naplan narratives resource

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NAPLaN

Narratives



Précis

This resource analyses approaches to text construction and recommends a structured, explicit

approach to the teaching of NAPLaN Narrative. It explores the teaching of NAPLaN Narrative

within a model of functional grammar and includes information for teachers, templates for

student writing and resources such as teaching posters that can be displayed in classrooms.

Background

The Text Construction and Text Analysis Research Project commenced in 2006, and is exploring

what happens in the teaching and learning process - from before students construct a text, to

after a text has been analysed and assessed .

In response to the Research Project’s findings, the following materials have been developed and

are being explored by teachers, with a view towards the continual improvement in the

development and delivery of professional learning and resources.

The Text Construction and Text Analysis Research Project has been exploring:

• the link between teaching practice and student writing

• strategies for supporting the development of student competence in writing for a range of

purposes and contexts

• embedding explicit teaching of language and literacy in classroom teaching

More recently the research has centred around the explicit teaching practice required to support

students to be successful in the NAPLaN writing task.

Introduction

The aim of this resource is to explore approaches to supporting the teaching and learning process

around NAPLaN Narratives. This also includes supporting students to manage working under

NAPLaN testing conditions.

This resource acknowledges the reality that one of the main foci of NAPLaN is to assess student

understanding and writing of a narrative around an unknown topic/context within a set time

limit. The NAPLaN writing task does not explicitly request, nor require teachers to follow a

teaching and learning cycle. However, based on this research, the benefits of undertaking an

explicit teaching and learning cycle are realised in improved student writing of the task required.

(See pre and post teaching student writing samples, pages 17- 18).

Pam Boyle Giuseppe Mammone

ESL Regional Consultants ESL Regional Consultants

Eastern Adelaide & Adelaide Hills Western Adelaide, & Eyre & Western

July 2010

NAPLaN Narratives 1



Contents

Page Number

Précis 1

Background 1

Introduction 1

Contents 2

Aligning Teacher and Student Understandings of theWriting Task in NAPLaN

3

NAPLaN Marking Criteria 3

Time Management 4

Assessing the Narrative Using ESL Scales 4

NAPLaN Narrative Hot Tips 5

Reproducible Resources for Classroom Use 6

My Narrative Writing Plan 1 7

My Narrative Writing Plan 2 8

Narrative Writing Template 9

My Narrative Plan 10

Time Management 11

Proofreading and Editing My Narrative 12

Teaching Resources 13

Sample Teaching and Learning Cycle for a Narrative 14

Suggested Pre Teaching Script 15

Suggested Post Teaching Script 16

Student Sample Pre Teaching Text 17

Student Sample Post Teaching Text 18-19

Overview Of The Functional Model Of Language 20

Text Analysis 21

Language Markers From ESL Scope And Scales 22

Text Developmental Levels 23

Whole Class Text Analysis Findings 24

Text Analysis And Scales 25

Extra Resources And Support 26

Glossary 27-31

Acknowledgements 32

NAPLaN Narratives 2



Aligning teacher and student understandings of the writing task in NAPLaN

Based on research findings, it is recommended that the text construction process focuses

on ensuring that teacher and student understandings are shared (aligned). Evidence

suggests that where student and teacher understandings about the NAPLaN Narrative and

its marking are not aligned, then the narrative constructed by students can deviate

significantly from their actual linguistic understandings. It is therefore suggested that

student understanding of the writing task is monitored and clarified in the pre NAPLaN

teaching, to ensure that the narrative produced reflects the true linguistic capacity of the

student.

In order to improve student NAPLaN Narrative, it is further recommended that as part of

the teaching and learning cycle, students need to understand and make connections with

the purpose, structural features, and how language patterns are shaped by audience,

identity and attitude. These processes need to be taught explicitly in order for students to

achieve the purpose of the text. The language choices depend on where the text is based

on the following continua:

Audience

close distant

familiar NAPLaN marker

Identity

novice eg student writer expert eg literary author

Attitude

boring entertaining

non engaging engaging

As mentioned above, in order to achieve the purpose of a text, particular structural

features and specific language are required. The language choices need to be appropriate

for the audience, be cognisant of the desired identity and express an appropriate attitude.

Failure to do so will impact on the student NAPLaN result.

NAPLaN marking criteria (http://www.naplan.edu.au/writing_2010_-_domains.html)The criteria are:

• Audience

• Text structure

• Ideas

• Character and setting

• Vocabulary

• Cohesion

• Paragraphing

• Sentence structure

• Punctuation

• Spelling

NAPLaN Narratives 3

http://www.naplan.edu.au/writing_2010_-_domains.html

http://www.naplan.edu.au/writing_2010_-_domains.html



Time Management

Current research indicates that students are not managing the time allocated to the writing

task very well. The teaching of time management skills is thus crucial to the text

construction process. A strategy being explored involves students practising, planning,

writing, proofreading and editing within set time limits. (See time management resource

page 11).

Planning for Writing the Text

The planning stage of writing should be taught explicitly. This could include generating

key ideas/information about the topic, note writing or graphic organizers and writing

within a genre structure template. (See writing plans pages 7-10).

Writing

As the time allocated for the writing is 30 minutes, it is recommended that students be

taught to write what can be best managed in the time. This may include writing less or

limiting the number of complications and resolutions. It should also include practising

writing within a time limit so students know what they can complete within the timeconstraint.

Proofreading and Editing Techniques

Explicit teaching of proofreading and editing techniques should take place. This needs to

include the whole text level, paragraph level and word level. Furthermore, the focus

should make connections between purpose, structure, grammar, spelling and punctuation.

Once again, as students will only have 5 minutes to proofread and edit their text,

decisions and choices need to be made around a much narrower and achievable narrative.

(See proofreading and editing my narrative page 12).

Assessing the Narrative Using the ESL Scales

Teachers should ensure that the analysis and scaling of the student text is aligned with the

writing task. That is, if the task involves writing a narrative for a friend, it is analysed and

scaled with this in mind. If the narrative is for a teacher, the analysis and scaling of the

language used in a text needs to be significantly different. Research suggests that where

such considerations are not made, the texts analysed and scaled may deviate significantly

from where student scales sit. It is therefore strongly suggested that students are

instructed to write for a range of different audiences and purposes. The analysis and

scaling outcome is then likely to be much closer to the true scale level of the student.

The first consideration when scaling student texts is to read the text and make a

judgement about the extent to which the text is aligned with the writing task. Are the

language choices that relate to audience, identity and attitude appropriate? If they are not,

the purpose will not be achieved even though the structure and language may be

complex. Once this level of analysis is completed, the focus shifts onto the structural

features of the narrative eg orientation, complication/s resolution/s, coda and language.

This will reveal the evidence required to make a judgement about the scale level.

NAPLaN Narratives 4



NAPLaN Narrative Hot Tips

Focus areas for teachers:

• teach narrative genre using a teaching and learning cycle

- provide students with opportunities to develop understandings and make

connections with the purpose, structural features, and how language patterns are

shaped by audience, identity and attitude• teach the NAPLaN narrative marking criteria

- get students to practise writing to topics (prompts)

• teach time management

- practise writing to time (5min planning, 30min writing, 5min proofreading and

editing)

• practise reading and discussing writing instructions

• teach planning skills for writing

- practise planning within a 5 min time limit

• teach writing to the task

- practise writing a one page narrative with one or two complications- teach variation in language (emotive language, intensification, foregrounding,

naming words, describing words, use of similes, metaphors, interesting verbs,

circumstances - place, time, manner, tense consistency)

- practise writing within 30 min

• teach proofreading and editing techniques

- practise editing within 5 min

• reassure students before, during and after the experience (it’s only a test!!!)

• monitor student wellbeing

Key messages for students: • listen to teacher instructions and ask questions

• remember that the purpose of a narrative is to entertain and/or give a message

- make your narrative engaging (excitement, happiness, tension, suspense,

sadness…..)

- teachers are your audience, so you need to use appropriate language and grammar

• plan your narrative (5min planning, 30min writing, 5min proofreading and editing)

- a one page narrative with title, orientation, one or two complications and/or a range

of events, main resolution/coda

• write to the topic

- write an engaging narrative for the NAPLaN markers (1 - 2 pages)

- make sure you finish within the time limit (only 1 or 2 complications and resolutions)

• use a range of interesting language eg verbs and describing words

• use different paragraph beginnings

• leave a line between each paragraph

• use punctuation appropriately (use speech marks)

• proofread and edit your work

- you only have 5min to check spelling, punctuation, paragraphs

• do your best, it’s only a test!!!

• remember, you can talk to your teacher about how you are feeling

NAPLaN Narratives 5



Reproducible Resources forClassroom Use

The following pages can be printed as posters for

classroom display or student use.

NAPLaN Narratives 6



My Narrative Writing Plan 1

The NAPLaN narrative has a time limit, so it needs to be much shorter than

under normal writing conditions.

• The reader/marker of my narrative is a teacher I don’t know

• I need to write as a student author

• The main purpose of a narrative is to entertain and/or give a message

• The narrative needs to engage feelings and emotions (excitement,

happiness, tension, suspense, sadness…..)

• My topic is….. (eg Lost)

Structure of my narrative:

• Title

• OrientationAn introduction to the characters and setting (who, when, where) and the

beginning of the plot (what).

• ComplicationsThe number will vary according to year levels (guide 1-2) and a series of events related to the complications (how the complications/problems are

resolved, fully and/or partially).

• Resolution/Coda Last bit, how it all ended/message for the reader/marker/teacher.

NAPLaN Narratives 7



My Narrative Writing Plan2

Paragraphing:

• start a new paragraph for the orientation, each major complication, coda/main resolution, change of focus,

new events/happenings

• leave a line between each paragraph

• use different paragraph beginningsSentence construction:

• use different sentence beginnings

• use a range circumstances (when, where, how, withwhom, why)

• use a range of conjunctions

• expand noun groups

• use interesting names for characters and places

• use words about feelings and emotions

• use intensification (adverbs)

• use modality when appropriate• use nominalisation when appropriate

• most of the narrative will use past tense

• use consistent tense

• avoid repetition

• use direct and reported speech

Punctuation:

• use capital letters, commas, full stops, question marks,

speech marks

Spelling:

• think about spelling

• sound the word

• use chunking to help with spelling

NAPLaN Narratives 8



Narrative Writing TemplatePurpose - To write a story with a major problem/happening, a number of events and/or

unexpected things/resolutions and an ending, that entertains and/or gives a message

Structural features

Title Eg Lost

Orie n/ma

complication The setting and an

explanation of the main problem/ happening

ntatio in

(what, when, where, who – the order may vary).

Complications

A number of complications. The

number will vary (primarylevel guide 1-2), and aseries of events related tothe complications (how thecomplications/problems

are resolved, fully and/or partially).

Resolution/CodaLast bit, how it all

ended/message for thereader.

NAPLaN Narratives 9



My Narrative Plan

Topic

Title

Orientation:

• who

• what

• when

• where

Complication:

Events

Resolution:

How it ended

NAPLaN Narratives 10



Time Management

The teacher will explain the writing task.

You can ask questions.

Time managementI have 5 minutes to plan my writing:

• re-read the prompts• think about the topic

• plan carefully and quickly using dot points

I have 30 minutes to write my narrative:• remember to use interesting language and

to write in paragraphs

I have 5 minutes to proofread and edit my

narrative:

• check your spelling and punctuation




Proofreading and Editing MyNarrative

I have 5 minutes to proofread and edit mynarrative. ( Be realistic about what changes

can be made in the time.)

Check my spelling:• Think about my spelling

• Does it look right?

• Use chunking to help with spelling

Punctuation:• Start sentences with a capital letter

• End sentences with a full stop

• Use commas, full stops, speech marks

Grammar:• Check tenses

• Check sentence beginnings eg not “then, then,

then”

• Use interesting language eg not “said, said, said”




Teaching Resources

The following pages are examples for teacher use




Teaching and Learning Cycle

Learning Area: English/ ESL Story writing (Narrative)

Theme: (These suggested ideas are not ordered. Activities would be selected according to

the age of the students and the theme or book being used. There can be movement

backwards and forwards between Setting the Context, Modelling and Deconstruction and Joint Construction. Building the field continues through out the Teaching Learning cycle

approach).


• Discuss pictures of storybook or film

characters.

• Make a story map around the room.

• Elements of a good story? Brainstorm.

• Group and whole class concept map of

“stories”

• Excursion to suitable film eg “Up” or

video eg “Harry Potter”.

• Invite a children’s book writer

• Collect stories from children’s cultural

b’ground. Share and discuss.

• Match titles with synopsis of stories.

Do as a game. Have prizes.

• Info gap activities: Small group

of students are assigned cards with

character info. Other students ask

questions; complete a questionnaire.

• Narrative rubric can be given to older students at

the beginning of cycle and discussed.

• Students create own rubric for Narrative.

• Focus on narrative structure using proforma.

• Use own life stories as resource.

• Discuss audience before writing

• Peer assessment of oral presentation of story

• Students tape each other and discuss editing

• Students write (or tell) same model story in

different person (eg first person to third person).

• Students write (or tell) model story in different

tense (eg present tense to past tense or visaversa).

• Groups of students write story from viewpoint of

at least three different characters including

animals/aliens/robots. Can also be done as oral

task.

• Teacher models foregrounding for effect.

• Class jointly constructs opening paragraph of story.

• Students tell a story together.

• Groups write introduction; pass it on to next group

for first complication, then next group for

resolution.

• Have suggestion box for story titles.

• reassemble pictures from a story.

• Students re-assemble short story text

justifying order of paragraphs.

• Develop graphic outline of well known story.

• Students read various stories and learn to identify

complications and resolutions (or partial resolutions).

• Students identify what they like/dislike about a

story. How does author engage reader?

• Students examine language of tenor and

intensification.

• Students rewrite a story using different appraisal

and intensification.• Students use noun group proforma to develop long

noun groups with qualifiers.

• Vocab lists are displayed and highlighted.

• Similes and metaphors are introduced and discussed.

• Direct speech is discussed and practiced.

• Students asked to predict next stage of

written or spoken story



Suggested teacher script for pre teaching student text construction

• We are going to be learning about how to write a narrative. To helpme in planning, today you will be writing about the topic Lost . Some

of you know lots about narratives and others are still learning. That’s

okay. Therefore, some of you will be able to write more, and othersless. Over the next term/ weeks you will be learning how to write

excellent narratives; the things you need to plan and do to produce a

really good narrative. Then, when we have finished learning aboutnarratives you will again write a narrative on the topic Lost and it will

be much better than the one you write today.

• The purpose of narrative is to entertain and/or give a message about

the topic, in this case Lost .

• All kinds of writing have a structure (parts). Make sure you include allthe parts.

• I would like you to write the narrative as an author would.

• The audience/readers of your narrative will be teachers you don’t

know.

• I would also like you to make your narrative engaging and

entertaining which means that your reader will be interested in your

story.

• To do this you need to think about the language that you will use.

• You will have 5 minutes to plan your writing. When planning, write

your ideas in dot points.

• You will have 30 minutes to write your narrative. Use your plan to

help you with the structure, ideas and language.

• You will have 10 minutes to proofread and edit your narrative. When

you proofread and edit, read your text carefully, check your spelling,

punctuation and language.

During the various abovementioned stages, remind students about time

management and what each part of the writing process involves.

Once students have finished, give encouragement for their effort and

reassurance that their post teaching text will be much better than the pre

teaching text.

Modify the information and process to suit the student cohort.




Suggested teacher script for post teaching student text construction

• After all the teaching and learning about writing narratives that we havedone, I am now going to ask you to write another narrative about the

topic Lost . You now know a lot more about narratives, and the topic Lost

than you did at the beginning. You have all made so much progress. Your narrative will be much better than the first one that you wrote.

• The purpose of narrative is to entertain and/or give a message about the

topic, in this case Lost .

• All kinds of writing have a structure (parts). Make sure you include all

the parts.

• I would like you to write the narrative as an author would.

• The audience/readers of your narrative will be teachers you don’t know.

• I would also like you to make your narrative engaging and entertaining

which means that your reader will be interested in your story.

• To do this you need to think about the language that you will use.

• You will have 5 minutes to plan your writing. When planning, write your ideas in dot points.

• You will have 30 minutes to write your narrative. Use your plan to help

you with the structure, ideas and language.

• You will have 10 minutes to proofread and edit your narrative. When you

proofread and edit, read your text carefully, check your spelling,

punctuation and language.

During the various abovementioned stages, remind students about time

management and what each part of the writing process involves.

Once students have finished, give encouragement for their effort and

reassurance that their post teaching text will be much better than the pre

teaching text.

Modify the information and process to suit the student cohort.




Pre teaching text




Post teaching text




Post teaching text (continued)




Overview of the Functional Model of Language

Genre(understanding)

Register(considerations)

Awareness of the contextual variables that will impacton the language choices and meaning. In different

contexts consideration to (Who is present? Where am

I?, What is the focus of the interaction?/What’s

happening?) are essential to the successful

achievement of purpose.

Purpose:What is thecommunicative

purpose of thetext?

What structural

features do I

need, to make

the text work?

Audience:Who is the text

being written

for?

What language

choices will I

need to make for

my audience?

Who is going to

read/assess my

text?

Identity:What identitywill the text take

on?

What language

choices will I

need to

construct the

chosen identity?

Who am I going

to be in the text?

Attitude:What attitudewill the text take

positive– negative?

What language

choices will I

need to make to

express my

attitude?

How do I want

to make people

feel in the text?

These are expressed through

Genre Register

Structure

The structural

features of the

text

Field

The language for

expressing ideas

and experiences

Tenor

The language for

interacting with

others

Mode

The language for

creating spoken

and written texts




Text AnalysisWhole text level:

Audience (Who is it for?)Appropriate to the audience as per writing task

Appropriate Inappropriate

Identity (Who is speaking/writing?)Appropriate as per writing task


Attitude of the writer (How does the writer make you feel?)Appropriate as per writing task


Contextual understandings/conceptual understandingsRelevant to the topic

Evident Not evident

Genre structure No evidence of genre structure – uses basic structure – uses expanded structure - uses logically

more refined structure

Language choices:Has the language choices required to achieve the purpose

Simplistic-formulaic-expanded-complex–refined

Mostly spoken like – more written like– very written like - written like

Uses a varied range of describers, circumstances, reference items, intensifiers, linking and binding

conjunctions, relative pronouns, modality and nominalisation - broad forms

Uses more varied foregrounding

Uses voice appropriately (one – many)

Moves from subjectivity – objectivity appropriately

Uses colloquial and idiomatic language, rhetorical conjunctions, and reported speech and direct

speech appropriately

Paragraph level Not evident - some evidence of paragraphs- evidence of paragraphs- consistent evidence of

paragraphs and uses subheadings

Sentence levelBegins to construct sentences – writes simple sentences - expands sentences– complex sentences

– sophisticated sentences – refined sentences

Word levelEveryday – specialised – technical

Begins to copy - narrow range - repetitive- some specialised and technical - varied - larger range -

uses specialised and technical vocabulary - more varied - extended range - uses a broad range of

specialised and technical vocabulary - sophisticated




Language markers from the ESL Scope and Scales

Scale 1 No evidence of genre structureBegins to copy and write short groups of words

Writes predominantly left to right

Scale 2 Copies and collaboratively constructs strictly limited texts

Begins to construct own basic texts by copying or jointly constructing eg. report

Writes predominantly left to right top to bottom

Scale 3 Constructs basic genres with a high degree of scaffolding Uses a limited range of evaluative vocabulary expressing feelings and emotions

Writes simple sentences

Scale 4 Constructs with support basic genres

Begins to use linking conjunctions ( and, but)Begins to write full sentences

Experiments with punctuation

Scale 5 Begins to construct independently basic genres with some detail and is relevantand consistent

Uses linking conjunctions (but, or, so) and binding conjunctions ( because)Uses a small range of phrases expressing where ( by the table) and how ( carefully,

quickly)

Scale 6 Increases range of basic genres constructed independently and logically Expands short noun groups, sometimes using qualifiers (the man in the shop)

Uses with some accuracy the most elementary modality ( might, must; maybe, I

think, I know)

Scale 7 Constructs with some confidence written basic genres which have a number of stages

Uses, with some accuracy, simple direct and reported speech

Chooses a strictly limited range of colloquial and idiomatic language

Scale 8 Writes simple sequential explanations and more developed reports that are

detailed and relevant

Begins to use a small range of relative pronouns –who, which

Organises texts in simple, logically ordered paragraphs on the basis of a change of topic

and writes a topic sentence for each paragraph

Scale 9 Constructs a range of written genres which have a number of stages or series

of events Uses subheadings and conjunctions to organise text (Secondly, Later, In addition to..)

Scale 10 Constructs longer, increasingly complex factual and story genres

Begins to identify how meanings can be made either subjectively or objectively

Scale 11 Constructs well-organised, longer and complex factual genres and longer

story genres using variations

Uses a small range of alternatives to conjunctions,-One of the main arguments instead of Firstly Uses rhetorical questions in an argument – And what do the students think..




Text Developmental Levels

Basic textsScales 1-4

Expanded texts

Scales 4-6

Complex texts

Scales 6-9

Refined Texts

Scales 9-14




Whole Class TextAnalysis FindingsWhole text level

Positives

Teaching focus

PD focus

Paragraph level

Positives

Teaching focus

PD focus

Sentence levelPositives

Teaching focus

PD focus

Word levelPositives

Teaching focus

PD focus




Text Analysis And Scales

Classroom teacher Year Genre

Student’s name Year

level

Scale Focus area/s for improvement




Extra Resources and Support

Further resources for teachers can be accessed through their ESL Regional

Consultants. A series of PD Shorts will be offered on the various elements

of this resource with a particular focus on classroom applications.

Below is an example of content that will be explored.

Achieving Communicative Purposes

The following overview summarises the stages involved in achieving communicative

purposes for spoken and written texts.

Purpose1. There is a desire/need in relation to

an audience

I want/need to explain something to …..

I want/need to persuade someone to…..

I have to report on …..

I want to entertain ……

(These are genres)

Clarity of purpose NAPLaN narrative - To entertain

AudienceUnderstanding how the audience of the

text shapes the language choices.

Clarity of audienceThe audience for the NAPLaN narrative

are teachers that I don’t know, who will

be making a judgement on my text.

Identity2. Who does the writer of the narrative need to be in order to achieve thepurpose/make it happen? (characters taken on/or personas)

Attitude3. What attitude will help to achieve the purpose/make it happen?emotionally engaging/entertaining (creating tension)

4.Register(field - language for expressing ideas and experiences, tenor - language for interacting

with others, mode - language for creating spoken and written texts) Are the language choices appropriate?

5. How do I make it happen? Alignment – connecting abovementioned elements

(1 – 4) These should be taught as part of the teaching and learning cycle

Provide opportunities to practice writing for the NAPLaN

Make it fun

6. Assessment – meeting NAPLaN criteria or scale

7. Future teaching and learningInformed by NAPLaN results and analysis




GLOSSARY FROM THE ESL SCOPE AND SCALES

active voice: Refers to the organisation of a clause so the “do-er” of the action comes first, eg “The

children washed the windows” as opposed to “The windows were washed by the

children” which is in the passive voice. Refer to passive voice.

agreement: Describes the relationship between two elements of the language where the form of one

determines the form of another. One type of agreement is subject-verb agreement where,for example, a plural subject requires a plural verb (“ Chairs were smashed”) and asingular subject requires a singular verb (“A chair was smashed”). Note that in clausesof the type “There is …”, agreement occurs with the first element in the participant

immediately following the verb, eg “There is a table and two chairs in that room”,“There are two chairs and a table in that room”

antonym: Words having the opposite or contrasting meaning to a given word.

circumstance: The element of a clause (expressed by adverbial phrase/group or prepositional phrase)which gives information about the process in a clause. This information is about when,where, how, why, with what, or with whom the process occurred, eg(place) She knocked the clock off the shelf

(time) She knocked off early.(with whom) He left with his friend

(how - means) She left by car.(how - comparison) He opened it like an expert

(how - quality) She opened it carefully.

(why) The man died of heart failure.

clause: A unit of meaning grouped around a verb/process: often referred to as the basic building block of language.

(independent - always finite) I finished my work.

(independent - 2 finite clauses) I had something to eat // and then I finished my work.

(dependent and finite) I finished my work even though I was tired.

(dependent and non-finite) I finished my work after having something to eat. (dependent, finite and included) My boss, who's moving to another department

soon, is having a farewell party.(dependent, finite and included) I had something to eat and then, even though I

was tired, finished my work.(dependent, non-finite and included) I had something to eat and, being tired , went to

bed.

A dependent clause is in a relationship of dependency with either another dependentclause or an independent clause. A sentence must have at least one independent clause.“ Because we ran out of petrol , (dependent) we had to walk to the town” (independent)We had to walk to the town (independent) because we ran out of petrol (dependent) after the fuel line got a leak” (dependent)

Included clauses are separated by commas from the clauses they interrupt.

cohesive resource: Grammatical tools or linguistic structures which tie together elements of a text, making itcohesive. These include:

conjunctions that join sentences: Therefore, However pronouns that link to other parts of the text: The house was incredible. You should’veseen it”

synonyms and antonyms: “The tenants were not happy at all. So the landlord and

all of the residents of the building gathered in the office below”.

colloquialism: An informal, slang or non-standard expression usually used where the speaker feels the

tenor of a situation allows it (eg We went like the clappers).




conjunction: A word whose primary function is to join two parts of the language together and indicatethe relationship between them. Conjunctions can relate bits of language in different

ways:- additive: and

- comparative: though

- temporal: after

- consequential: since

They also function to join clauses at different levels:

- to join clauses to make a sentence: linking and binding conjunctions- to sentences : cohesive conjunctions

- to join paragraphs to organise the text: rhetorical conjunctions Linking conjunctions join two clauses forming a relationship of independence, eg “We bought the car on Saturday but we couldn’t pick it up until Tuesday”. Binding conjunction join two clauses forming a relationship of dependence (hence the

notion of ‘binding’), eg “We went and bought the car after we’d asked the bank for aloan”. The bound clause can be moved to the front of the sentence, eg “ After we’d asked

the bank for a loan, we went and bought the car”.

binding conjunctions: A large set of conjunctions (eg because, if , as, since) that join two clauses forming a

relationship of dependence (hence the notion of ‘binding’). The sentences formed are

often labelled complex sentences (eg We went and bought the car after we’d asked the

bank for a loan).

The bound clause can be moved to the front of the sentence (eg After we’d asked the

bank for a loan , we went and bought the car ).

Compare with ‘linking conjunctions’.

connectives: A broad term to describe elements of the language that join various parts together; for

example, the different kinds of conjunctions and elements that act like conjunctions (eg

One of the reasons … instead of Firstly, …).

dependent clause: A clause which is in a relationship of dependency with either another dependent clause

or an independent clause. (Note that a sentence must have at least one independent

clause.) For example: Because we ran out of petrol (dependent), we had to walk to the

town (independent); We had to walk to the town (independent) because we ran out of

petrol (dependent) after the fuel line got a leak (dependent).

describer: A word (usually an adjective) in a noun group whose function is to describe the quality

of the head word of the group (eg The pretty flowers were sitting in a pot, We drove

down the long and winding road ).

embedded clause: A clause that is embedded in another, acting either as:

- a qualifier in a noun group: “The woman who won the race is my mother” or as- a participant itself: “Winning the race has been a life-long goal”, “ Being good isn’t

easy” "What I need is a massage"- a nominal group in a Circumstance: " Because of what he did, he was forced to resign.An embedded clause is rank shifted and functions at the rank of group.

euphemism: This refers to expressions which are used to refer indirectly to topics or things that are

culturally constructed as taboo or difficult to say directly (eg to pass away instead of to

die, the C word instead of cancer ).




foreground: Make the focus or the orientation by placing at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph or text, eg

- foregrounding the time: “After five minutes, place the mixture in the oven”- foregrounding the process: “Place the mixture in the oven after five minutes”

- foregrounding the non-human participant in the process: “The mixture was placed inthe oven after five minutes” "Evaporation is a process …."- foregrounding the human participant in the process: “We placed the mixture in theoven after five minutes”

Foregrounding appropriately is one of the requirements for a text to be coherent.At the text level foregrounding refers to the theme of the whole text, usually found in the

introductory paragraph, which foregrounds what the rest of the text will be about.At the paragraph level foregrounding refers to the theme of the paragraph, usually found in the topic sentence.

formulaic: This refers to expressions that are so common at certain stages of an exchange that theycan be memorised and used almost instinctively, eg “Good morning”, “Bye”, “Excuseme”, “Thank you”, “How’re ya going?”.

idiom: This refers to an expression that has a meaning that differs from its literal one (eg

raining cats and dogs). Idioms also include slang and euphemisms.

intonation: The distinctive patterns of the pitch, tune or melody of a clause (eg the rising tone

contour of a question as opposed to the falling tone contour of a statement).

Punctuation can be defined as the ‘written form of intonation’, hence the importance to

consider intonation when teaching punctuation.

linking conjunctions: A small set of conjunctions (and, or, so, but ) that join two clauses forming a relationship

of independence (eg We bought the car on Saturday but we couldn’t pick it up until

Tuesday). They can also be used to join words within a group.

metaphor: An expression which replaces a congruent meaning with a more figurative one (eg Thenews hit me right between the eyes instead of the more congruent I was shocked by the

news).

modality: This refers to the elements of the language that express the speaker’s judgement or assessment of certainty, obligation, usuality and inclination.These include:modal finites may, might, should, could : “That might be the one”mood adjuncts really, probably, certainly, always, never: “She always wins” "It's probably him"

comment adjuncts (expresses some degree of modality about the whole clause):“ Perhaps you could sign here”, Unfortunately, I fell at the last hurdle. Luckily, I don't

have to sit for the test again.

attributive relational clauses “ I am certain he’s the one”, “I can certainly help”nominalisations “The likelihood of your winning is nil, mate”mental processes I think, I believe, I hope, I think: “ I think I’d better go” “ I believe

that’s right”or a combination of these “ I suppose I could have said that”, “I always have to help”

“I would probably help”, “I always have to help” “ I wonder if you could possibly see

your way clear to signing this for me”

nominalisation: The process of changing verbs, adjectives or conjunctions into nouns, eg

“The crowd applauded wildly” can have its process nominalised and so get “Thecrowd’s wild applause was breathtaking”."Because the river was broad we were not able to cross it" can have the adjectivenominalised and so get "The river's breadth prevented the crossing"

" The street flooded because of the rain, " can have the conjunctions nominalised and soget "The result of rain was flooding."




noun group: A group of words in which the head word is a noun and all the other words serve tospecify, or enumerate or describe or classify or qualify that noun,

“Some of the beautifully wrapped Christmas presents under the tree had been opened”

enumerates specifies describes classifies head word qualifies

A describer (or epithet) is a word (usually an adjective) in a noun group whose functionis to describe the quality of the head word of the group, eg “The pretty flowers were

placed” “We drove down the long and winding road ”

Epithets can have an attitudinal aspect: That bloody officer; a brilliant first novel.Epithets can also have intensifiers, which alter the degree of the epithet, and areexpressed with adverbs "a somewhat unlikely person" "a quite stunning view"

A classifier classifies the Thing. More than one classifier can be used (with no punctuation between them) and can be realised by adjectives (degradable bags), nouns

(bird house) or verbs (distilling process)

A qualifier is the element of the noun group that comes after the head word and whosefunction is to qualify the head word, eg“ A verb that contains a preposition is often a phrasal verb”

“The house at the end of the street was said to be haunted”

participants: The things (animate and inanimate things and abstract phenomena) directly involved with the process of the clause. They can be expressed as a nominal group or embedded clause eg “The woman brushed her hair away from her face” “The test tube was

heated slowly” “The reasons for the changes were not presented” “I can’t accept yourexcuses” "What the man broke was the clock"

The participant can also be an attribute expressed by an adjective " She is incredible"

passive voice: Refers to the organisation of a clause so the “done to” rather than the “do-er” of theaction comes first, eg “The car was washed by the children, wasn’t it?” as opposed to“The children washed the car, didn’t they?” which is in the active voice.The passive voice is used when:

the speaker/writer wishes to foreground the goal of the action, eg“The dried ingredients are added to the mixture” “The car gets serviced at the garage”

“Taxes were raised after the election” b) the actor (doer of the action) is unimportant (the one who adds the mixture), or unknown (the one who services the car) or wishes to remain unknown (the one whoraises the taxes).

phrasal verbs: Verbal groups which contain a preposition but still have only one meaning and where the process or meaning of the verbal group changes with the deletion or change of preposition:“She put her off just as she was getting ready to swing” (distracted)

“They put out the fire before it could spread” (extinguish)“ Put up your hand” (raise)

“The things I have to put up with” (endure)

processes: The verbal group of a clause that express the processes of:action(material, behavioural): kicked, ran, drove, smiled, sneezed, listened

sensing (cognition, affection, perception): believe, think, know, realise, hope, feel, hate,

enjoy hear, see, notice, feel, like, worry

saying (verbal): told, said, replied, exclaimed

relating (identifying, attributive, possessive, existential): are, is, become, turn into, mean,

represent, consist of, has, includes

qualifiers: The element of the noun group that comes after the head word and whose function is to

qualify the head word. Qualifiers can be either an embedded clause (eg A verb that

contains a preposition is often a phrasal verb) or a prepositional phrase (eg The house at

the end of the street was said to be haunted ).

See also ‘noun group’.




reference items: One kind of cohesive resource where a pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun group.Pronouns include items such as I, me, he, she, they, you, these, this, it, their, them.

Other reference items include the definite article (The election), determiners (don't dothat) and comparative forms (that's better).

See also cohesive resources.

relative clause: A clause which begins with a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, whom), eg“The lift, which had only just been fixed , stopped between menswear and furniture”

“The lift got fixed after about an hour, which was one hour too late for me”Such non-defining relative clauses are included clauses.Defining relative clauses such as in "The man who gave me the money was my brother "

are embedded clauses which modify the head noun.

rhetorical conjunctions: These are conjunctions (eg Firstly, In addition, Finally) whose function is to join large

parts of a text in a way that organises the text. They come at the beginning of the stages

of a genre.

rhetorical questions: Expressions that have the usual grammatical structure of questions but whose function is

not to seek information but instead to give information and even help to organise the

text. For example, What is the government’s policy on drugs in schools could be used ina formal oral presentation to inform the audience that the speaker is now going to speak

about the government’s policy on drugs in schools. They are not asking the audience to

give them the answer.

simile: An expression where on thing or idea is likened to another and usually introduced withlike or as (eg My skin felt like parchment, The moon was as big as a beach ball).

synonym: A word with a similar meaning to another, eg house, home, dwelling, abode, residence.As the example illustrates, synonyms are best examined as a continuum so that nuanced differences can be explored.

tense: The setting in time of a clause.

The primary tenses are the past, present and future; for example:

past: I ate , I said

present: I am eating , I know what you mean

future: I will eat , I’ m going to have it later.

Secondary tenses are those that are a combination of the primary tenses; for example:

the present happening in the past: I was eating my dinner

the past happening in the present: I have eaten my dinner

the past happening in the past: I had eaten my dinner.

verbal group A verb or group of verbs that encode the process (eg study, was studying, will be

studying, would have been studying, tried to study).




AcknowledgementsThe support and inspiration provided by Dr Peter White, University of New

South Wales and Dr John Walsh, University of South Australia, through

their involvement in the Text Construction and Text Analysis Research

Project.

All staff at Cowandilla Primary School. In particular, Julie Hayes, Principal

and Katrina Sexton, Assistant Principal.

All staff at Richmond Primary School. In particular, Lindy Brooke, Principal

and Carol Jones, ESL teacher.

Veronica Wachla, ESL teacher, Allenby Gardens Primary School

Madeline Tarzia, ESL teacher, Plympton Primary School

Sue Lang and Mary Tsokas, ESL teachers, Torrensville Primary School

ESL Regional Consultants:Pam Boyle

Dick Doyle

Stella Emberson

Ross Hamilton

Camilla Karaivanoff

Giuseppe Mammone

Joan Richards

Richard Waugh

A/ESL Regional Consultants:Jackie Morgan

Sabrina Walker

Rosie Antenucci

Manager, ESL Programs

Karyl MartinManager, ESL General Support

naplan narratives resource

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