Nationalism, Ethnicity and Religious Conflict

Professor Eric KaufmannBirkbeck College, University of London

twitter: @epkaufm

Ethnic GroupComprehensive Definition• a collective proper name• a myth of common ancestry• shared historical memories• one or more differentiating

elements of common culture• an association with a specific

'homeland'• a sense of solidarity for

significant sectors of the population

Nation

Comprehensive definition:• a collective proper name• occupation of a historic territory• integrated territorial economy and

communications infrastructure• common political myths and

memories• mass, public culture• Does NOT require own state to be a

nation

Nationalism- A particularist social and political

movement for attaining identity, unity and autonomy on behalf of a social group, whose leaders believe it to constitute an actual or potential 'nation.‘

- A universal ideology which posits that:• The world is divided into nations, each

with its own particular character• The nation is the proper source of

political power• Everyone must belong to/owe primary

loyalty to their nation• Every nation must seek full autonomy• World order must be based on free

nations

‘Imperfect Fit’ Between Cultural and Political Units• Many cultural units under one

political roof (Spain, Nigeria)• One cultural unit under multiple

roofs (Arab world, pre-1871 Germany)

• Non-territorial immigrant groups upsetting the congruence between culture and politics (multicultural Germany, USA)

But are ethnic groups and nations natural or invented?• Why Catalonia and not Galicia?• Arab or Egyptian, Sumerian,

Phoenician?• Do states invent divisions?• Do ethnic entrepreneurs invent

divisions?

Are ethnic groups and nations ‘natural’ or invented?• 3 schools: modernist,

ethnosymbolist, primordialist• Motivation for creation and

reproduction of nations and ethnic groups

Largest Ethnic Group (%), 151 Countries, 1998

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Liber

ia

Leba

non

Côte

d'Ivo

ir

Indo

nesia

Gabon

Iran

Nigeria

Gambia

Canad

a

Venez

uela

Mor

occo

New Z

ealan

d

Croati

a

Turke

y

Austra

lia

Vietna

m, Soc

Franc

e

Chile

Egypt

Haiti

Norway

Portu

gal

% L

arg

es

t G

rou

p

Source: Vanhanen 1999

Largest Ethnic Group % (Vanhanen 1999)

Secession and Self-Determination• 195 states, 6000 ethnic groups• Separatism vs Self-determination• Former need not imply a desire to break free:

• Federalism - group representation at institutions of centre; power to federal unit

• Devolution of powers: legislature, symbols/culture, taxation, military

• Self-Determination aims not inevitable (60% of 285 in MAR dataset 1945-2003); Violent rebellion even less so (25% of self-determination cases)

Ethnic Fractionalization (Fearon-Laitin 2003)

Why Violence?

• Vanhanen suggests that ethnic heterogeneity inevitably leads to ethnic conflict, including violent ethnic conflict

• EH = .536, much stronger than GDP/head (-.208) or Democracy (-.089)

• Fearon and Laitin 2003 – rough terrain, weak state, low GDP per capita, oil curse. Ethnic diversity does not matter.

• Depends how you measure conflict (onset, duration, size of war)

Religion and Nationalism

Religion and Nationalism

Religion

• Spiritual function• ‘Tribal’ function: Durkheim• Aspects:

I. Religious textsII. Religious customs, rituals and practices as identifiable cultural markersIII. Religious institutions and clergy

• Can be Ethnic/Nationalist or Anti-Nationalist

Religious Texts Often Oppose Nationalism• Division between This World and Other World:• “Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s, and unto God the

things that are God’s” – Matthew 20:21• 'People should give up their pride in nations because this is a coal

from the coals of hell-fire. If they do not give this up Allah (swt) will consider them lower than a lowly dung worm which pushes itself through feces.' (Muhammad's hadith recorded by Abu-Dawood and al-Tirmidhi)

Religion vs Nationalism• Anti-clerical nationalism• Catholic, Orthodox, Jewish, Muslim

resistance• Protestantism, Buddhism,

Hinduism often less anti-nationalist

• Is Salafi-Jihadi Islamism nationalist or anti-nationalist?

Does Religious Compassion Dampen Ethnic Violence?• Clearly not when the 'Other' is demonised as heathen and

dehumanised• But religious emphasis on proselytism and ethics can restrain:

• Conquistadors v Indians in Spain• Missionaries in German SW Africa• Catholic priests and clerical Orangemen during the N. Irish Troubles (1969-94)

act as a brake on violent sectarianism

Conclusion• Problems of nationalism concern the overlap of culture and politics, whether

actual or constructed• Cultural differences within states are only sometimes politicised, and only

sometimes violent• Weak states, rugged terrain, myths and memories, and poverty can interact

with diversity to produce ethnic violence• Ethnic nationalists view immigration as a threat to cultural-political

congruence• State nationalists view cultural autonomy and power sharing as threats to

cultural-political congruence• Religion sometimes reinforces, sometimes opposes, nationalism• Religion sometimes reinforces, sometimes opposes, nationalist violence