and Arizona►dwindling troops as people died or gave updwindling troops as people died or gave up►surrendered in 1886=official end of fighting surrendered in 1886=official end of fighting

betweens whites and Indiansbetweens whites and Indians

As CitizensAs Citizens

ConstitutionConstitution

► Addressed Native Americans:Addressed Native Americans: excluded “native americans not taxed” excluded “native americans not taxed”

from pop count for representationfrom pop count for representation gave Congress power to negotiate gave Congress power to negotiate

treaties with tribestreaties with tribes Art. VI kept all treaties under Articles of Art. VI kept all treaties under Articles of

Confederation valid Confederation valid legal standing very unclear—big issue as legal standing very unclear—big issue as

time went ontime went on

In the CourtsIn the Courts

Marshall Marshall made made decisions that decisions that helped to helped to clarify political clarify political status of status of Native Native Americans Americans

Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)

►leaders of Illinois and Pinakeshaw tribes sold leaders of Illinois and Pinakeshaw tribes sold land to white settlers (Johnson)land to white settlers (Johnson)

►then ceded land to US governmentthen ceded land to US government►Government issued homesteads to new white Government issued homesteads to new white

settlers (McIntosh)settlers (McIntosh)►Marshall favored governmentMarshall favored government►Only government could buy or take land from Only government could buy or take land from

Native AmericansNative Americans

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1829)(1829)

►GA passed a law abolishing GA passed a law abolishing Cherokee legislature and courtsCherokee legislature and courts

►Marshall refused to hear case: Marshall refused to hear case: Cherokee not a foreign nationCherokee not a foreign nation

►““Trust Relationship”= Trust Relationship”=

Tribes: Government :: Tribes: Government :: ward :guardianward :guardian

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

►GA passed law requiring any citizen GA passed law requiring any citizen wanting to enter Cherokee territory to wanting to enter Cherokee territory to get permission from governorget permission from governor

►2 missionaries sued claiming violation 2 missionaries sued claiming violation of federal power to regulate tradeof federal power to regulate trade

►Marshall invalidated GA lawMarshall invalidated GA law► Tribes were sovereign entities like Tribes were sovereign entities like

GA, and so they had boundaries in GA, and so they had boundaries in which “their authority is exclusive”which “their authority is exclusive”

The Dawes Severalty Act – 1887The Dawes Severalty Act – 1887

gradual elimination of gradual elimination of tribal ownership of tribal ownership of landland

160 to head of family, 160 to head of family, 80 to a single adult or 80 to a single adult or orphan, 40 acres to orphan, 40 acres to each dependent childeach dependent child

force assimilation to force assimilation to white model of societywhite model of society

tribal land reduced tribal land reduced from 155 mil acres to from 155 mil acres to 48 mil acres by 193448 mil acres by 1934

Citizenship GrantedCitizenship Granted

► Inconsistent Inconsistent citizenship:citizenship: by marrying white by marrying white

menmen through military through military

serviceservice by allotments by allotments

►1924: Indian 1924: Indian Citizenship ActCitizenship Act

New Deal for IndiansNew Deal for Indians1933-19451933-1945

► 1933: John Collier 1933: John Collier commissioner of commissioner of Indian AffairsIndian Affairs

created Indian created Indian Emergency Emergency Conservation Conservation Program (IECP)Program (IECP)► employed 85,000 employed 85,000

Nat AmNat Am required other required other

organizations to organizations to hire Native hire Native Americans tooAmericans too

1934: Indian Reorganization Act1934: Indian Reorganization Act►ended Dawesended Dawes►provided funds for tribes to buy new landprovided funds for tribes to buy new land►recognized tribal constitutionsrecognized tribal constitutions►federal grants to provide social servicesfederal grants to provide social services►prohibitions on language, religion and custom prohibitions on language, religion and custom

liftedlifted

Termination EraTermination Era1950s1950s

"In return [for being terminated], "In return [for being terminated], individual tribal members received a individual tribal members received a check for the value of their land…The check for the value of their land…The check did not compensate for the check did not compensate for the loss of federal benefits or the new loss of federal benefits or the new tax burdens.  It could not pay for the tax burdens.  It could not pay for the loss of tribal governmental authority, loss of tribal governmental authority, or compensate for the discrimination or compensate for the discrimination that followed in the state agencies that followed in the state agencies and courts.  Perhaps most tragic of and courts.  Perhaps most tragic of all, the check could not possibly pay all, the check could not possibly pay for the psychological costs of "not for the psychological costs of "not being an Indian any more."being an Indian any more."

► Reprinted from Reprinted from Federal Indian Law, Federal Indian Law, Getches and Getches and Wilkinson, 2nd Ed., 1998, with permission of the Wilkinson, 2nd Ed., 1998, with permission of the West Group.  West Group.  

► Attempt to reduce Attempt to reduce government government involvementinvolvement

► Return to assimilationReturn to assimilation► Reduced Reduced

responsibilities of BIAresponsibilities of BIA► Tried to repay tribes for Tried to repay tribes for

lands taken illegallylands taken illegally► HCR 108 (1953): HCR 108 (1953):

Official end of trust Official end of trust relationshiprelationship

Self-DeterminationSelf-Determination1970-present1970-present

►Native American Native American tribes are semi-tribes are semi-autonomousautonomous

► Independent Independent governmentsgovernments

► federal government federal government in role of protector in role of protector to allow for self-to allow for self-governmentgovernment