nanoparticle intro

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NanoparticleFrom Wikipedia, the f ree encyclopedia

(Redirected f rom Nanoparticles)

In nanotechnology, a particle is def ined as a small ob ject that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its transport

and properties. Particles are f urther classif ied according to diameter.[1] Coarse particles cover a range between

10,000 and 2,500 nanometers. Fine particles are sized between 2,500 and 100 nanometers. Ultraf ine particles, or

nanoparticles, are between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. The reason f or this double name of the same ob ject is

that, during the 1970-80s, when the f irst thorough f undamental studies with "nanoparticles" were underway in the

USA (by Granqvist and Buhrman)[2] and Japan, (within an ERATO Project)[3] they were called "ultraf ine particle

(UFP). However, during the 1990s bef ore the National Nanotechnology Initiative was launched in the USA, the

new name, "nanoparticle," had become f ashionable (see, f or exam ple the same senior author's paper 20 years late

addressing the same issue, lognormal distribution of sizes [4]). Nanoparticles may or may not exhibit size-related

properties that dif f er signif icantly f rom those observed in f ine particles or bulk materials.[5][6] Although the size of

most molecules would f it into the above outline, individual molecules are usually not ref erred to as nanoparticles.

Nanoclusters have at least one dimension between 1 and 10 nanometers and a narrow size distribution. Nanopowders[7] are agglomerates of ultraf ine particles, nanoparticles, or nanoclusters. Nanometer-sized single

crystals, or single-domain ultraf ine particles, are of ten ref erred to as nanocrystals.

Nanoparticle research is currently an area of intense scientif ic interest due to a wide variety of potential application

in biomedical, optical and electronic f ields.[8][9][10][11]

The National Nanotechnology Initiative has led to generous public f unding f or nanoparticle research in the United

States.

Contents

1 Background

2 Unif ormity

3 Properties

4 Synthesis

4.1 Sol-gel

5 Colloids

6 Morphology

7 Characterization

8 Functionalization

8.1 Surf ace coating f or biological applications

9 Saf ety

10 Laser applications

11 Medicinal applications

12 See also

13 Ref erences

14 External links



TEM (a, b, and c) images of prepared mesoporous silica

nanoparticles with mean outer diameter: (a) 20nm, (b) 45nm, and (c)

80nm. SEM (d) image corresponding to (b). The insets are a high

magnification of mesoporous silica particle. [12]

IUPAC def inition

Background

Although, in general, nanoparticles are

considered a discovery of modern science,

they actually have a very long history.

Nanoparticles were used by artisans as f ar

back as the 9th century in Mesopotamia

f or generating a glittering ef f ect on the

surf ace of pots[citation needed ].

Even these days, pottery f rom the Middle

Ages and Renaissance of ten retain a

distinct gold- or copper-colored metallic

glitter. This luster is caused by a metallic

f ilm that was applied to the transparent

surf ace of a glazing. The luster can still be

visible if the f ilm has resisted atmospheric

oxidation and other weathering.

The luster originated within the f ilm itself ,

which contained silver and copper

nanoparticles dispersed homogeneously in

the glassy matrix of the ceramic

glaze. These nanoparticles were

created by the artisans by adding

copper and silver salts and oxides

together with vinegar, ochre, and clay on the surf ace of previously-

glazed pottery. The object was

then placed into a kiln and heated

to about 600 °C in a reducing

atmosphere.

In the heat the glaze would sof ten,

causing the copper and silver ions

to migrate into the outer layers of

the glaze. There the reducingatmosphere reduced the ions back

to metals, which then came

together f orming the nanoparticles

that give the colour and optical ef f ects.

Luster technique showed that ancient craf tsmen had a rather sophisticated em pirical knowledge of materials. The

technique originated in the Islamic world. As Muslims were not allowed to use gold in artistic representations, they

had to f ind a way to create a similar ef f ect without using real gold. The solution they f ound was using luster.[16]

Particle of any shape with dimensions in the 1 × 10

–9

and 1 × 10

–7

m range.

N ote 1: Modified from definitions of nanoparticle and nanogel in [refs., [13][14]]

N ote 2: The basis of the 100-nm limit is the fact that novel properties thatdifferentiate particles from the bulk material typically develop at a critical

length scale of under 100 nm.

N ote 3: Because other phenomena (transparency or turbidity, ultrafiltration,stable dispersion, etc.) that extend the upper limit are occasionally considered,the use of the prefix nano is accepted for dimensions smaller than 500 nm,

provided reference to the definition is indicated.

N ote 4: Tubes and fibers with only two dimensions below 100 nm are also

nanoparticles. [15]



Michael Faraday provided the f irst description, in scientif ic terms, of the optical properties of nanometer-scale

metals in his classic 1857 paper. In a subsequent paper, the author (Turner) points out that: "It is well known that

when thin leaves of gold or silver are mounted upon glass and heated to a tem perature that is well below a red hea

(~500 °C), a remarkable change of properties takes place, whereby the continuity of the metallic f ilm is destroyed

The result is that white light is now f reely transmitted, ref lection is correspondingly diminished, while the electrical

resistivity is enormously increased." [17][18][19]

Unif ormity

The chemical processing and synthesis of high-perf ormance technological com ponents f or the private, industrial,

and military sectors requires the use of high-purity ceramics, polymers, glass-ceramics, and material com posites. I

condensed bodies f ormed f rom f ine powders, the irregular particle sizes and shapes in a typical powder of ten lead

to non-unif orm packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the powder com pact.

Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to attractive van der Waals f orces can also give rise to in

microstructural inhomogeneities. Dif f erential stresses that develop as a result of non-unif orm drying shrinkage are

directly related to the rate at which the solvent can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of

porosity. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies, and can yieto crack propagation in the unf ired body if not relieved. [20] [21] [22]

In addition, any f luctuations in packing density in the com pact as it is prepared f or the kiln are of ten am plif ied durin

the sintering process, yielding inhomogeneous densif ication. Some pores and other structural def ects associated

with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus

limiting end-point densities. Dif f erential stresses arising f rom inhomogeneous densif ication have also been shown to

result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling f laws. [23][24] [25]

Inert gas evaporation and inert gas deposition [2][3] are f ree many of these def ects due to the distillation (cf .

purif ication) nature of the process and having enough time to f orm single cr ystal particles, however even their non-aggreated deposits have lognormal size distribution, which is typical with nanoparticles.[3] The reason why modern

gas evaporation techniques can produce a relatively narrow size distribution is that aggregation can be avoided.[3]

However, even in this case, random residence times in the growth zone, due to the com bination of drif t and

dif f usion, result in a size distribution appearing lognormal.[4]

It would, theref ore, appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically unif orm with regard to

the distribution of com ponents and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions that will maximize the green

density. The containment of a unif ormly dispersed assem bly of strongly interacting particles in suspension requires

total control over interparticle f orces. Monodisperse nanoparticles and colloids provide this potential. [26]

Monodisperse powders of colloidal silica, f or exam ple, may theref ore be stabilized suf f iciently to ensure a high

degree of order in the colloidal crystal or polycrystalline colloidal solid that results f rom aggregation. The degree o

order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed f or longer-range correlations to be established. Such

def ective polycrystalline colloidal structures would appear to be the basic elements of submicrometer colloidal

materials science and, theref ore, provide the f irst step in developing a more rigorous understanding of the

mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in high perf ormance materials and com ponents. [27] [28]

Properties



Silicon nanopowder

1 kg of particles of 1 mm3 has the same surface

area as 1 mg of particles of 1 nm3

Nanoparticles are of great scientif ic interest as they are, in

ef f ect, a bridge between bulk materials and atomic or

molecular structures. A bulk material should have constant

physical properties regardless of its size, but at the nano-scale

size-dependent properties are of ten observed. Thus, the

properties of materials change as their size approaches the

nanoscale and as the percentage of atoms at the surf ace of a

material becomes signif icant. For bulk materials larger than one

micrometer (or micron), the percentage of atoms at the surf ace

is insignif icant in relation to the num ber of atoms in the bulk of

the material. T he interesting and sometimes unexpected

pro perties o f nano particles are there f or e lar gel y due to the

lar ge sur f ace area o f the mater ial, which dominates the

contr ibutions mad e by the small bulk o f the mater ial.

Nanoparticles of ten possess unexpected optical properties as

they are small enough to conf ine their electrons and produce

quantum ef f ects.[29] For exam ple gold nanoparticles appear

deep-red to black in solution. Nanoparticles of yellow gold and

grey silicon are red in color. Gold nanoparticles melt at much

lower tem peratures (~300 °C f or 2.5 nm size) than the gold

slabs (1064 °C);.[30] Absorption of solar radiation is much

higher in materials com posed of nanoparticles than it is in thin

f ilms of continuous sheets of material. In both solar PV and

solar thermal applications, controlling the size, shape, and

material of the particles, it is possible to control solar

absorption.[31][32][33]

Other size-dependent property changes include quantum conf inement in semiconductor particles, surf ace plasmon

resonance[34] in some metal particles and superparamagnetism in magnetic materials. What would appear ironic is

that the changes in physical properties are not always desirable. Ferromagnetic materials smaller than 10 nm can

switch their magnetisation direction using room tem perature thermal energy, thus making them unsuitable f or

memory storage.[35]

Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible since the interaction of the particle surf ace with the solvent is strong

enough to overcome density dif f erences, which otherwise usually result in a material either sinking or f loating in a

liquid.

The high surf ace area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous driving f orce f or dif f usion, especially

at elevated tem peratures. Sintering can take place at lower tem peratures, over shorter time scales than f or larger

particles. In theory, this does not af f ect the density of the f inal product, though f low dif f iculties and the tendency of

nanoparticles to agglomerate com plicates matters. Moreover, nanoparticles have been f ound to im part some extra

properties to various day to day products. For exam ple, the presence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles im parts

what we call the self -cleaning ef f ect, and, the size being nano-range, the particles cannot be observed. Zinc oxide

particles have been f ound to have superior UV blocking properties com pared to its bulk substitute. This is one of

the reasons why it is of ten used in the preparation of sunscreen lotions,[36] and is com pletely photostable.[37]



Clay nanoparticles when incorporated into polymer matrices increase reinf orcement, leading to stronger plastics,

verif iable by a higher glass transition tem perature and other mechanical property tests. These nanoparticles are

hard, and im part their properties to the polymer (plastic). Nanoparticles have also been attached to textile f ibers in

order to create smart and f unctional clothing.[38]

Metal, dielectric, and semiconductor nanoparticles have been f ormed, as well as hybrid structures (e.g., core–shel

nanoparticles).[39] Nanoparticles made of semiconducting material may also be labeled quantum dots if they are

small enough (typically sub 10 nm) that quantization of electronic energy levels occurs. Such nanoscale particles arused in biomedical applications as drug carriers or imaging agents.

Semi-solid and sof t nanoparticles have been manuf actured. A prototy pe nanoparticle of semi-solid nature is the

liposome. Various types of liposome nanoparticles are currently used clinically as delivery systems f or anticancer

drugs and vaccines.

Nanoparticles with one half hydrophilic and the other half hydrophobic are termed Janus particles and are

particularly ef f ective f or stabilizing emulsions. They can self -assem ble at water/oil interf aces and act as solid

surf actants.

Synthesis

There are several methods f or creating nanoparticles, including both attrition and pyrolysis. In attrition, macro- or

micro-scale particles are ground in a ball mill, a planetary ball mill, or other size-reducing mechanism. The resulting

particles are air classif ied to recover nanoparticles. In pyrolysis, a vaporous precursor (liquid or gas) is f orced

through an orif ice at high pressure and burned. The resulting solid (a version of soot) is air classif ied to recover

oxide particles f rom by-product gases. Pyrolysis of ten results in aggregates and agglomerates rather than single

primary particles.

A thermal plasma can also deliver the energy necessar y to cause vaporization of small micrometer-size particles.The thermal plasma tem peratures are in the order of 10,000 K, so that solid powder easily evaporates.

Nanoparticles are f ormed upon cooling while exiting the plasma region. The main ty pes of the thermal plasma

torches used to produce nanoparticles are dc plasma jet, dc arc plasma, and radio f requency (RF) induction

plasmas. In the arc plasma reactors, the energy necessary f or evaporation and reaction is provided by an electric

arc f ormed between the anode and the cathode. For exam ple, silica sand can be vaporized with an arc plasma at

atmospheric pressure. The resulting mixture of plasma gas and silica vapour can be rapidly cooled by quenching

with oxygen, thus ensuring the quality of the f umed silica produced.

In RF induction plasma torches, energy coupling to the plasma is accom plished through the electromagnetic f ield

generated by the induction coil. The plasma gas does not come in contact with electrodes, thus eliminating possible

sources of contamination and allowing the operation of such plasma torches with a wide range of gases including

inert, reducing, oxidizing, and other corrosive atmospheres. The working f requency is ty pically between 200 kHz

and 40 MHz. Laborator y units run at power levels in the order of 30–50 kW, whereas the large-scale industrial

units have been tested at power levels up to 1 MW. As the residence time of the in jected f eed droplets in the

plasma is very short, it is im portant that the droplet sizes are small enough in order to obtain com plete evaporation

The RF plasma method has been used to synthesize dif f erent nanoparticle materials, f or exam ple synthesis of

various ceramic nanoparticles such as oxides, carbours/carbides, and nitrides of Ti and Si (see Induction plasma

technology).



Inert-gas condensation is f requently used to make nanoparticles f rom metals with low melting points. The metal is

vaporized in a vacuum cham ber and then supercooled with an inert gas stream. The supercooled metal vapor

condenses into nanometer-size particles, which can be entrained in the inert gas stream and deposited on a

substrate or studied in situ.

Nanoparticles can also be f ormed using radiation chemistry. Radiolysis f rom gamma rays can create strongly activ

f ree radicals in solution. This relatively sim ple technique uses a minimumnum ber of chemicals. These including

water, a soluble metallic salt, a radical scavenger (of ten a secondary alcohol), and a surf actant (organic capping

agent). High gamma doses on the order of 104 Gray are required. In this process, reducing radicals will drop

metallic ions down to the zero-valence state. A scavenger chemical will pref erentially interact with oxidizing radica

to prevent the re-oxidation of the metal. Once in the zero-valence state, metal atoms begin to coalesce into

particles. A chemical surf actant surrounds the particle during f ormation and regulates its growth. In suf f icient

concentrations, the surf actant molecules stay attached to the particle. This prevents it f rom dissociating or f orming

clusters with other particles. Formation of nanoparticles using the radiolysis method allows f or tailoring of particle

size and shape by adjusting precursor concentrations and gamma dose.[40]

Sol-gel

The sol-gel process is a wet-chemical technique (also known as chemical solution deposition) widely used recently

in the f ields of materials science and ceramic engineering. Such methods are used primarily f or the f abrication of

materials (typically a metal oxide) starting f rom a chemical solution (sol, short f or solution), which acts as the

precursor f or an integrated network (or gel) of either discrete particles or network polymers. [41]

Ty pical precursors are metal alkoxides and metal chlorides, which undergo hydrolysis and polycondensation

reactions to f orm either a network "elastic solid" or a colloidal suspension (or dispersion) – a system com posed of

discrete (of ten amorphous) submicrometer particles dispersed to various degrees in a host f luid. Formation of a

metal oxide involves connecting the metal centers with oxo (M-O-M) or hydroxo (M-OH-M) bridges, theref ore

generating metal-oxo or metal-hydroxo polymers in solution. Thus, the sol evolves toward the f ormation of a gel-like diphasic system containing both a liquid phase and solid phase whose morphologies range f rom discrete

particles to continuous polymer networks.[42]

In the case of the colloid, the volume f raction of particles (or particle density) may be so low that a signif icant

amount of f luid may need to be removed initially f or the gel-like properties to be recognized. This can be

accom plished in any num ber of ways. The most sim ple method is to allow time f or sedimentation to occur, and the

pour of f the remaining liquid. Centrif ugation can also be used to accelerate the process of phase separation.

Removal of the remaining liquid (solvent) phase requires a dr ying process, which is typically accom panied by a

signif icant amount of shrinkage and densif ication. The rate at which the solvent can be removed is ultimately

determined by the distribution of porosity in the gel. The ultimate microstructure of the f inal com ponent will clearly

be strongly inf luenced by changes im plemented during this phase of processing. Af terward, a thermal treatment, or

f iring process, is of ten necessary in order to f avor f urther polycondensationand enhance mechanical properties an

structural stability via f inal sintering, densif ication, and grain growth. One of the distinct advantages of using this

methodology as opposed to the more traditional processing techniques is that densif ication is of ten achieved at a

much lower tem perature.

The precursor sol can be either deposited on a substrate to f orm a f ilm (e.g., by dip-coating or spin-coating), cast

into a suitable container with the desired shape (e.g., to obtain a monolithic ceramics, glasses, f ibers, mem branes,

aerogels), or used to synthesize powders (e.g., microspheres, nanospheres). The sol-gel approach is a cheap and



Nanostars of vanadium(IV) oxide

low-tem perature technique that allows f or the f ine control of the product’s chemical com position. Even small

quantities of dopants, such as organic dyes and rare earth metals, can be introduced in the sol and end up unif orm

dispersed in the f inal product. It can be used in ceramics processing and manuf acturing as an investment casting

material, or as a means of producing ver y thin f ilms of metal oxides f or various purposes. Sol-gel derived materials

have diverse applications in optics, electronics, energy, space, (bio)sensors, medicine (e.g., controlled drug releas

and separation (e.g., chromatography) technology.[43][44]

Colloids

The term colloid is used primarily to describe a broad range of solid–liquid (and/or liquid– liquid) mixtures, all of

which containing distinct solid (and/or liquid) particles that are dispersed to various degrees in a liquid medium. Th

term is specif ic to the size of the individual particles, which are larger than atomic dimensions but small enough to

exhibit Brownian motion. If the particles are large enough then their dynamic behavior in any given period of time i

suspension would be governed by f orces of gravity and sedimentation. But, if they are small enough to be colloids

then their irregular motion in suspension can be attributed to the collective bom bardment of a myriad of thermally

agitated molecules in the liquid suspending medium, as described originally by Albert Einstein in his dissertation.

Einstein proved the existence of water molecules by concluding that this erratic particle behavior could adequately

be described using the theory of Brownian motion, with sedimentation being a possible long-term result. This criticsize range (or particle diameter) ty pically ranges f rom nanometers (10−9 m) to micrometers (10−6 m).[45]

Morphology

Scientists have taken to naming their particles af ter the real-

world shapes that they might represent. Nanospheres,[46]

nanoreef s,[47] nanoboxes [48] and more have appeared in

the literature. These morphologies sometimes arise

spontaneously as an ef f ect of a tem plating or directing agent present in the synthesis such as miscellar emulsions or

anodized alumina pores, or f rom the innate crystallographic

growth patterns of the materials themselves.[49] Some of

these morphologies may serve a purpose, such as long

carbon nanotubes used to bridge an electrical junction, or

just a scientif ic curiosity like the stars shown at right.

Amorphous particles usually adopt a spherical shape (due

to their microstructural isotropy), whereas the shape of

anisotropic microcrystalline whiskers corresponds to their particular crystal habit. At the small end of the size range,

nanoparticles are of ten ref erred to as clusters. Spheres, rods, f ibers, and cups are just a f ew of the shapes that hav

been grown. The study of f ine particles is called micromeritics.

Characterization

Nanoparticle characterization is necessary to establish understanding and control of nanoparticle synthesis and

applications. Characterization is done by using a variety of dif f erent techniques, mainly drawn f rom materials

science. Common techniques are electron microscopy (TEM, SEM), atomic f orce microscopy (AFM), dynamic



light scattering (DLS), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray dif f raction (XRD), Fourier

transf orm inf rared spectroscopy (FTIR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of -f light mass

spectrometry (MALDI-TOF), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, dual polarisation interf erometry and nuclear

magnetic resonance (NMR).

While the theory has been known f or over a century (see Robert Brown), the technology f or Nanoparticle trackin

analysis (NTA) allows direct tracking of the Brownian motion; this method. theref ore, allows the sizing of individua

nanoparticles in solution.

Functionalization

The surf ace coating of nanoparticles is crucial to determining their properties. In particular, the surf ace coating can

regulate stability, solubility, and targeting. A coating that is multivalent or polymeric conf ers high stability.

Functionalized nanomaterial-based catalysts can be used f or catalysis of many known organic reactions.

Surf ace coating f or biological applications

For biological applications, the surf ace coating should be polar to give high aqueous solubility and preventnanoparticle aggregation. In serum or on the cell surf ace, highly charged coatings promote non-specif ic binding,

whereas polyethylene glycol linked to terminal hydroxyl or methoxy groups repel non-specif ic interactions.[50][51]

Nanoparticles can be linked to biological molecules that can act as address tags, to direct the nanoparticles to

specif ic sites within the body,[52] specif ic organelles within the cell,[53] or to f ollow specif ically the movement of

individual protein or RNA molecules in living cells.[54] Common address tags are monoclonal antibodies, aptamers

streptavidin or peptides. These targeting agents should ideally be covalently linked to the nanoparticle and should b

present in a controlled num ber per nanoparticle. Multivalent nanoparticles, bearing multiple targeting groups, can

cluster receptors, which can activate cellular signaling pathways, and give stronger anchoring. Monovalent

nanoparticles, bearing a single binding site,[55][56][57] avoid clustering and so are pref erable f or tracking the

behavior of individual proteins.

See also Nanomedicine#Nanoparticle targeting

Red blood cell coatings can help nanoparticles evade the immune system.[58]

Saf ety

S ee also: Nanotoxicology, Fine particles, and Regulation o f nanotechnolog y

Nanoparticles present possible dangers, both medically and environmentally.[59][60] Most of these are due to the

high surf ace to volume ratio, which can make the particles very reactive or catalytic.[61] They are also able to pass

through cell mem branes in organisms, and their interactions with biological systems are relatively unknown.[62] A

recent study looking at the ef f ects of ZnO nanoparticles on human immune cells has f ound varying levels of

susceptibility to cytotoxicity.[63] There are concerns that pharmaceutical com panies, seeking regulatory approval f

nano-ref ormulations of existing medicines, are relying on saf ety data produced during clinical studies of the earlier,

pre-ref ormulation version of the medicine. This could result in regulatory bodies, such as the FDA, missing new sid

ef f ects that are specif ic to the nano-ref ormulation.[64]



Whether cosmetics and sunscreens containing nanomaterials pose health risks remains largely unknown at this

stage.[65] However considerable research has demonstrated that zinc nanoparticles are not absorbed into the

bloodstream in vivo.[66] Diesel nanoparticles have been f ound to damage the cardiovascular system in a mouse

model.[67]

Concern has also been raised over the health ef f ects of respirable nanoparticles f rom certain com bustion

processes.[68] As of 2013 the Environmental Protection Agency was investigating the saf ety of the f ollowing

nanoparticles:[69]

Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon materials have a wide range of uses, ranging f rom com posites f or use in vehicle

and sports equipment to integrated circuits f or electronic com ponents. The interactions between

nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and natural organic matter strongly inf luence both their aggregation

and deposition, which strongly af f ects their transport, transf ormation, and exposure in aquatic environments

In past research, carbon nanotubes exhibited some toxicological im pacts that will be evaluated in various

environmental settings in current EPA chemical saf ety research. EPA research will provide data, models, te

methods, and best practices to discover the acute health ef f ects of carbon nanotubes and identif y methods t

predict them.[69]

Cerium oxide: Nanoscale cerium oxide is used in electronics, biomedical supplies, energy, and f uel additive

Many applications of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles naturally disperse themselves into the

environment, which increases the risk of exposure. There is ongoing exposure to new diesel emissions using

f uel additives containing CeO2 nanoparticles, and the environmental and public health im pacts of this new

technology are unknown. EPA’s chemical saf ety research is assessing the environmental, ecological, and

health im plications of nanotechnology-enabled diesel f uel additives.[69]

Titanium dioxide: Nano titanium dioxide is currently used in many products. Depending on the ty pe of

particle, it may be f ound in sunscreens, cosmetics, and paints and coatings. It is also being investigated f or

use in removing contaminants f rom drinking water.[69]

Nano Silver: Nano silver is being incorporated into textiles and other materials to eliminate bacteria and odof rom clothing, f ood packaging, and other items where antimicrobial properties are desirable. In collaboratio

with the U.S. Consumer Product Saf ety Commission, EPA is studying certain products to see whether they

transf er nano-size silver particles in real-world scenarios. EPA is researching this topic to better understand

how much nano-silver children come in contact with in their environments.[69]

Iron: While nano-scale iron is being investigated f or many uses, including “smart f luids” f or uses such as

optics polishing and as a better-absorbed iron nutrient supplement, one of its more prominent current uses i

to remove contamination f rom groundwater. This use, supported by EPA research, is being piloted at a

num ber of sites across the country.[69]

Laser applications

The use of nanoparticle distributions in laser dye-doped poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) laser gain media was

demonstrated in 2003 and it has been shown to im prove conversion ef f iciencies and to decrease laser beam

divergence.[70] Researchers attribute the reduction in beam divergence to im proved dn/dT characteristics of the

organic-inorganic dye-doped nanocom posite. The optimumcom position reported by these researchers is 30% w/

of SiO2 (~ 12 nm) in dye-doped PMMA.



Medicinal applications

Liposome

Dendrimer

Iron oxide nanoparticles

Nanomedicine

Polymer-drug con jugate

Polymeric nanoparticle

See also

Ceramic engineering

Coating

Colloid

Colloid-f acilitated transport

Colloidal crystalColloidal gold

Eigencolloid

Fungal-derived nanoparticles

Gallium selenide

Indium selenide

Liposome

Magnetic immunoassay

Magnetic nanoparticles

Micromeritics

Nanobiotechnology

Nanocrystalline silicon

Nanogeoscience

Nanomaterials

Nanomedicine

Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis

Nanotechnology

Photonic crystal

Plasmon

PlatinumnanoparticlesQuantum dot

Silicon

Silver Nano

Sol-gel

Transparent materials

Ref erences



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External links

Nanohedron.com (http://www.nanohedron.com) images of nanoparticlesAcquisition, evaluation and public orientated presentation of societal relevant data and f indings f or

nanomaterials (DaNa) (http://www.nanopartikel.inf o/cms/lang/en/Wissensbasis)

International Liposome Society (http://www.liposome.org)

Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory (http://nanotextiles.human.cornell.edu/) at Cornell University

Assessing health risks of nanoparticles

(http://copublications.greenf acts.org/en/nanotechnologies/index.htm#3) summary by GreenFacts of the

European Commission SCENIHR assessment

Nano Structured Material (http://books.google.com/books?

id=_pbtbJwkj5YC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=catalyst+hartog+1972&source=web&ots=f TTD2SA5Dh&

g=3phv63YeG9raeAZdvlm _4JH07-Y#PPR7,M1)

Nanoparticles Used In Solar Energy Conversion

(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/08/020809071535.htm) (ScienceDaily).

Application of nanoparticles in biology and medicine

(http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/content/pdf /1477-3155-2-3.pdf )

Applications of Nanoparticles (http://www.understandingnano.com/nanoparticles.html)

International Journal of Nanoparticles (http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php? journalCODE=i jnp

Journal of Nanoparticle Research (http://www.springer.com/11051)

Nanoparticle Conf erences and Meetings (http://nanoparticles.org/meetings/)

Lectures on All Phases of Nanoparticle Science and Technology (http://nanoparticles.org/primers/)ENPRA – Risk Assessment of Engineered NanoParticles (http://www.enpra.eu/) EC FP7 Pro ject led by th

Institute of Occupational Medicine

SAFENANO (http://www.saf enano.org/) at the Institute of Occupational Medicine

Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review (http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrpdf /rr274.pdf ) by RJ

Aitken and others. Health and Saf ety Executive Research Report 274/2004

EMERGNANO: A review of com pleted and near com pleted environment, health and saf ety research on

nanomaterials and nanotechnology (http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0901.pdf ) by RJ Aitken and

others.

Nanotechnology News (http://www.nanoparticles-microspheres.com/Nano_ Wiki.html)

Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/09/01

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