national geographic geography skills handbook · 2010-11-23 · geography skills handbook...
TRANSCRIPT
Geography Skills Handbook
1 LocationLocation describes where something is. Absolute location describes a place’s exact position on the Earth’s surface. Relative location expresses where a place is in relation to another place.
2 PlacePlace describes the physical and human characteristics that make a location unique.
3 RegionsRegions are areas that share common characteristics.
4 MovementMovement explains how and why people and things move and are connected.
5 Human-Environment InteractionHuman-Environment Interaction describes the relationship between people and their environment.
How Do I Study Geography?
Geographers have tried to understand the best way to teach and learn about geography. In order to do this, geographers created the Five Themes of Geography. The themes
acted as a guide for teaching the basic ideas about geography to students like yourself.
People who teach and study geography, though, thought that the Five Themes were too broad. In 1994, geographers created 18 national geography standards. These standards were more detailed about what should be taught and learned. The Six Essential Elements act as a bridge connecting the Five Themes with the standards.
These pages show you how the Five Themes are related to the Six Essential Elements and the 18 standards.
5Themes of Geography
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Themes and Elements
6Essential Elements
18Geography Standards
I. The World in Spatial Terms Geographers look to see where a place is located. Location acts as a starting point to answer “Where Is It?” The location of a place helps you orient yourself as to where you are.
1 How to use maps and other tools
2 How to use mental maps to organize information
3 How to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments
II. Places and RegionsPlace describes physical characteristics such as landforms, climate, and plant or animal life. It might also describe human characteristics, including language and way of life. Places can also be organized into regions. Regions are places united by one or more characteristics.
III. Physical SystemsGeographers study how physical systems, such as hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers, shape the surface of the Earth. They also look at how plants and animals depend upon one another and their surroundings for their survival.
IV. Human SystemsPeople shape the world in which they live. They settle in certain places but not in others. An ongoing theme in geography is the movement of people, ideas, and goods.
V. Environment and SocietyHow does the relationship between people and their natural surroundings influence the way people live? Geographers study how people use the environment and how their actions affect the environment.
VI. The Uses of Geography Knowledge of geography helps us understand the relationships among people, places, and environments over time. Applying geographic skills helps you understand the past and prepare for the future.
17 How to apply geography to interpret the past
18 How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future
7 The physical processes that shape Earth’s surface
8 The distribution of ecosystems on Earth’s surface
9 The characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations
10 The complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics
11 The patterns and networks of economic interdependence
12 The patterns of human settlement
13 The forces of cooperation and confl ict
14 How human actions modify the physical environment
15 How physical systems aff ect human systems
16 The meaning, use, and distribution of resources
4 The physical and human characteristics of places
5 How people create regions to interpret Earth’s complexity
6 How culture and experience infl uence people’s perceptions of places and regions
GH1
Geography Skills HandbookThroughout this text, you will discover how geography has shaped the course of events in United States history. Landforms, waterways, climate, and natural resources all have helped or hindered human activities. Usually people have learned either to adapt to their environments or to transform it to meet their needs. The resources in this handbook will help you get the most out of your textbook—and provide you with skills you will use for the rest of your life.
The study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about places. Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about the Earth, pursuing their answers, and solving problems. Thus, one of the most important geo-graphic tools is inside your head: the ability to think geographically.
ContentsGlobes and Maps (p. GH3)• From 3-D to 2-D• Great Circle Routes
Projections (p. GH4)• Planar Projection• Cylindrical Projection• Conic Projection
Common Map Projections (p. GH5)• Winkel Tripel Projection• Robinson Projection• Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area
Projection• Mercator Projection
Determining Location (p. GH6)• Latitude• Longitude • The Global Grid• Northern and Southern Hemispheres• Eastern and Western Hemispheres
Reading a Map (p. GH8)• Using Scale• Absolute and Relative Location
Physical Maps (p. GH10)
Political Maps (p. GH11)
Thematic Maps (p. GH12)• Qualitative Maps• Flow-Line Maps
Geographic Information Systems (p. GH13)
Geographic Dictionary (p. GH14)
GH2 Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH3
From 3-D to 2-DThink about the surface of the Earth as the
peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have to cut it like the globe shown here. To create maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or cartographers, use mathematical formulas to transfer information from the three-dimensional globe to the two-dimensional map. However, when the curves of a globe become straight lines on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or area occurs.
Great Circle RoutesA straight line of true direction—one that runs
directly from west to east, for example—is not always the shortest distance between two points. This is due to the curvature of the Earth. To find the shortest distance, stretch a piece of string around a globe from one point to the other. The string will form part of a great circle, an imagi-nary line the follows the curve of the Earth. Ship captains and airline pilots use these great circle routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel.
The idea of a great circle route is an important difference between globes and maps. A round
globe accurately shows a great circle route, as indicated on the map below. However, as shown on the flat map, the great circle distance (dotted l ine) between Tokyo and Los Angeles appears to be far longer than the true direction distance (solid line). In fact, the great circle dis-tance is 345 miles (555 km) shorter.
Globes and MapsA globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe
presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part of the planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail.
Tokyo Los Angeles 5,472 mi. (8,807 km)
Great Circle Distance
True Direction Distance 5,787 mi. (9,313 km)
N
S
W E
Great Circle Route
Tokyo Los
Angeles
NorthPole
N
S
W E
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: globe, map, cartographer, great circle route.
2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of a globe become straight lines on a map.
3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the similarities and differences between globes and maps.
Globes Maps
D
C
GH3
TeachD Differentiated
InstructionVisual/Spatial Use an orange to illustrate the challenges of transferring measurements from a three-dimensional to a two-dimensional form. Sketch an out-line of the continents and two or three lines of longitude and lati-tude onto an orange. Then care-fully remove the peel (in one piece, if possible) and gently flat-ten it. Allow students to examine the peel, and point out how lines and shapes are distorted when the curved peel is flattened. OL
C Critical ThinkingMaking Inferences Have stu-dents use a piece of string and a globe to find the shortest route from New York to Hong Kong. (over the top of the globe) OL
Answers1. globe: scale model of the Earth; map: sym-
bolic representation of all or part of the planet; cartographer: mapmakers; great circle route: routes that follow the great circle along the curve of the Earth
2. Size, shape, distance, or area becomes distorted.
3. Globes present the most accurate depic-tion of geographic information such as area, distance, and direction, but do not show close-up detail. Maps are symbolic representations of all or part of the planet and can show areas in great detail. Both show information about places on the Earth.
Geography Handbook
GH4 Geography Handbook
ProjectionsTo create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat
surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usu-ally dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projec-tions, some with general names and some named for the cartographers who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown here: planar, cylindrical, and conic.
EQUATOR
EQUATOR
Planar ProjectionA planar projection shows the Earth centered
in such a way that a straight line coming from the center to any other point represents the shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a result, it is often used for maps of the Poles.
Cylindrical ProjectionA cylindrical projection is based on the projec-
tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes and distances are distorted near the Poles.
Conic ProjectionA conic projection comes from placing a cone
over part of a globe. Conic projections are best suited for showing limited east-west areas that are not too far from the Equator. For these uses, a conic projection can indicate distances and directions fairly accurately.
C
D
GH4
Differentiated Instruction
C Critical ThinkingIdentifying Central Issues Ask: Why do map makers use projections? (Projections help in transferring information from a three-dimensional surface to a two-dimensional surface.) OL
D Differentiated InstructionKinesthetic If students are struggling with the concept of projection, give them a large sheet of paper or poster board and a globe. Have students place the paper and the globe in the same physical relationships shown in the illustrations. Check to make sure students can visualize how each projection offers a different approximation of the sphere. BL
Visual/Spatial To help students remember the several different categories and examples of maps discussed in this section, guide them in creating a graphic organizer entitled “Types of Maps.” Branching this main head should be three boxes labeled “Political,” “Physical,” and
“Special-Purpose.” Have students complete the organizer by taking notes on each of the differ-ent types of maps. OL
Activity: Creating a Graphic Organizer
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH5
Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel pro-jection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape.
PRIM
E M
ERID
IAN
EQUATOR
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened.
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
PRIM
E M
ERID
IAN
An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area pro-jection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, but distances are generally distorted.
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
PRIM
EM
ERID
IAN
The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator pro-jections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
PRIM
E M
ERID
IAN
Common Map Projections
Winkel Tripel Projection
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
Robinson Projection
Mercator Projection
Each type of map projection has advantages and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most common projections are shown here.
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: map projection, planar, cylindrical, conic, interrupted projection.
2. How does a cartographer determine which map pro-jection to use?
3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection dif-ferent from the Mercator projection?
4. Which of the four common projections described above is the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why?
5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel and Mercator projections.
Winkel Tripel projection
Mercatorprojection
C
R
GH5
C Critical ThinkingComparing and Contrasting Ask students to cover the text and look at the selected projections. Ask: What is one similarity and one difference between the Winkel Tripel Projection and the Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection? (similarity: both show all of the continents; difference: Goode’s projection splits Antarctica into four pieces, while the Winkel Tripel projection does not.) BL
R Reading StrategyAnalyzing Text Structure Have students read the selected captions. Ask: How is the infor-mation structured in these cap-tions? (Both captions propose a benefit of the projection, followed by a drawback.) OL
Answers1. map projection: projecting image of
earth onto a flat surface to make a map, different projections have their advantages/disadvantages. planar: shows shortest distance between points, most often used for maps of the Poles; cylindrical: most accurate near the Equator; conic: best for limited east-west
areas not too far from the Equator; inter-rupted projection: shows true size and shape of Earth but distorts distances
2. by deciding what it will be used for to determine the least distortion
3. Goode distorts distances while show-ing the true size and shape. Mercator distorts size and distances but shows true directions.
4. Winkel Tripel, because it distorts the size and shape of landmasses the least.
5. Both show all continents with little to no distortion of shape. Mercator shows true direction, but distorts land size and distance. Winkel Tripel shows little size distortion.
Geography Handbook
GH6 Geography Handbook
Determining LocationGeography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic
tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find exact places on the Earth’s surface.
A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided. Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four hemispheres.
0° (Equator)
15°N
15°S
30°S
45°S
90°E105°E 120°E
135°E75°E60°E
30°N
45°N
60°N
75°N90°N (North Pole)
Tokyo
0° (Prime Meridian) 15°E15°W
30°W45°W
60°W
30°E45°E
60°E
0° (Equator)
15°N
15°S
30°S
45°S60°S
90°S (South Pole) 75°S
30°N
45°N
60°N
75°N90°N (North Pole)
LatitudeLines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel
to the Equator and measure the distance north or south of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at 0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north) and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are called south latitude.
LongitudeLines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude. Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on the opposite side of the Earth is called the International Date Line.
The Global GridEvery place has a global address, or absolute location.
You can identify the absolute location of a place by naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at 36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units called minutes.
S
D
GH6
S Skill PracticeVisual Literacy Have students study the selected figures. Ask: What are two differences between longitude and latitude? (Lines of latitude run horizontally and are parallel. Lines of longitude run vertically and intersect at the poles.) OL
D Differentiated InstructionLogical/Mathematical Have students use the Internet or library resources to determine their exact absolute location. If you have access to GPS equipment, you may wish to let students use it to check their work. OL
Hands-On Chapter Project
Creating a Global Treasure Hunt
Directions Organize students into teams and have each team choose 10 places on Earth to research and study. Students may choose places that are well known or unfa-miliar. However, all places should be on land and located at least 50 miles (80 km) from each other. Tell students to make a list of 8–10 interesting facts about each place.
Putting It Together Tell students to “bury” their treasure in each of the loca-tions. Then have students use the facts they learned about the place to create clues for a Treasure Atlas. Clues will be locations, that, when followed, will lead to the buried treasure. The correct response to each clue will be a place name and coordinates that can be easily looked up. Clues should be written on index cards. Students should list all the clues with their answers on
a separate sheet of paper. Each correct answer earns another clue to a new loca-tion, eventually leading to the buried trea-sure, so remind students to make sure their clues follow a logical route. OL
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH7
Northern and Southern Hemispheres
The diagram below shows that the Equator divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is in the Northern Hemisphere. Every thing south of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.
NORTH AMERICA
ASIA
EUROPEAFRICA
ATLANTIC OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEANNorth
Pole
SOUTHAMERICA
AUSTRALIA
AFRICA
ANTARCTICA
INDIANOCEAN
ATLANTIC OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
SouthPole
SOUTHAMERICA
NORTH AMERICA
ATLANTIC OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
ASIA
EUROPE
AFRICA
INDIANOCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
Eastern and Western Hemispheres
The Prime Meridian and the International Date Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Every thing east of the Prime Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is in the Western Hemisphere.
Eastern HemisphereNorthern Hemisphere
Western HemisphereSouthern Hemisphere
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: location, grid system, hemisphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere, latitude, longitude, Prime Meridian, absolute location.
2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the Prime Meridian 0° longitude?
3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth into hemispheres?
4. Using the Reference Atlas maps, fi ll in a chart like the one below by writing the latitude and longitude of three
world cities. Have a partner try to identify the cities.
5. Use a chart like the one below to identify the conti-nents in each hemisphere. Some may be in more than one hemisphere.
Hemisphere Continents
Northern
Southern
Eastern
Western
S
C
GH7GH7
S Skill PracticeVisual Literacy Point out that most people probably are not used to seeing the globe from these angles. Ask: What view do these illustrations show? (the globe viewed from the top and the bottom) Ask: How do you generally view the globe? (from the side, along the Equator) If students still struggle to understand the difference between these views, use an actual globe to show them the view reflected in the illustration. BL
C Critical ThinkingDetecting Bias Ask: Since planet Earth has no true top or bottom, why do globes show Europe on the top half of Earth? (early map makers and explorers were from Europe) AL
Answers1. location: a specific place on Earth; grid
system: pattern formed as the lines of latitude and longitude cross one another; hemisphere: half of a sphere or globe; Northern Hemisphere: everything north of the Equator; Southern Hemisphere: everything south of the Equator; Eastern Hemisphere: everything
east of the Prime Meridian for 180°; Western Hemisphere: everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180°
2. They are where the division between north/south (N/S) and east/west (E/W) occur, respectively.
3. Equator and Prime Meridian
4. Answers will vary according to cities chosen.
5. Northern: North America, Asia, Europe, Africa; Eastern: Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia; Southern: Antarctica, Australia, South America, Africa; Western: North America, South America
Geography Handbook
GH8 Geography Handbook
Reading a MapIn addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important
tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps more easily.
60°N
40°N
50°N
20°E30°E
40°E 50°E10°E0°
10°W20°W30°W
ARCTIC CIRCLE
BlackSea
NorthSea
ATLANTIC OCEAN
MediterraneanSea
Baltic
Sea
London
Paris
Lisbon Rome
Sarajevo
TiraneCetinje
Amsterdam
Brussels
Berlin
BernBudapest
Bucharest
ConstantinopleSofia
Athens
Belgrade
Vienna
Madrid
Seville
Copenhagen
Christiania(Oslo)
Helsingfors(Helsinki)
Stockholm
St.Petersburg
AFRICA
GERMANY
R U S S I A
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
NETH.
DENMARK
LUX.
LIECHT.
ANDORRA
MONACOSAN
MARINO
SWITZ.
BELG.
PORTUGAL
UNITEDKINGDOM
SPAIN
FRANCE
ITALY
SWEDENNORWAY
ROMANIA
SERBIAMONT.
ALBANIA
BULGARIA
GREECE OTTOMANEMPIRE
ICELANDDen.
MALTAU.K.
CYPRUSU.K.
600 miles
600 kilometers
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 0
0
N
S
W
E
NationalboundaryNationalcapitalMajor city
TitleThe title tells you what kind of information the map is showing.
KeyThe key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend.
Scale BarThe scale bar shows the relation-ship between map measurements and actual distances on the Earth. By laying a ruler along the scale bar, you can calculate how many miles or kilometers are represented per inch or centimeter. The map projection used to create the map is often listed near the scale bar.
Compass RoseThe compass rose indicates directions. The four cardinaldirections— north, south, east, and west — are usually indicated with arrows or the points of a star. The intermediate directions —northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest — may also be shown.
CitiesCities are represented by a dot. Sometimes the relative sizes of cities are shown using dots of differ-ent sizes.
CapitalsNational capitals are often represented by a star within a circle.
Boundary LinesOn political maps of large areas, boundary lines highlight the borders between differ-ent countries or states.
S
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GH8
S Skill PracticeUsing Geography Skills Have students use the scale bar on the map to calculate the distance in kilometers between Paris and Stockholm. First, have students use a ruler to measure the distance between the cities on the map in centimeters (4.5 cm). Then, have students measure the map’s scale in centimeters. (600 km 5 1.7 cm) Ask: How can you use this to find the distance between Paris and Stockholm? (set up a proportion:
R Reading StrategyReading Maps Ask: According to the map, what is the capital of Russia? (St. Petersburg) Ask: What major city is located southeast of Vienna? (Budapest) OL
Additional Support
Contrasting Have students use an Internet mapping Web site to help them understand scale. Tell students to find a particular location, such as their school or home address. Then have them use the map’s zoom function to help visualize the benefits of increasing and decreas-ing scale when viewing a location. Ask: To find the nearest lake, would you use a distant or a
close view? (distant view) Ask: What view would show the names of neighboring streets? (closer view) Point out that a distant view corre-sponds to an increase in scale: it allows you to view a wider area but you cannot see much detail. Conversely, a close view corresponds to a decrease in scale: detail is increased, but the size of the area is diminished. OL
Activity: Technology Connection
600 km 5
x 1.7 cm 4 cm
x 5 600 km 3 4 cm1.7 cm
x 5 1,412 km) OL
Europe: Political
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH9
Using ScaleAll maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, propor-
tional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and the measurement of the Earth’s surface.
50°N
45°N
0°5°W 5°E 10°E
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Bay of Biscay
English Channel
Corsica
FRANCE
SPAIN
U.K.
GERMANY
SWITZ.
ITALY
LUX.
ANDORRA
BELG.
Paris
Nantes
Lyon
Toulouse
Marseille
Nice
Orléans
Bordeaux
Lille
NationalboundaryRegionalboundaryNationalcapitalMajor city
200 miles
200 kilometers
0
0
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
N
S
W E
France: Political
Seine
PARC MONCEAU
CHAMPDE MARS
ESPLANADEDES INVALIDES
TUILERIESGARDENS
Île de la Cité
AV DE VILLIERS
BLVD DES
COURCELLES
BLVD
BLVD HAUSSMANN
GRANDS BLVDS
RUE DE RIVOLI BLVD BLVD
RASPA
IL SAINT GERMAIN
BLV
D
ST M
ICH
EL
BLVD
DE
SÉBA
STO
POL
BLVD
DE
STRA
SBO
URG
MALESHERBES
BLVD DE
BATIGNOLLES
CHAMPS ÉLYSÉES
QUAI DES TUILERIES
BLVD DE CLICHY
QUAI D’ORSAYMARAIS
MONTMARTRE
INVALIDES
ST. GERMAIN
LATIN QUARTER
CHAILLOT
TERNES
Arc de Triomphe
PlaceCharles
de Gaulle (Étoile)
Place de la Concorde
Grand Palais
NationalAssembly
RodinMuseum
Hôtel des Invalides
Eiffel Tower
Louvre
Notre Dame
Sorbonne
LuxembourgPalace
Hôtelde Ville
BibliothéqueNationale
PompidouCenter
Opéra
Sacré Coeur
Gare du Nord
Gare de l’Est Gare
St. Lazare
1 mile
1 kilometer
0
0
N
S
W E
The City of Paris
Absolute and Relative LocationAs you learned on page GH6, absolute location
is the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a line of longitude. Another way to indicate location is by relative location, or the location of one place in relation to another. To find relative location,
Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this political map of France, can show a large area but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to 200 miles.
Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this map of Paris, can show a small area with a great amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that the map measurements correspond to much smaller distances than on the map of France.
find a reference point—a location you already know—on a map. Then look in the appropriate direction for the new location. For example, locate Paris (your reference point) on the map of France above. The relative location of Lyon can be described as southeast of Paris.
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: key, compass rose, cardinal directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, rela-tive location.
2. Describe the elements of a map that help you inter-pret the information displayed on the map.
3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances on the Earth’s surface?
4. Describe the relative location of your school in two different ways.
5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and differences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps.
Small-scale maps Large-scale maps
W
D
GH9
W Writing SupportExpository Writing To give students practice thinking about scale, have them write about two imaginary experiences. First, have students imagine they are an ant beginning to climb a tree. Next, have them imagine they are giants bending down to look at a nest in the top of the same tree. OL
D Differentiated InstructionKinesthetic Have two students stand side-by-side, but 10 feet (3 m) apart. Ask: What is the relative position of each student to the other? (One is 10 feet (3 m) to the left. The other is 10 feet (3 m) to the right.) BL
Answers1. key: lists and explains symbols, colors,
and lines on map; compass rose: indi-cates direction; cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west; interme-diate directions: northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest; scale bar: shows relationship between map mea-surements and actual distances on
Earth; scale: consistent, proportional relationship between measurements shown on map and measurement of Earth’s surface; relative location: loca-tion of one place in relation to another
2. title tells kind of information shown on map; key lists and explains symbols, colors, and lines used on map; scale bar shows relationship between map
measurements and actual distances on Earth; compass rose indicates direction
3. shows the relationship between map measurements and actual distances
4. Answers will vary according to school.
5. Small scale shows large areas but little detail. Large scale shows small area with great detail. Both show location.
Geography Handbook
GH10 Geography Handbook
98°W
102°W106°W
94°W
28°N
32°N
36°N
Red River
Sabine River
Brazos
River
Colorado River
RioG
rande
Pecos RiverCanadian River
Nueces River
Neches River
Trinity
River
Toledo Bend Res.
Sam Rayburn Res.
LakeTexoma
GalvestonBay
MatagordaBay
Gulf of Mexico
Guadalupe Peak 8,749 ft. (2,667 m)
PadreIsland
DavisMts.
ChisosMts.
StocktonPlateau
RO
CK
YM
OU
NT A
I NS
GR
EAT
PL A
I NS
Llano
Esta
cado
EdwardsPlateau
BalconesEscarpment
Coast
al
Plain
NEWMEXICO
OKLAHOMA
MO.
ARK.
T E X A S
LA.
MEXICO
100 miles
100 kilometers
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection0
0
N
S
W E
Feet4,9203,2801,640
6550
MetersElevations
1,5001,000
500200
0
Mountain peak
Physical MapsA physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of
the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For example, mountains may be barriers to transportation, and rivers and streams can provide access into the interior of a country.
ReliefPhysical maps use shading and texture to show general relief—the differences in elevation, or height, of landforms.
Texas: Physical
LandformsPhysical maps may show landforms such as mountains, plains, plateaus, and valleys.
Water FeaturesPhysical maps show rivers, streams, lakes, and other water features.
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: physical map, topography, relief, elevation.
2. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain what you can learn from the map about each of the physical features listed.
Physical Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
Davis Mountains
Red River
Gulf Coastal Plains
W
C
GH10
W Writing SupportNarrative Writing Have inter-ested students research and write a story about a physical feature that affected history. Students can explore how mountain ranges and cliffs have served as protection, how frozen lakes and straits allowed for travel, or even how the construction of a canal changed transportation. AL
C Critical ThinkingMaking Generalizations Ask: What can relief and eleva-tion tell you about rivers? (Both elements give a sense of direction: water flows downhill so rivers flow from high elevation to lower elevation.) OL
Answers1. physical map: shows location and topogra-
phy of Earth’s physical features; topogra-phy: shape of Earth’s physical features; relief: difference in elevation of landforms; elevation: height
2. Davis Mountains: location, elevation, length; Red River: location, length, route; Gulf Coastal Plains: location, elevation, length
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH11
Political MapsA political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units
such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links that exist within and between political units.
98°W102°W
106°W
94°W
28°N
32°N
36°N
Red River
Sabine RiverTrinityRiver
BrazosRiver
Colorado River
RioG
rande
Pecos River
Canadian River
Nueces River
Gulf of Mexico
PadreIsland
NEWMEXICO
OKLAHOMA
MO.
ARK.
T E X A S
LA.
MEXICO
Amarillo
LubbockFort
WorthDallas
Galveston
HoustonAustin
SanAntonio
Waco
WichitaFalls
CorpusChristi
Brownsville
Laredo
El Paso Abilene
Victoria
Beaumont
200 miles
200 kilometers
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection0
0
N
S
W E
State capital Major city
Texas: Political
Human-Made FeaturesPolitical maps show human-made features such as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways, and railroads.
Physical FeaturesPolitical maps may show some physical features such as relief, rivers, and mountains.
Nonsubject AreaAreas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give you a context for the area you are studying.
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the signifi cance of: political map, human-made.
2. What types of information would you fi nd on a politi-cal map that would not appear on a physical map?
3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain what you can learn from the map about each of the human-made features listed.
Human-Made Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
Austin
El Paso
Texas state boundary
D
C
GH11
D Differentiated InstructionGifted and Talented Political maps change more rapidly than physical maps. Have interested students select an area and research how political maps of this area have changed over time. Students may be interested to learn how their own state or region has changed politically, or they may wish to study another area. Have students create a pre-sentation of their findings. AL
C Critical ThinkingComparing and Contrasting Ask: When you fly in an airplane and look down at the ground, what human-made features can you see? (roads, buildings, farms, dams, some lakes, railroads) Ask: What human-made features can you not see? (boundaries, capital designation) BL
Answers1. political map: shows boundaries and loca-
tions of political units such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns; human-made: determined by humans rather than nature
2. capitals, cities, roads, highways, railroads
3. Austin: location, that it is the capital city of Texas; El Paso: location; Texas state boundary: what states border Texas, what river forms its southern border
Geography Handbook
GH12 Geography Handbook
Thematic MapsMaps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information
about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of the-matic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook includes thematic maps that show exploration and trade, migration of peoples, economic activities, and war and political conflicts.
Qualitative MapsMaps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots to
show information related to a specific idea are called qualitative maps. Such maps are often used to depict historical information. For exam-ple, the qualitative map below shows the pri-mary exports of Latin America.
Flow-Line MapsMaps that illustrate the movement of people,
animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to rep-resent the flow and direction of movement. The flow-line map below shows the movement of Slavic peoples throughout Europe.
80°W100°W 60°W 40°W 20°W
0°
20°S
40°S
60°S
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
PACIFIC OCEAN
ATLANTIC OCEAN
BOLIVIA
CHILE
PERU
ECUADOR COLOMBIA
VENEZUELA
GUYANA SURINAME
PARAGUAY
ARGENTINA
BRAZIL
URUGUAY
FR.GUIANA(Fr.)
Au
Au
Au
1,000 miles
1,000 kilometers
0
0
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
Primary Productsas a Percentage
of Exports 75% or more
50%–74%
25%–49%
Less than 25%
No data
ResourcesCoal
Petroleum
Natural gas
Iron ore
Bauxite
Copper
Gold
Zinc
Timber
Au
Foodproducts
Coffee
Sugarcane
Cotton
Cut flowers
Leather
Wool
N
S
W E
Latin America: Resources and Exports
40°N
50°N
20°E
10°E
30°E
BlackSea
Balt
icSe
a
Adriatic Sea
Dnieper R.
DniesterR.
Vistula
R.
DanubeR.
POLAND
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
BELARUS
RUSSIA
TURKEYGREECE
UKRAINE
HUNGARY
SLOV.
RUSSIA
CROATIA
BOS.&HERZ.
ALBANIA
ROMANIA
BULGARIA
MACEDONIA
SERBIA
MOLDOVA
ESTONIA
GERMANY
AUSTRIA
ITALY
MONT.
SLOVAKIA
CZECH REP.
SLAVIC HOMELAND
200 miles
200 kilometers
0
0
Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection
N
S
WE
Eastern Slavs
Western Slavs
Southern Slavs
Present-dayboundary
Migration of Slavic Peoples, c. 700
Europe: Slavic Migrations
S
GH12
S Skill PracticeVisual Literacy Have students study the “Europe: Slavic Migrations” map. Ask: What do the arrows on this map repre-sent? (The main routes of migration taken by Slavic peoples in c. 700.) Ask: How is color used to present information on this map? (It dis-tinguishes the three major groups of Slavs by their place of origin.) Ask: How would you explain the forks that appear in several arrows? (These indicate places where immigrants from the same area of origin diverged into two groups.) OL
Additional Support
Making Thematic Maps Divide the class into several groups. Each group will research a theme that interests them and create a the-matic map to present to the class. Themes may be national (for example, a U.S. map showing the location of roller coasters or professional football stadiums) or local (for example, a city
map displaying the location of public libraries or city parks). After groups choose their themes, each group should designate tasks (research, drawing maps, creating the presentation) among themselves so that each group member participates. Schedule a period for all the groups to present their maps to the class. OL
Activity: Collaborative LearningCollaborative Learning
Ask students if they have diffi-
culty distinguishing one color
from another on the map
above. If so, these students may
benefit from other resources,
such as maps that make dis-
tinctions using shading or sym-
bols rather than color.
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook GH13
Geographic Information SystemsModern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most car-
tographers use computers with software programs called geographic information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from dif-ferent sources—maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a data-base. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and pro-duce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a separate electronic layer.
1 The first layer of information in a GIS pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the user to see, in detail, the area he or she needs to study. In this case, the area of study is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey.
2 Additional layers of information are added based on the problem or issue being studied. In this case, hospital administrators want to find out about the population living in neighborhoods near the hospital so they can offer the community what it needs. A second layer showing African Americans who live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been added to the GIS.
3 Complex information can be presented using more than one layer. For example, the hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods include other groups in addition to African Americans. A third layer showing whites who live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been added to the GIS. Administrators can now use this information to help them make deci-sions about staffing and services associated with the hospital.
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Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps
SKILLS Practicing
1. Explain the signifi cance of: thematic map, qualitative maps, fl ow-line maps.
2. Which type of thematic map would best show the spread of Islam during Muhammad’s time?
3. Which type of thematic map would best show average income per capita in the United States?
4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and make changes to maps quickly and easily?
5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying three examples of each type of thematic map found in this textbook. Note the page numbers of each.
S
GH13
S Skill PracticeVisual Literacy Ask: How could you make GIS maps with-out a computer? (You could draw the data on transparencies, and layer the transparencies.) OL
AssessSummarizing Have students work in pairs to make study cards for the Geography Handbook. Students can use main headings and subheadings to organize the section material. When the cards are finished, have students take turns testing each other on what they have learned. OL
CloseIdentifying Ask: What are the four main types of maps? (physical, political, qualitative, and flow-line)
Answers1. thematic map: emphasizes a single idea or
particular kind of information about an area; qualitative map: uses colors, symbols, lines, or dots to show information related to a specific idea; flow-line map: illustrates movement of people, animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical processes like hurricanes and glaciers
2. qualitative
3. flow-line
4. by allowing information to be stored and displayed on separate electronic layers
5. Answers will vary. Note that most maps in the text are qualitative maps; most climate maps are qualitative and flow-line.
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches; area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline, generally smaller than a gulf
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that lie close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement pattern
delta flat, low-lying lan d built up from soil carried downstream by a river and deposited at its mouth
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its source to its mouth
elevation height of land above sea level
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway between the North and South Poles; used as the starting point to measure degrees of north and south latitude
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline, generally larger and more deeply indented than a bay
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can anchor safely
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or plateau
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit; generally smaller than a mountain
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded by water
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land areas
lake a large inland body of water
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees of longitude
Island
Strait
Isthmus
Cape
Seacoast
Gulf
Bay
Ocean
Volcano Mountain peak
Sound
Peninsula
Delta
Harbor
Cliff
ValleyIsland
Strait
Isthmus
Cape
Seacoast
Gulf
Bay
Ocean
Volcano Mountain peak
Sound
Peninsula
Delta
Harbor
Cliff
Valley
As you read about the history of the United States, you will encounter the terms listed below. Many of the terms are pictured in the diagram.
Geographic Dictionary
GH14
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than a plateau
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet or more) from surrounding land; generally larger and more rug-ged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround the continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves in a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the earth north or south of the Equator; used to measure degrees of latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally, such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often covered with grasses
plateau large area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about 300–3,000 feet high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole at Greenwich, England; starting point for measuring degrees of east and west longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded by land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more islands off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often in highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the source of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as ash or liquid rock erupts from inside the earth
Canyon
Tributary
Source of river
Lowland
UpstreamDownstream
Highland
Glacier
Basin
Mountain range
Hills
LakePlateau
River
Mouth of river
Plain
Channel
Desert
Canyon
Tributary
Source of river
Lowland
UpstreamDownstream
Highland
Glacier
Basin
Mountain range
Hills
LakePlateau
River
Mouth of river
Plain
Channel
Desert
GH15