mycotoxins in food and agriculture-challenges and...

Mycotoxins in Food and Agriculture-Challenges and Opportunities

Manukumar HM, Sri Raghava and Umesha S*

Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, India

*Corresponding author: Umesha S, Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri,Mysuru-570006, Karnataka, India, Tel: 0821-2419884; Email:

Published By:

MedCrave Group LLC

Date: June 09, 2017

Introduction 1

Justifications for use of phyto-fungicides 1

Antifungal agents 2

Natural Phyto-fungicides in food and agriculture 2

Anti fungal activity of some botanicals 2

Establishment of prime oils in inhibition of aflatoxin 3

Influence of major oils 4

Challenges within the construction and usage of Fungicidal Botanicals 5

Methods for Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Food Toxins 5

Chromatography 7

Bioassay tactics 7

Research Troubles in Aflatoxin Investigation 7

Raw material 7

Fund transaction 7

Chemicals and toxin manage 7

Need of expert hand 7

Insufficient facilities for research 8

Consciousness on aflatoxin dangers 8

Upkeep of laboratory services 8

Field vegetation 8

Laboratory infrastructure 8

Contents

Mycotoxin Regulations For Food Safety 8

Food Policy for Establishing Collaborative Merit Chains 9

Government And Policies With Exchange Programs 10

Technological measures 10

Land reforms 10

Procurement and support prices 10

Input subsidies to agriculture 11

Food security system 11

Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) 11

Rural employment programmes 11

Research Outbreaks Towards Farmers 11

Design of specific material presentation and promoting farmers for village level storage ideas 11

Implementation of effective practices using resistant varieties 11

Control of fungal maturity and campaign for aflatoxin effect 12

Active seminars and workshops for research, govt. and farmer attention 12

University collaboration study by training activities 12

Policies on aflatoxin 12

Training Farmers for Production of Aflatoxin free Food 13

Partnership: Challenges and Opportunities 13

Vision and Mission 14

Biotechnology in Research to Farmers 15

Break the Future 15

Conclusion 16

References 17


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Acknowledgement

The author Manukumar HM, Sri Raghava and Umehsa S greatly acknowledge the financial assistance from the De-partment of Biotechnology (DBT) Department of Studies and Technology, Govt. of India, grant number BT/PR10338/PFN/20/922/2013, New Delhi, India, for financial assistance.


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Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds that have adverse effects on humans, animals, and crops that result in illnesses and economic losses. Aflatoxins are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive by-products of Aspergillus spp. that contaminate a wide range of crops. Disease outbreaks due to the consumption of con-taminated food and feedstuff are a recurring problem worldwide. Hence, creating awareness among consumers, scientific community, government ageneies and inactivation of aflatoxin production is of great importance for food safety. This review is focused on importance of botanicals and their products in management of aflatoxin production, the role of government ageneies, and scientists goal towards farmers in future are of interesting matters. This review is focusses not only to ex-plore the availability of powerful botanicals and detection methods for aflatoxins but also problems of scientific community, transforming this technology to farmers’ level to pave the way for future research. This review will also serve to fill the existing gaps in our knowledge with regard to mycotoxins and food safety.


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IntroductionMycotoxins are poisonous metabolites produced by means of fungi, in particular via saprophytic molds growing on agricultural merchandise. These motive not most effective economic losses but also pose wellbeing hazards to humans and animals. Some of these mycotoxins, together with aflatoxins, are probably carcinogenic and mutagenic with unsafe effects to people, livestock and chook. Aflatoxin used to be first identified in 1960 following a severe outbreak of a disease called “Turkey ‘X’ sickness” in the UK that killed over a 100,000 turkey birds. Aflatoxin contamination of crop results in direct economic effect, such as loss of produce or market price, healthcare and related fees and indirect economic effects similar to loss of animals, expenditures for food-borne disorder surveillance and monitoring and many others. At the same time the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has imposed stringent regulations on stages of aflatoxin at 20 ppb in food and feed and 0.5 ppb in milk, the EU Union (ECU) has set the restrict at 2-4 ppb. These regulatory instructional materials (enforced inside the US as well as internationally) have put a tremendous economic burden of over US $932 million on agriculture globally due to crop losses caused by mycotoxigenic fungi including A. flavus [1,2]. Relying on the market, economic losses may just attain 100% owing to entire rejection of the produce when aflatoxin levels higher than acceptable standards.

Aflatoxins are potent immune suppressors interfering with activities of important cells that boost immunity in humans and animals [3]. While chronic sub-lethal doses may have nutritional and immunologic consequences, large doses can lead to acute intoxication resulting to direct liver damage and death. Never the less, both types of exposure have a cumulative effect on the risk of developing liver cancer. The extent of carcinogenicity in individuals is largely dependent on the dose and duration of exposure, categorized into

I. Acute illness as a result of consumption of foods contaminated with very high levels of aflatoxin and

II. Chronic illnesses/cancers (especially liver cancers) as a result of exposure to low levels of toxin.

The resulting liver toxicity can produce a cumulative effect over time and lead to diseases like hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis and fatty liver disease. Moreover, these metabolites are capable of binding to protein, DNA and RNA, which interferes with the normal cellular functions resulting to initiation of carcinogenesis, mutagenesis or necrosis of the liver, causing impairment of fetal growth and development leading to miscarriages. Aflatoxins reduce fetal growth due to their interference with protein synthesis and deficiency of micronutrients like vita-mins A, B12, C, D, E and minerals like zinc, selenium, iron and calcium. Aflatoxins are also known to play an important role in slowing the recovery rate from protein malnutrition. There have been reports on accelerated HIV progress due to aflatoxin-related immune

suppression and decline in nutritional status in patients, exacerbating the effects of HIV/AIDS, malaria and several nutrition-related illnesses such as kwashiorkor, a nutritional disorder caused by protein deficiency in humans. With the knowledge of importance of botanicals and aflatoxin burden in nation, the aim of the study is to understand the available botanical importance in aflatoxin control and management, role of government in agriculture and scientific field, scientist role and problems in research to farmer field and bright future ideas were comprehensively discussed in point of farmer demand.

Justifications for use of phyto-fungicidesBig fields in constructing nations are blessed with abundant crops with fungicidal advantage with education and application attracting scale back capital funding than synthetic fungicides. Rotimi et al. [4] mentioned that botanical pesticides are locally renewable, eco-friendly and environmentally dependable. The potential and technological competence involved in utilizing botanicals is embedded in folklores and tradition of the farmers. Wellness risks from publicity poisonous artificial fungicides and fiscal considerations make common plant extracts excellent alternatives to protect food and feed from fungal infection [5].

Types of secondary metabolites in crops are tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids and flavonoids, which have been discovered in vitro to have fungi toxic properties, systemic in action and shortage residual effect [6]. Hence antimicrobial properties of some plant ingredients are being exploited in protecting food, feed and seeds from storage moulds. Such products from better vegetation (azadirachtin from Azadirachta indica, eugenol from Syzygium aromaticum and allyl isothiocyanate from mustard) are biodegradable, exhibit stimulating influence on plant metabolism and possibly safer to human health [7]. Antifungal activity of plant extracts has excellent capabilities as they are convenient to organize and study. Additional, these are riskless and powerful in view of being systemic in their action and absence residual outcome, effectively biodegradable and showcase stimulating outcome on plant metabolism. A number of authors have established the antifungal houses of a couple of plant components and phytochemicals [8,9]. Plant fungicides have been said to be risk-free to worthwhile organisms akin to pollinating bugs, earthworms and to people [4]. Khalid et al. [10] stated that their poisonous outcome is in general of an ephemeral nature disappearing inside 14-21 days. As a result of very excessive and disproportionate monetary exchange cost, artificial fungicides are actually extra high priced than they had been before, hence making them unaffordable via lots of the resource-negative farmers [11]. Some synthetic fungicides similar to methyl bromide are phytotoxic and almost always go away undesirable residues when applied on the growing vegetation. Other deleterious effects incorporate occupational risks, mammalian toxicity and


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soil pollution. For this reason, the search for a substitute or complement to artificial fungicide is justified.

Antifungal agentsNatural phyto-fungicides in food and agriculture: More than 280 plant species had been investigated for the inhibitory outcome on toxigenic Aspergilli and close to a 100 of those plants had some undertaking on progress or toxin creation through fungi. A right digestion, extraction and awareness of close to any crusted plant tissue will be poisonous to different plants, animals or microorganism. Plant leaves, stems, bark, bud, seeds or roots offer expertise for fungi manipulate via the construction and release of toxic combinations of phytocompounds/allelochemicals in them. Apart from this number of natural sources are known for antioxidant properties from Nettle, Red Gram, Flaxseed, Sorghum Grains, Honey and Pomegranate [12-16] used tremendously in most of all the fields for the treatment of biological alterations. They don’t seem to be principal or worried within the major protoplasmic metabolism of the vegetation but are possibly toxic. Aflatoxin infection of crops is an international food safety difficulty. Toxigenic fungi-greatly disturbed in nature and can develop over a huge range of environmental conditions. Aflatoxins detected in cereal grains, oil seeds, fermented beverages made from grains, milk, cheese, meat, nut products, fruit juice [17]. Aflatoxins (A. flavus toxins-B1, B2, G1 and G2) are biologically lively secondary metabolites produced by using special traces of A. parasiticus, A. nominus and A. flavus. The objective of this part of the presentation is to provide an explanation for the protecting consequences of botanicals (raw plant products, phytochemicals, predominant oils) against the growth of toxigenic Aspergillus, synthesis of aflatoxins as good as the damage of aflatoxins.

Anti fungal activity of some botanicalsa. Karapinar [18] reported the inhibitory influence of crude

extracts from floor red pepper on the growth of A. parasiticus NRRL 2999 and its aflatoxin construction in vitro.

b. Pepper extracts had been shown to cut back aflatoxin production in A. parasiticus IFO 30179 and A. flavus var columnaris S46 [19].

c. There had been a number of stories citing the inhibitory results of onion extracts on A. flavus development, with an ether extract of onions, thio-propanol-S-oxide, being proven to inhibit progress.

d. Plant products, especially principal oils, are recognized as probably the most promising groups of average compounds for the development of safer antifungal sellers [20].

e. The powerful use of powders of leaves of O. grattisimum and cloves (Sizygium aromaticum) mixture with some packaging substances to protect groundnut kernels

artificially inoculated with A. parasiticus.

f. Aflatoxin creation in fungal mycelia grown for 96 h in tradition media containing 50% neem leaf and seed extracts used to be inhibited via 90 and 65%, respectively [21].

g. Extra not too long ago studied the efficacy of extraordinary extracts of neem leaf on seed borne fungi, A. flavus. On this be trained the progress of the fungus used to be inhibited drastically and controlled with each alcoholic and water extracts of all a long time and of the concentrations used.

h. The efficacy of betel leaf extract on growth of A. flavus and it was once discovered that the extract at 10,000 ppm wholly inhibited the progress of this fungus.

i. In a similar way, Pundir et al. [22] studied the efficacy of 22 plant extracts in opposition to food related fungi and observed that ginger extract is more amazing than other plant extracts.

j. Primary oils are volatile, usual and intricate compounds characterized by a robust odor and are produced from fragrant crops as secondary metabolites. They are more commonly bought by using steaming or hydro-distillation.

k. During the screening of foremost oils for antifungal exercise against A. flavus, the predominant oil of C. citratus used to be discovered to showcase fungi toxicity.

l. The develop of 11-31% of dry mycelial mass along with a slight curb (5-10%) in AFB1 production in 5-day-historic aflatoxigenic Aspergillus sp., submerged cultures containing either 0.5 or 1.0 mL Clarified Neem Oil (CNO) in 0.1%.

m. Juglal et al. [23] studied the effectiveness of 9 principal oils in controlling the progress of mycotoxin-producing moulds and noted that clove, cinnamon and oregano were able to hinder the growth of A. parasiticus even as clove (ground and major oil) markedly lowered the aflatoxin synthesis in infected grains.

n. In one vaster study, verified that A. flavus development and AFB1 construction were each inhibited by an essential oil containing quite often garcinol from the tropical shrub/tree Garcinia indica at 3,000 ppm.

o. In addition lemon and orange oils (at concentrations of 0.05-2.0%) effected greater than a 90% discount in aflatoxin formation by way of A. flavus has been confirmed [24].

p. Many reports are on hand on the use of neem oil to manage toxigenic fungi and their toxins. Plant principal oils from Azadirachta indica and Morinda lucida had been determined to inhibit the progress of a toxigenic A. flavus and vastly lowered aflatoxin synthesis in inoculated maize grains.


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q. Efficacy of various concentrations of four plant extracts prepared from garlic, neem leaf, ginger and onion bulb were studied on the reduction of A. flavus on Mustard. They located that garlic extract is most amazing followed by neem.

r. The results of sixteen major oils from fragrant crops in opposition to the mycelial progress of A. flavus IMI 242684. The outcome confirmed that the predominant oil of white timber (Melaleuca cajeputi) gave the easiest inhibition followed with the aid of the essential oils of cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia) and lavender (Lavandula officinalis), respectively.

s. Amongst such African established studies, Lippia multiflora leaf extract has been proven to have a fungistatic outcome on A. flavus.

t. Clove oil and its major element, eugenol has been greatly used to manipulate mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. On rice dealt with at 2.4 mg eugenol/g of grains, the inoculum of A. flavus didn’t grow and as a result AFB1 biosynthesis on rice was avoided [25,26] mentioned antifungal exercise of cinnamon bark oil against A. flavus.

u. More lately, O. sanctum and its essential oil (EO) eugenol have been found efficacious in checking the progress of A. flavous and in addition, inhibited the AFB1 creation absolutely at 0.2 and 1μg mL-1, respectively in some food stuff during storage.

v. The oil of spice plant Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Fam. Zingiberaceae) was once determined mighty against two lines of A. flavus, completely inhibiting their mycelial development at 750μg mL-1 and AFB1 construction at 500μg mL-1. The oil utterly inhibited the mycelial growth at 100μg mL-1 with a giant discount of AFB1. From this plant extract they’ve recognized 13 antifungal compounds.

w. The consequences of main oils of 58 plant species (18 Family) had been examined on the development of A. flavus and/or A. parasiticus. EOs was extracted from leaf, stem and flower they usually had been additionally bought from the local market. Used one-of-a-kind attention of EOs was once located to inhibit the development of Aspergillus species.

x. It is possible to make use of a blend of them to cut back development and aflatoxin production of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. There is proof that minor accessories have a primary part to play in antimicrobial exercise, very likely through producing a synergic result between different add-ons.

Antifungal marketers from traditional sources, which hinder the illness of food through controlling the progress of A. flavus and A. parasiticus, is ordinarily essentially the most

rational to prevent the growth of poisonous fungi during storage. Average plant compounds have been used most often to maintain food in international locations like Japan, India and Russia. Extracts and powders of more than a few spices, herbs and major oils had been reported to have antimicrobial undertaking against aflatoxin producing fungi and some of them additionally inhibit aflatoxin formation [27]. Many main oils have additionally been said as robust inhibitors of fungal progress and aflatoxin construction [21]. Excellent success has been executed to slash mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in foods using plant products equivalent to plant extracts and plant major oils [3].

Establishment of prime oils in inhibition of aflatoxin Quite a lot of medicinal crops reminiscent of Betel nut (Areca catechu), betel vine (Piper betle), bitter cucumber (Momordica charantia), chinese radish (Raphanus sativus), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), false coriander (Eryngium foetidum), Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), onion (Allium cepa), pepper (Piper nigrum), pomegranate (Punica granatum), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), turmeric (Curcuma longa) and wishing tree (Cassia bakeriana) had been established for their capability to manage A. flavus [28]. The outcome confirmed that the crude ethanolic extracts of some medicinal crops inhibited fungal growth to more than a few levels. Betel vine, a common Thai remedy, gave the perfect activity adopted by false coriander, Indian mulberry, Chinese radish and clove. Betel vine leaf extracts at concentrations of 6, 8 and 10% (w/w) completely inhibited the development of A. flavus and aflatoxin production on maize for 28 days.

Crude aqueous extracts of neem (A. indica) had been determined to have an inhibitory outcome on the growth of A. flavus and A. parasiticus [29]. By way of adding the suitable amount of neem extracts into PDA to acquire the ultimate concentrations of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% (w/v) and fungal cultures were inoculated into Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), the outcome confirmed that neem leaf extracts at 2 and 6 % (w/v) had been the bottom concentrations for lowering the progress of A. parasiticus and A. flavus respectively the place as neem department extracts at concentrations of 4 % (w/v) had been the lowest concentrations for decreasing the development of A. parasiticus and A. flavus. Like this natural plant based extracts proven there effect against afla-toxigenic pathogens and there exact active molecule presenting its effect and mechanism of action is evaluating to prove as an alternative remedy to use in food and agricultural prospects in future. Now-a-days in food applications, synthetic chemicals are used as preservatives as anti-aflatoxigenic against aflatoxin producing pathogens in food (Table 1).


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Table 1: List of synthetic food preservatives used in control of aflatoxin production.

S. No. Preservatives Food References

1 Propionic acid Betel nut [30]

2 Sorbic acid (SA), Butylateddehydroxy toluene (BHT) Wheat seeds [31,32]

3 Salicylic acid, BHT, Ascorbic acid and Gallic acid Chickpea seed [33]

4 Almonds, pistachios and walnut Tert-butyl hydroperoxide, Tannic acid [34]

5 Butyric acid Peanut [35]

6 Malonic acid Yoghurt [36]

7 Benzoic acid Groundnut [37]

8 Lactic acid Whole wheat [38]

9 Citric acid and their sodium salts, Sodium Chloride Meats [38,17]

Influence of major oilsEssential oils from 16 aromatic vegetation, i.e., sanflower (Carthamus tinctorius), marigold (Tagetes erecta), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), pomelo (Citrus maxima), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), Kaempferia parviflora, ginger (Zingiber officinale), pepper (Piper nigrum), Boraphet (Tinospora crispa), aloe (Aloe vera), lavender (Lavendula officinalis), rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis), cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globules), thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and white timber (Melaleuca cajuputi) had been confirmed for his or her inhibitory effect on A. flavus on PDA with the aid of agar diffusion scan [39]. The results confirmed that the important oil of white wooden gave the best possible inhibition adopted via the fundamental oils of cinnamon and lavender, respectively. The principal oil of white wood at 25% (v/v) totally inhibited the development of A. flavus on PDA for 28 days. The primary components of white wooden oil are monoterpene compounds corresponding to terpinolene (24.74%) and α-terpinene (22.84%). Mahmoud [40] stated that 100 ppm of five oils, namely geraniol, nerol and citronellol (aliphatic oils), cinnamaldehyde (fragrant aldehyde) and thymol (phenolic ketone), each and every completely suppressed progress of A. flavus and thus prevented aflatoxin synthesis in liquid medium. A few of these primary oils could prevent fungal development and toxin formation for 8 days. The hydrosols of anise, cumin, fennel, mint, pickling herb, oregano, savory and thyme showed robust inhibitory outcomes on mycelial progress of A. parasiticus [41].

Crops produce lots of secondary metabolites as a part of their traditional growth and progress with the intention to fight against environmental stress, pathogen assault or different adversities. Probably the most major secondary metabolites are essential oils (EOs), which can be extracted

from vegetation, most often through a distillation system and then used as ordinary additives in distinctive foods to cut down the proliferation of microorganisms and their toxins production as a result of their antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic properties [42,43]. There is a huge number of specific companies of chemical substances present in EOs, for this reason antimicrobial undertaking is just not attributable to 1 precise mechanism but to the existence of several ambitions of mechanisms. No longer had handiest EOs but also alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, steroids, coumarins and tannins been found to have antimicrobial houses [44]. Frequently, the extent of the inhibition of the oils might be attributed to the presence of a fragrant nucleus containing a polar sensible staff [45], being phenols the bulk team. EOs from common spices had been also investigated, that is the case of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and oregano (Origanum vulgare) which shows antifungal endeavor against A. flavus at 2000 ppm and 1000 ppm respectively in a malt-agar medium and a fungistatic exercise at 100 pp [46]. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globules) is amazing against the storage fungi A. flavus and A. parasiticus [47]. Lemon EO (Citrus limon), utilized in meals AF-contaminated samples, results in a powerful anti-aflatoxigenic and antifungal substance, reducing AF concentrations in meals samples for broilers up to 73.6% [48]. Candy basil oil at optimal protective dosage of 5% (v/v) was once fungistatic on A. parasiticus in distinction, oils of cassia and bay leaf motivated the mycelia progress of the fungus in vitro however diminished the AF attention (AFB1+AFG1) of the fungus with the aid of 97.92% and 55.21% respectively.

The mixture of cassia and candy basil oils at half of their top of the line protecting dosages (2.5% v/v) completely inhibited the development of the fungus. It was found that the addition of whole and ground basil leaves markedly


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decreased AF illness; nonetheless, 10% (w/w) of whole leaves was more robust because the reduction in AF was between 89.05% and 91% [44]. Ageratum conyzoides EOs of different species studied recently, acts immediately on the mycelial progress and AFB1 creation through A. flavus, inhibiting fungal development to distinct extents depending on the concentration and absolutely inhibiting AF construction at concentrations above 0.10 μg/mL, on the grounds that this EO acts affecting probably the fungal mitochondria [49]. Fundamental oils with antimicrobial residences are generally promising for growth inhibition of potentially toxigenic fungi. However, limited reports applied on the mechanism of action of major oils on fungal mycelia progress show that quite often the cell wall and cell membrane are the primary objectives of the oil extracts. The presence of the oil within the tradition medium triggered marked changes within the content of galactose and galactosamine. The adjustments were regarding changes in the structure of the cells. Such adjustments caused by way of main oils could also be involving the interference of major oil components with enzymatic reactions of wall synthesis, which influences fungal morphogenesis and progress [50].

Kurita et al. [51] recommended that the antifungal activity of essential oil accessories, specially aliphatic aldehydes, possibly due to their capability to type charge transfer complexes with electron donors within the fungus cell [52]. The motion of the oils on the integrity of nuclear membrane has now not been dominated out. Changes in ultrastructure of the aflatoxin fungi handled with neem leaf extracts showed that the mycelia membrane could be very susceptible to this treatment [53]. The anti-aflatoxigenic properties are reporting very rapidly. For example, the EOs of Pimpinella anisum, Peumus boldus, Hoya multiflora, Syzygium aromaticum and Lippia turbinate inhibited aflatoxin creation. Most important oils, akin to anisum and boldus, would be safely used as a preservative fabric on some foods seeing that they stopped fungal progress and AFB1 accumulation. They would also be delivered to grain in storage to protect it from fungal infection. These oils might be used alternatively for chemical fungicides. They might also prove priceless as ‘lead structure’ for the progress of synthetic compounds as they’re usual and unhazardous to people and animals alike [54].

Challenges within the construction and usage of Fungicidal Botanicals The powerful manage with the aid of fungitoxic plant products in setting up countries remains poor and significantly hampered by a few factors such as insufficient infrastructure, transportation, apparatus and materials; lack of product and phyto pesticide residue analysis amenities and capabilities. However, the insufficient components of first-rate, strong products and their commercialization are among the many constraints facing phyto-fungicides.

There are reasonably few common commercialized botanical fungicides produced in establishing international locations despite a number of reports of in vitro fungicidal activities of a few plants merchandise. At the gift time in most developing international locations, competencies transfer from academia to enterprise and executive is relatively restricted. Best the resource-terrible farmers are left with the utilization of home-produced plant fungicides. Salako [55] pronounced the following constraints confronted with the aid of Nigerian farmers within the preparation and utilization of dwelling-produced plant fungicides: Assortment and utilization of average products appeared to be high priced in terms of time and labor. Crude and insufficient processing tools and implements and facilities akin to grinding stone as an alternative of a grinder or a blender consequently making their instruction stuffed with drudgery. Shortage of specified plant materials certainly people who individuals compete for given that of its efficacy comparable to Erythrophleum suaveolens or those which are of business price equivalent to cashew nut. Low efficacy of most botanicals due to their transient persistence or quick shelf-lifestyles as they are effortlessly susceptible to microbial, thermal or photograph degradation. This traditionally results in a repetitive or well-known utility of those plant products for choicest efficacy. Consequently, many of the farmers indicated that if they have the money, they would alternatively swap to synthetic products considering of ease of dealing with and efficacy.

The bulkiness of some botanical substances for the period of collection, preparation and utility, reminiscent of 10kg of neem leaf powder required for amending 100m2 of tomato area per time. Consequently, as much as 65% of farmers used plant substances solely as protectants of stored seeds on the grounds that of the restrained quantities needed while slash percentage of the farmers utilized it only on small gardens now not more than one-tenth of a hectare. Washing away of extracts on foliage or leaching in the course of rainfall which most likely warrant repetitive application accordingly increasing labor involvement. Therefore addition of surfactants perhaps required. Due to the fact that of the satisfactory results acquired with this form of AFs biocontrol, researchers are still investigating new typical merchandise and their active compounds with the intention to maintain these toxins which produce them and keeping off the use of fumigants which are poisonous for vegetation and for plant customers. Nonetheless, most study is required with the intention to realize the mechanisms of motion of the predominant oils over aflatoxigenic fungi, turning them into skills sources for food upkeep.

Methods for Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Food ToxinsBecause of mycotoxin toxicity, their familiar incidence in foodstuffs and pushed by regulatory authorities worldwide, there is a particular need for enormously selective and correct ways to determine and quantify mycotoxins in


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numerous agricultural and organic foods and feeds [56]. For illustration, the highest AF phases for animal feed are 50 and 20 ppb in the USA and Europe, respectively. There are not any published instructions for mycotoxin evaluation. Countless ways have been developed to research the large structural range of mycotoxins happening in one-of-a-kind matrices [57]. There are number of different approaches

available for detection quantification of food contaminated aflatoxins. All the methods are available commercially and available to everyone. Till date a number of methods applied for aflatoxin detection. Representation of food sample, pathogen morphology and its toxigenic identification under UV was depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Representation of pathogen on food samples and its characteristics.

A. Raw maize (fresh)

B. Single maize fruit

C. Raw ground nut (fresh)

D. A. flavus affected ground nut seeds

E. Maize uncontaminated and contaminated under UV light

F. Maize seed with A. flavus

G. A. flavus culture characteristic

H. A. flavus under microscope

I. A. flavus under normal light

J. A. flavus fluorescence under UV light

K. Maize seed with A. parasiticus

L. A. parasiticus culture characteristic

M. A. parasiticus under microscope

N. A. parasiticus under normal light

O. A. flavus fluorescence under UV light


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ChromatographyThe classical analytical approaches for mycotoxin detection and/or quantification incorporate TLC, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with chromatography. One of the vital disadvantages for GC analyses for mycotoxin detection is the need to derivatize samples, a time consuming and inclined to error step; accordingly, GC ways are less as a rule used. In contemporary years, these types of ways have been coupled with immunoaffinity techniques to simplify extraction and toughen mycotoxin restoration and size from food stuffs [58-61].

Bioassay tactics Bioassay by way of biosensor is designed as an inhibition assay. In these methods a fixed concentration of mycotoxin-specific antibody is mixed with a sample containing an unknown quantity of mycotoxin. The antibody and mycotoxin form an intricate. Then the sample is handed over a sensor surface to which mycotoxin has been immobilized. Non-complexed antibodies are measured as they bind to the mycotoxin on the sensor floor. The responses generated over a range of ordinary mycotoxin concentrations are used to create a calibration curve and desk. Sooner or later, unknown samples are decided with the aid of relating to the calibration curve. Advances in biotechnology have made it feasible to improve particularly specific antibody-founded tests. Commercially on hand scan kits can identify and measure aflatoxins in meals in lower than 10 minutes. Bioassays have grown to be increasingly valuable for mycotoxin detection [62,63] as a fast screening system before chemical analysis. Screening assays used are in majority immunochemical ways including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), lateral flow instruments (LFDs), dipstick checks, fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA), immunofiltration assays and more not too long ago, biosensor Assays.

Research Troubles in Aflatoxin InvestigationOver a decade of aflatoxin research on grain in Asian international locations and different tropical and subtropical countries, have induced researchers to encounter a few problems. These issues embody the bodily, analytical, socio-political, pathological and mycological features. A few of these issues or constraints are enumerated as follows as much we struggling in this investigation field were drawn as follows:

Raw materialSampling for aflatoxin selection has been a valuable factor in aflatoxin research considering that aflatoxin is particularly variable in nature. Lee et al. [64] stated that aflatoxin is very heterogeneous and that kernels containing an excessive level of aflatoxin have been most often adjacent to aflatoxin

terrible kernels. Huff [65] suggested that concentration of aflatoxin in artificially inoculated maize used to be now not even homogeneous. To this point, no absolute quantity of pattern has been advocated for a single aflatoxin prone commodity. Simmonds [66] pointed out that sampling and more specially sample division using whole maize kernels as a substitute then floor kernels, is noticeable as the major supply of error in legitimate inspection and for high-quality manage checking out.

Fund transactionIn all routine research, ample funding is a dire has got to accomplish the objectives satisfactorily. The federal government of any nation where mycotoxin problems have been recognized should furnish sufficient funds for research as well as extension pursuits. Bhat [67] suggested that, funding for mycotoxin prevention and manage systems is minimal. The political commitment of most governments is usually directed for accelerated construction of agricultural commodities and less priority is provided for post-harvest technology features certainly on mycotoxin manage applications. In addition, Blanc [68] pointed out that research and extension programmes on aflatoxin could not be implemented because of the shortage of money. Enormous assets are crucial on aflatoxin experiences especially on a massive scale application. Aflatoxin will not be most effective a difficulty amongst agriculturists and food scientists but also to veterinarians, biologists, microbiologists and different related fields. These programmes need sufficient resources in terms of personnel, vigour supply, capital funding and analytical and technical facilities.

Chemicals and toxin manageFor fast and effective analysis, chemicals must be easily available. In general, reagents for aflatoxin evaluation are as a rule imported [69]. Chemical manage has been mentioned to be some of the alternatives for aflatoxin manipulate however chemical compounds intended for this motive might not be readily available and probably very steeply-priced. Additionally, farmers will not be conversant in the proper utility process [70]. These chemicals could most effective be available in huge cities of the Asian international locations. Might be, this would be attributed to the truth that aflatoxin shouldn’t be but recognized notably in the hinterland villages.

Need of expert handRobust research desires skilled and enormously expert personnel. In nations like USA, UK and the leisure of these pioneers in aflatoxin study, tremendously qualified personnel may not be a predicament. In establishing nations nonetheless, there’s a dearth of expert personnel to embark on enormous scale multidisciplinary packages for the prevention and manipulate of aflatoxins in various food and feed products [71].


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Insufficient facilities for researchIn an extra instance, two British biochemists developed melanoma of the colon after publicity to purified aflatoxins. Considered one of them had worked with aflatoxin for three years and developed symptoms seven years later. The 2nd had achieved this work for 12 months finish developed symptoms 2 years later. One of the vital most important obstacles for a victorious research program specifically on harmful substances like aflatoxin is the safely of the personnel. People, who are conscious of aflatoxin well being risks, are unwilling to enterprise on these research hobbies if their wellness is at risk. The place human threat was once involved. He stated two chemical engineers in Czechoslovakia who worked on a system for sterilizing peanut meal infected with A. flavus and therefore died of lung melanoma. One had worked for best three months and developed symptoms of lung cancer three months later.

Consciousness on aflatoxin dangersMajority of the farmers usually are not conscious of those findings. Some farmers would ignore the advocate from their co-farmers mainly when cash is involved. These would be verified by using non-adoption of expanded postharvest practices to restrict aflatoxin contamination on freshly harvested produce. Similarly, middlemen and different grain handlers are usually not conscious of all the threat of aflatoxin to both human and animals [72]. It has been reported that aflatoxin is completely a postharvest hindrance nevertheless it was established by using a couple of researchers that illness starts when the crop remains to be on the area [73,74] seeing that A. flavus is reward in soil and air. Prevention of aflatoxin illness at the grassroots stage is probably, probably the most robust procedure for aflatoxin control programs.

Upkeep of laboratory servicesAnalytical laboratories must be competently maintained to obtain riskless and reproducible outcome. Subtle apparatus for measuring minute wide variety (in ppb) should be frequently checked for accuracy. Nonetheless, highly educated personnel may not be continuously available in Asia or constructing countries considering that most if no longer all of that subtle equipment is imported [68].

Field vegetationStress reasons akin to drought, floods, typhoons and so forth. Are beyond the supervise of farmers. These explanations could be aggravated in tropical and subtropical countries on the grounds that warm and humid climate be successful. Fairly excessive incidences of aflatoxin in hotter areas of temperate regions and in subtropical and tropical climates have been pronounced. A common example used to be the severe drought in Southwestern United States of America which caused fiscal damage on the maize farmers because of contamination of aflatoxin. Jones et al. [75] as stated

with reference to Payne [76] stated that, plants uncovered to drought stress within the area had more contaminated kernels than samples from irrigated plots.

Laboratory infrastructureGrain storage structures are very foremost for preserving the exceptional of the produce. Infrastructure is split into two components; one could be the rural infrastructures which includes roads, bridges and so on. Even as the other may be the grain storage structures reminiscent of warehouses and go downs. The farmers play a predominant function in relocating the freshly harvested produce to relevant drying services, storage structure and entry to possible purchasers. In setting up international locations such as in Asia, grain storage constructions are nonetheless insufficient perhaps, due to the fiscal ability of most farmers to assemble just right grain storage structures. If these would be offered through the government in one nation, there could be a free movement of crops supposed for market. Commonly at harvesting time, the rate decreases and farmers are reluctant sell their produce. They pick to crib retailer their produce for two to three months earlier than promoting [66].

Mycotoxin Regulations For Food SafetyThe invention of the first type of mycotoxins (aflatoxins) in 1960s, many nations has implemented rules to ensure health security of buyers. Within the years on the grounds that the invention was introduced, the quantity of countries with legislation for mycotoxins has expanded. Presently, more than one hundred countries have specific regulations or targeted recommendations for mycotoxin manage in more than a few food commodities and animal feed [76]. Country wide and global regulatory authorities had been worried in mycotoxin research to intricate legislation for mycotoxin manipulation. On the worldwide stage, a law on food and feedstuff is established by means of Codex Alimentarius Commision (CAC) fee. The CAC, situated through world wellbeing organization and meals and agriculture group, units maximum nontoxic limits of mycotoxins and different contaminants for facilitating global trade and protecting well being safeguard of purchasers. In European Union (EU), rules and maximum limits for meals contaminants are developed under general Codex Alimentarius standards and centered on scientific evaluation by way of the advisory physique, Scientific Committee on food (SCF) of European fee. EU has based highest tolerable limits for mycotoxins in various commodities for the wellness protection of purchasers. In Pakistan, the country wide standardization body, Pakistan regular and best manage Authority (PSQCA), with its meals and Agriculture Division deals with the development of standards for food and its implementation. Accordingly, they have an impact on of mycotoxin necessities is additional drastic for the population of developing international areas. Moreover, Pakistan, like one of a kind less-developed importing nations, has less stringent mycotoxin ideas, hence exposing the nearby


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population with high incidence of hepatitis B and C, to better phases of mycotoxins by way of low-best imported ingredients commodities. For that reason, foods defense laws have got to be enforced within the whole country. Nonetheless, it must be made designated that tightening the mycotoxin regulations for export motive does now not endanger the wellbeing of neighborhood population through utilizing subjecting them to devour the rejected contaminated food merchandise.

Survey knowledge by using the FAO additionally disclose that the number of countries adopting mycotoxin rules grew enormously from the mid-1980s to mid-1919 and that the range of tolerance levels varies commonly. In 1996, for example, 48 countries had established tolerance phases for whole aflatoxins in food up from 30 in 1987 with specifications starting from 0 ingredients ppb to 50 ppb. For the 21 countries with complete aflatoxins specifications on animal feeds, the tolerance stages ranged from zero ppb to 1,000 ppb. For that reason, for a colossal quantity of nations, the risks associated with mycotoxin contamination are normally famous and the phases getting into the meals chain area to limitations [77]. To protect patrons from these health dangers, many countries have adopted regulations to restrict exposure to mycotoxins. As with many food security laws, domestic and alternate regimes governing mycotoxins often take the form of product, alternatively than approach, specifications. The arena alternate institution’s Sanitary and Phytosanitary agreement states that these necessities have to be centered on sound danger assessments. However, diverging perceptions of tolerable wellness risks-associated largely with the level of financial progress and the susceptibility of a nation’s plants to infection-have resulted in largely various requisites amongst unique countrywide or multilateral groups. For instance, of the forty eight nations with established limits for total aflatoxins in meals, requirements ranged from 0 to 50 ppb. As with many public food security rules, domestic and trade regimes governing mycotoxins in most nations take the type of product, as an alternative than approach, requisites. That’s, tolerance levels for the amount of mycotoxin in a product are headquartered instead than regulating the production or therapy of the commodity alongside the marketing chain [78]. The united states began regulating the awareness of mycotoxins in meals and feed in 1968, following one of the most early incidents of animal and human well being problems concerning mycotoxins. A study via the united international locations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on worldwide regulations for mycotoxins revealed that as a minimum 77 countries now have targeted laws for mycotoxins. 13 nations are known to don’t have any unique regulations and no data are on hand for approximately 50 countries, many of them in Africa [77]. In the United States, authority to regulate mycotoxins (aflatoxin, fumonisins and vomitoxin) is situated by the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), which is enforced by means of the meals and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA has based

unique “action” phases for aflatoxin present in food or feed and “advisory” stages for different mycotoxins. The motion and advisory levels are designed to provide an enough margin of protection to look after human and animal wellness [79,80]. The normal for aflatoxins is 20 ppb for human meals and animal feeds (corn and other grains) intended for immature animals or unknown locations. The FDA does have a monitoring program, however and “reserves the right to take appropriate enforcement movements when instances warrant such actions” [1].

Food Policy for Establishing Collaborative Merit Chains Food coverage-at global, regional, national and regional phases-operates in a more and more elaborate world that is changing rapid than ever. Previously a couple of a long time, any fundamental food policy questions had been answered and challenges were overcome. Food insurance policies in these days face multiple challenges. Agriculture need to become extra sustainable on a dwindling useful resource base, at the same time having to feed and nourish an increasing quantity of persons. The longer term will likely be increasingly elegant on technology new release and adoption. The up to date awareness to diet and to the links between vitamin and agriculture, have opened a window of opportunity for coverage communicate and alter. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) grants a platform for serving to combine agriculture and vitamin. The challenge now is to institutionalize it. National governments are nonetheless suffering from how to deliver integrated agriculture and nutrition movements. Policy advances and documented successes on this area could support generate enthusiasm and action, retaining the window open. A few of the primary insurance policies affecting poverty, agriculture, food safety and diet are formulated on the nation stage. Recognizing this, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has worked in additional 70 nations worldwide and is currently energetic in about 50 countries. In its nation work, IFPRI has been committed to lengthy-time period engagement with countrywide governments. In some instances, this engagement takes the type of IFPRI nation strategy support programs, which present an on-the-ground presence through which IFPRI researchers can work closely with officers and build relationships over time. Researchers located in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Pakistan and different international locations can generate solutions to coverage questions and help construct neighborhood potential to habits food coverage study and analysis. This two-pronged approach now not simplest helps build higher companions for researchers by expanding expertise of food coverage but also provides competent answers to policymaker’s questions.

Agriculture as we all know it’s going to trade basically in the next 40 to 100 years. Transformation disorders relate to structural change in farming but also alternate between agriculture, industry and offerings. The complexities we


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face endorse the necessity for a methods process to meals policy-one that’s designed to obtain an entire food process that sustainably produces adequate healthy, riskless and nutritious meals for each person. This implies that narrow tactics to small segments of the challenges we confront will miss the mark. As an alternative, solutions will need to contain more than one stake holders, who need to be at the table from the very establishing. Breaking down silos and opening communicate between disparate corporations and sectors may also be intricate and doing so will require political will at the best possible levels in international locations, organizations and institutions. A greater working out of the political economy of such a procedure will support make certain its effectiveness. Navigating the desires of individuals and the planet has now not been easy over the last 4 many years and it’s going to probably get no less difficult in the long time to return. On this elaborate, fast-changing world, IFPRI will work to realize new and ongoing challenges, unravel the thorny issues that have an effect on food and agriculture and identify promising policy options so that we are able to build a sustainable meals method that works for all.

The complicated nature of aflatoxin contamination approach a holistic and multidisciplinary method is required in an effort to alternate pre- and postharvest practices. In addition, developing innovative market mechanisms to remove aflatoxins from the human food chain could deliver sustainability and scale to those interventions. The complete give chain wishes to share the cost of interventions to manipulate and control aflatoxins, as smallholders-the poorest in the provide chain-cannot endure this fiscal burden by myself. Knowledge from a style of stakeholders must come together to strengthen and coordinate a process- and enterprise-large response to the obstacle of aflatoxins in smallholder worth chains. Agricultural researchers, public well being and nutrition practitioners, technical farmer trainers, buying and selling and farmer organizations and ultimately the organizations that buy the merchandise all have a component to play. Without one of this concerted effort, smallholders will continue to lack the necessary incentives and capability to respond properly to market demands and for this reason to compete within the world market. Taking out global starvation with the aid of 2030 will require us to respect an extra complicated truth: that hunger and malnutrition exist in rural areas, cities and in between and that we have to attack food insecurity at all aspects along the agricultural-to-urban spectrum.

Government And Policies With Exchange ProgramsMycotoxin regulatory programs are being presented in some Asian international locations. These regulatory applications are offered in particular to protect the export market of agricultural commodities. However, home regulatory measures on aflatoxins bought very little attention. In India, mycotoxin legislations have been

presented but the implementation was once located to be inadequate. This perhaps as a result of the interference related to businessmen dealing with aflatoxin merchandise. Most farmers believe that it’s one other govt. policy which calls for extra investment and not using incentives given for the aflatoxin free produce [67]. Aflatoxin contaminated merchandise are allowed to enter available in the market. Governments must have a law to reject those food and feedstuffs which have an aflatoxin level above the appropriate restrict. Additionally, most merchants have negative storage services. During storage, the produce can be surely attacked by way of insect pests which might provide an equipped entry of toxigenic fungi into the grain and subsequent mycotoxin infection. In addition, businessmen hoard the produce for the duration of the lower cost stage and promote them when the price is favorable. Knowledge can be available on the stages of aflatoxin in feeds, nontoxic storage and handling practices, transport of agricultural commodities, choice of foodstuffs by housewife and different associated information’s. Important policy measures introduced in the agricultural sector in India are as follows:

Technological MeasuresInitiation of measures to develop agricultural production extensively to fulfill the needs of developing population and in addition to furnish a base for industrial progress integrated steps to broaden each extensive cultivation and intensive cultivation. For the previous, irrigation services had been furnished to a significant field on an increasing basis and area hitherto unfit for cultivation was once made match for cultivation. To maintain and prolong this programme to greater and better areas of the nation, steps were initiated to develop the construction of excessive-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides inside the economic climate and supplement domestic production by using imports whenever integral. This has made the country self-reliant; we have now turned from massive importer of food grains to net exporter of food grains.

Land ReformsLand reform measures to abolish middleman pursuits in land and transfer of land to actual tiller of the soil have been expected to be taken up on priority groundwork.

Procurement and Support PricesAn additional coverage measure of giant significance is the announcement of procurement and aid costs to make certain fair returns to the farmers in order that even in years of surplus, the prices do not tumble down and farmers do not undergo losses that are quintessential to make certain that farmers aren’t ‘penalized’ for producing extra. Correctly, the policy of the commission for agricultural fees and prices has been adopted to announce particularly excessive prices in a bid to furnish incentive to the farmers to expand construction.


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Input Subsidies to AgricultureThe objective of enter subsidization is to expand agricultural construction and productivity with the aid of encouraging the usage of modern inputs in agriculture. Beneath the government coverage, various inputs to the farmers are supplied at prices which are under the level that will have prevailed within the open market.

Food Security SystemIn a bid to furnish food grains and other primary items to shoppers at low cost and subsidized rates, the federal government of India has developed up an intricate food protection process within the type of Public Distribution method (PDS) throughout the planning interval. PDS no longer handiest ensures availability of meals grains at low priced prices to the consumers but additionally operates as a ‘safety net’ by using keeping higher shares of meals grains to be able to combat any shortages and shortfalls that would occur in some years and/or in specific areas of the country.

Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)The federal government has streamlined the PDS by using issuing exact cards to humans below poverty line (BPL) and promoting important articles underneath PDS to them at specifically subsidized costs with better monitoring of the supply method. Below the brand new approach the states are required to formulate and implement foolproof arrangements for identification of the poor, for delivery of food grains to reasonable-cost retail outlets and for its distribution in a transparent and accountable method.

Rural Employment ProgrammesPDS alone can’t serve as an amazing safety net. That is as a result of the purpose that except the poor have ample purchasing vigor they cannot purchase their specifications from the PDS. As a consequence, colossal-scale poverty alleviation programmes in the form of rural employment programmes are required to furnish buying vigour to the poor. On account of this reason the government introduced various poverty alleviation programmes particularly from Fourth Plan onwards like Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labour Development Agency (MFAL), National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), etc. Nonetheless, all this expertise won’t reach the farmers, merchants and all folks who ought to be informed, due to insufficient extension offerings, lack of community and demonstration agents, non-existence of farm organizations, non-cooperation of traders service provider and no general radio and television packages [72]. These regulations are being strictly enforced or else the importing nations would

reject the commodities, leading to a loss of valuable foreign exchange profits.

Research Outbreaks Towards FarmersAflatoxin control applications offer possibilities for monetary features as good as wellbeing growth. It is now acknowledged in lots of developing international locations that decreasing aflatoxin residue levels in food or feed can confer global exchange benefits. Additionally, there can also be long-time period wellbeing benefits for the local population. Several researchers have urged possible options.

Design of specific material presentation and promoting farmers for village level storage ideasA design of sampling plans that may provide representative samples of plenty of contaminated commodities might be one other strategy to overcome the variability of aflatoxin. Additionally, research could be quintessential on the distribution characteristics of aflatoxin as a prerequisite on the design of statistically valid sampling plans. Such plans are predominant in decreasing sampling error as a possible most important source of variance in analytical outcome bought through the purchaser and seller of a given lot of produce. Sampling will have to be performed with the aid of knowledgeable personnel. This is among the causes of versions. Several types of storage constructions which were used by the farmers for a very long time. Some of them are excellent in terms of their structure and appearance but nonetheless insufficient for fungal control. Storage services are of exact importance seeing that bulk dealing with and storage of food grains have emerge as a necessity in lots of components of the world as a result of the seasonality of the crop and because consumption is steady. Also, a design of appropriate storage buildings suitable for exclusive commodities in distinct areas must be influenced. A good storage constitution prevents insect and rodent infestations, protects from moisture and humidity changes and mould illness. An extended storage is possibly; better than introducing a new storage structure as a result of the fiscal capacity of the farmers. Study will have to be undertaken to seek out methods to make stronger the techniques. Small-scale middlemen within the village must even be inspired to make a good warehouse which would give abundant protection to the produce even as in temporary storage. Bhat [74] recounted that, the countrywide organizations in extraordinary developing international locations will have to emphasize on challenge which aren’t capital intensive like bettering the normal existing storage constructions.

Implementation of effective practices using resistant varietiesRight agronomic practices reminiscent of right water applications, fertilizers and discipline hygiene need to be practiced by using the farmers [81]. Unfavorable climatic conditions would not be controlled by means of farmers consequently; planting of aflatoxin resistant varieties may


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just alleviate the challenge. Darrah et al. [82] reported that no germplasm which would minimize aflatoxin B1 illness in maize kernels were identified. Suttajit [83], brought up that the progress of ‘superplant’ towards pathogenity using genetic resistance to mycotoxin contamination must be stimulated. Adopting proper cultural practices were verified to have an effect on aflatoxin contamination of the vegetation.

Control of fungal maturity and campaign for aflatoxin effectConsidering that sun drying will not be continually possible for the period of the harvesting interval, mechanical dryers are advocated. Nevertheless, giant capital investment is essential. Mechanical dryers could be set-up in a strategic and available position in special villages so that farmers in that village could dry their produce simply if sun drying just isn’t feasible. This necessitates firstly, cautious planning reminiscent of staggered planting so that plants from all farmers could now not be harvested and stored whilst and secondly, observance of encouraged cultural practices. One more means is to furnish a cell dryer [84]. Suttajit [83] reported that the inhibition of fungal development can also be performed through physical, chemical and organic method. These incorporate immediate reduction of moisture content material on freshly harvested produce, scale down harvesting damage and furnish an excellent storage, use of synthetic fungicides and the use common merchandise from plants. Ilangantileke [85] reported that chemical cure for prevention of fungal progress on maize has a promise. Suttajit [83] mentioned that the common merchandise from vegetation like allicin from garlic and onion extracts, clove oil, cinnamon extracts, black and white pepper could be used for fungal manipulate. Bhat [67] recounted that dried leaves of detailed crops are blended with food grains to be stored to preclude insect and mould infection. Tanboon-ek [86] stated that ammonium bis-propionate and propionic acid would provide temporary manipulate and prevention on fungal growth in high moisture maize but would now not break the aflatoxin gift before the treatment. This could be appropiate in areas where rural transportation infrastructure crisscross the hinterland villages. As soon as persons are made to have an understanding of the danger of aflatoxin, they’d watch out in selecting food and feedstuffs. The aflatoxin trouble will not be very well-known to all farmers and possibly, to legislators, businessmen and other grain handlers within the Asian countries. It is just general to the researchers and medical personnel. The incidence of aflatoxincosis in people has by and large located among the rural men and women. Hence, the country wide groups of every nation must initiate a program to coach the peasant or small farmers. Radios and televisions need to have a common application about aflatoxin hazard. Pamphlets and posters would even be used. Additionally, there have to be average elements on the field in greatly circulated everyday newspapers of Asian nations.

Active seminars and workshops for research, govt. and farmer attention This endeavor must be promoted locally and internationally. Seminars and symposia are good avenues to trade findings and to get acquainted with the research work from different research organizations. Such a gathering offers researchers a hazard to evaluate the prior and reward studies and for this reason plan for future research priorities.

University collaboration study by training activitiesThe removing of aflatoxin from contaminated produce entails extra rate as a consequence, a low-cost system of detoxing must be determine. Quite a lot of experiences have been finished on aflatoxin removal of inactivation based on physical, chemical and biological methods [87]. Ammonia has been observed to be essentially the most effective detoxing process and the resulting grain is safe and can be fed for cattle and swine but not compatible for human consumption. As a result, further experiences will have to be carried out so that an appropriate cleansing technique might be attained. Seeing that aflatoxin research needs considerable resources, a cooperative study recreation is also a better strategy. These were done within the Philippines, Thailand and India and the effects look to be very encouraging [88]. The technical knowledge of folks that work on aflatoxin, peculiarly people who would participate in sampling and laboratory evaluation is a central factor for potent aflatoxin control programmes. Coaching is a very primary component and it might be logical to sponsor coaching programmes periodically. An up to date training endeavor used to be carried out via Thailand and used to be supported by FAO, AGPP and the Royal Thai govt. This coaching application had participants from one of kind nations in Asia. It would be suitable then to support universities cooperative research inside one country and between other nations.

Policies on aflatoxinThe aflatoxin tolerance or restrict varies commonly from one country to another. Policymakers in the national govt. will have to be aware of the wellbeing advantages hence of the preventive health technique that efficiently decreased human exposure to mycotoxins. Aflatoxin legislation has been enforced in other international locations like U.K., U.S.A., Canada and the six states that founded the European Economic Community (EEC) (The six were France, West Germany, Italy and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg). This will have to be standardized and the tolerance stage will have to be reduced. Van Egmond [89] cited that harmonization of mycotoxin law is extremely desirable. Effort must be made to standardize and harmonize the ways of settling on the aflatoxin level in bulk commodities to do away with or cut down injustices.


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Training Farmers for Production of Aflatoxin free FoodIf you care about the poorest, you care about agriculture,” said Gates. “Investments in agriculture are the best weapons against hunger and poverty and they have made life better for billions of people. The international agriculture community needs to be more innovative, coordinated and focused to help poor farmers grow more. If we can do that, we can dramatically reduce suffering and build self-sufficiency. The goal is to move from examples of success to sustainable productivity increases to hundreds of millions of people moving out of poverty. If we hope to meet that goal, it must be a goal we share. We must be coordinated in our pursuit of it. We must embrace more innovative ways of working toward it. And we must be willing to be measured on our results. The number of hungry people in the world has reached the 1 billion mark. According to estimates, small farmers in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa can double or almost triple their yields, respectively, in the next 20 years. This sustainable productivity increase will translate into 400 million people lifting themselves out of poverty (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation).

Farmers in Kwara state have become recent beneficiaries of a workshop conducted by means of the international Institute of Tropical Agriculture on the right application of Aflasafe. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) consultant in Kwara State, Mr. Ike Kaminus, disclosed that the local specie of maize comprises chemical compounds ready of causing cancer in humans, hence the research division of IITA in collaboration with Agriculture research carrier of the United State have learned an replacement manner wherein farmers can produce maize free of Aflatoxin via introducing a bio-manipulate product referred to as Aflasafe. At the same time giving directives on its application, he noted that 1kg of Aflasafe might be applied earlier than weeding and mulching to 1 hectare of corn farm land, adding that the chemical can be used after 35-40 days of planting to make the essential have an impact on Aflatoxin mighty. In step with him, the Aflatoxin discovered to be reward in maize by using scientists, led to the invention of Aflasafe which is competent of reducing Aflatoxin chemical, “The Aflasafe have an effect on as quickly as it’s applied in keeping with instruction and training given to farmers, will neutralize Aflatoxin in the maize.” He additionally disclosed that the IITA was once working in collaboration with companies that use maize for meals production through encouraging them to buy Aflatoxin-free corn. Dr. Charity Kawira Mutegi, a study scientist at worldwide Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). This year’s winner of the prestigious Norman Borlaug Award for field study and application endowed through the Rockefeller groundwork by means of the world meals Prize foundation.

Dr. Mutegi mentioned, she was brought about to center of attention on discovering options for aflatoxin after witnessing the results of infection first-hand. A devastating outbreak of aflatoxicosis in 2004-05, which caused the demise of 125

folks who had consumed contaminated grain in eastern Kenya, led her to investigate options in an effort to avert future outbreaks and defend the vicinity’s staple crop of maize. She worked with the food and Agriculture institution of the united international locations and the Kenya Ministry of Agriculture to teach more than 40,000 farmers, extension retailers and coverage personnel on aflatoxin mitigation instruments and continued to generate data on aflatoxin prevalence to great-tune country wide efforts to manage the problem. The devastating results on many Kenyan households of maize grain contaminated with aflatoxins can’t be understated. Lives were misplaced, plenty of staple food destroyed, losses from the farm animals sector run to thousands of shillings and by means of extension, livelihoods had been destroyed by means of financial disempowerment. For her main efforts in extending and advantage deployment of a biocontrol product in Kenya that can be utilized to enormously reduce aflatoxin levels in maize. This works by introducing naturally happening non-toxic strains of the fungus, which have an aggressive abilities over the traces that produce the lethal aflatoxin.

The aflasafe™ stains cannot produce aflatoxins because they have got inherent defects in a number of the 26 genes within the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway. Additionally they cannot emerge as toxigenic considering the selected atoxigenic strains belong to genetic organizations those posses’ simplest atoxigenic stains. As a consequence, genetic exchange between individuals of the equal atoxigenic genetic group can’t turn into atoxigenic lines to toxigenic ones. Participants of two one of a kind genetic corporations cannot alternate DNA. Aflasafe™ is applied to soil field via hand 2-3 weeks prior to flowering of crop @ 10-20 kg per hectare. Inside 2-three days after application of aflasafe, the atoxigenic strains sporulate on the sorghum grains which act as their food supply. The atoxigenic strains proceed to produce spores for as much as three weeks on sorghum grain provider after discipline utility. The atoxigenic traces colonize the natural and organic subject and other plant residues within the soil in position of the toxin producing strains. Spores of the atoxigenic lines are then naturally blown by way of air and moved with the aid of bugs from soil surface to maize cobs displacing the toxin producing lines. Application of aflasafe does not increase the whole amount of Aspergillus in the atmosphere however shifts the strain profile from toxigenic to atoxigenic lines of aflasafe. A single application is effective for a number of years and in several vegetation. Security via aflasafe carries over from discipline to store hence protecting maize/groundnut alongside the whole value chain.

Partnership: Challenges and Opportunities The partnership for aflatoxins manage in Africa is a collaboration which aims to preserve vegetation, farm animals and persons from the effects of aflatoxins. By means of combating these toxins. Will make contributions to making improvements to food security, health and alternate across the African continent. The African Union commission


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(AUC) fee providing leadership for partnership and works with a steerage committee representing farmers; customers; research and technology businesses; healthcare and alternate authorities; and the confidential sector. Together, the risk holders aspire to achieve percent’s imaginative and prescient: an Africa free from the hazardous results of aflatoxins. If this imaginative and prescient is carried out, thousands of peoples in the world will now not be exposed to high, hazardous stages of aflatoxins. First identified challenges is to overcome and opportunities that may be accessed to enhance healthy efforts to manage aflatoxins. The challenges includes: food insecurity and limited dietary variety, fiscal losses and barriers to trade, lack of aflatoxin cognizance, constrained aflatoxin legislation and the challenges of enforcement, confined utilization of replacement makes use of contaminated meals, affects of climate alternate and problems of placing research into use. The opportunities comprise: urbanization and an increasing core type, synergies with international well being and nutrition initiatives, availability of intervention applied sciences, availability of recent communications media, high precedence given to agriculture globally, leveraging interventions meant for different purposes.

A foremost challenge for higher manage of aflatoxins is the low level of recognition of the trouble-now not just amongst resource‐bad farmers and purchasers, but in addition among extension workers, health professionals and decision‐makers. There is a clear need for consciousness‐raising for all stakeholders, as good as comprehensive ability building alongside agricultural commodity price chains, together with for shoppers, well being experts and coverage makers. The truth that aflatoxin infection is invisible adds to the project, as even foods that do not appear moldy to the bare eye may still incorporate aflatoxins.

A huge constraint to making improvements to agriculture in Africa is the failure to translate promising research findings into software by way of working technologies, practices and procedures. All too regularly, luxurious, publicly funded study remains on the shelf. Causes for this include vulnerable linkages between research companies, on the one hand and extension offerings, farmers’ firms and the confidential sector, on the opposite. Promising systems for hanging research into use incorporate the formation and facilitation of multi‐stakeholder platforms that deliver collectively the entire actors needed to ensure that promising study findings are exploited and obtain lasting impact. In addition, advances in science, principally biotechnology, can also be better exploited to facilitate the creation of recent and elevated technologies, practices and methods-in particular in areas such because the progress of aflatoxin resistant crops; the development of bio‐manipulate dealers to hinder illness within the subject; expanded storage and handling practices, both pre‐and postharvest; expanded diagnostics for contaminated vegetation and for folks uncovered to aflatoxins; and alternative and riskless uses for contaminated plants. The progress and checking out of bio‐controls for use in farmers’ fields are excellent

in progress, with an instance being the AflaSafe™ product.

Vision and MissionAll over the world scientist, research holders, NGO’s, companies especially government of every nation should think of agriculture primarily. Farmers are backbone of nation, by giving food. But still farmers facing the great problem in during food production and storage. So, if we really become a better scientist think your food free from the harmful effects of aflatoxins. Ensure food and income security for all, through technological innovations and sustainable agriculture. The demand for food and processed commodities is growing because of growing population and rising per capita sales. There are projections that demand for food grains would increase from 192 million tons in 2000 to 345 million tons in 2030. Accordingly within the next 15 years, production of food grains needs to be improved on the price of 5.5 million tons yearly. The demand for prime-worth commodities (reminiscent of horticulture, dairy, cattle and fish) is growing rapid than food grains-for lots of the excessive-worth food commodities demand is predicted to expand by means of more than 100% from 2015 to 2030. This can be a project as well as a possibility. The undertaking is that it appears to be an intricate venture for attaining mountainous goals. And the possibilities can be in augmenting farm incomes, generating employment and involving a quantity of extra stakeholders in the food-deliver chain. For study and development, the key challenges could be: (i) to improve promising applied sciences and management choices to elevate productivity to fulfill growing food demand in a obstacle of deteriorating production atmosphere at the lowest fee; and (ii) to strengthen appropriate technologies, create required infrastructure and to evolve institutional preparations for creation, post-harvest and marketing of high-price and perishable commodities and their worth-introduced products.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) possesses a significant type of genetic resources of plants, animals, fishes, insects and microbes. To handle future desires, research will facilitate sustainable use of to be had genetic resources by means of

(i) Characterization

(ii) Genetic enhancement and prebreeding

(iii) Practical genomics, proteomics, phenomics and so on.

(iv) Gene mining

(v) Molecular breeding via instruments like marker-aided choice and gene stacking

(vi) Personalized genetic engineering (progress of trait-distinctive transgenics).

Trends in molecular biology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, know-how technology and geo-spatial science are anticipated to furnish gigantic new opportunities for


15

productiveness enhancement. These trends are also posing new challenges of potential-constructing and human useful resource progress. There is a need to develop organizational policy and guidelines aimed toward enhancing inventions and accelerating innovations in agriculture to harness possibilities via integrating cutting-edge and traditional research systems. Within the present context, technological challenges are becoming extra intricate than before as demand for meals is increasing and provide sources are dwindling. By the way, the science can also be changing rapidly with the emergence of new tools, ways, strategies and approaches that promise technological breakthroughs to achieve the mission.

Biotechnology in Research to FarmersThe tools of biotechnology offer both a task and gigantic opportunity. As a substitute, they offer new methods for manipulating the genes of vegetation, animals and microorganisms. Biotechnology instruments complement, alternatively than exchange, the natural methods used to enhance agricultural productivity and build on a base of understanding derived from usual reviews in biology, genetics, physiology and biochemistry. The vigor of biotechnology is now not fable. Within the last few years, we have begun to convert ideas into realistic applications. For illustration, scientists have learned to genetically alter exact vegetation to develop their tolerance to distinctive herbicides. Biotechnology has been used to design and boost safer and more powerful vaccines towards viral and bacterial diseases equivalent to pseudo rabies, enteric colibacillosis (scours) and foot-and-mouth sickness. Recombinant gene technology is the excellent-known state-of-the-art biotechnology broadly employed in research and progress for stress growth. Biotechnology can be greatly employed as an instrument in diagnostics with a purpose to display meals defense, prevent and diagnose meals-borne diseases and verify the origins of foods. In 1990, the UK grew to be the primary nation to permit the use of reside genetically modified organism (GMO) in food. More lately, two genetically modified yeast traces have been approved to be used within the North American wine enterprise [90].

Biotechnology presents titanic skills for bettering the effectivity of crop creation, thereby lowering the price and increasing the production of food. The instruments of biotechnology can provide scientists with new systems to develop bigger yielding and extra nutritious crop sorts, to enhance resistance to sickness and opposed conditions, or to shrink the need for fertilizers and different expensive agricultural chemical compounds. Revolutionary biotechnologies currently being developed including synthetic genomics, pathway and systems biology, genetic databanks, mobile banks and stem cell established treatments, pharmacogenetics, nanobiotechnology, new sensors and diagnostic technology and biopharmaceuticals. These trends are being facilitated via new initiatives corresponding to translational treatment, meant to speed the passage of biotechnology associated innovations in

wellness care “from bench to bedside” by means of better integration of technological methods to progress and delivery of innovations in both public and business sectors.

A further main improvement got here with new non-drug established therapies coming up from biotechnology-founded innovation, reminiscent of stem cell treatment options and nano-biotechnology situated systemic remedies. In the early stages of progress of those applied sciences, systems to law were being built around changes of drug-associated law and this was once proving to be tremendously inhibiting of innovation. The brand new “living license” strategy had a dramatic impact on the cost of expansion of innovation in such areas, with many extra products rising from a variety of small corporations working novel convergent innovation units that introduced collectively knowledge science and biotechnology, customarily working on the nano scale. Globally, agricultural production could probably meet expected demand over the period to 2030 even without major advances in biotechnology. However, biotechnology could be a major tool in the fight against hunger and poverty, especially in developing countries. Because it may deliver solutions where conventional breeding approaches have failed, it could greatly assist the development of crop varieties able to thrive in the difficult environments where many of the world’s poor live and farm. Some promising results have already been achieved in the development of varieties with complex traits such as resistance or tolerance to drought, soil salinity, insect pests and diseases, helping to reduce crop failures. Several applications allow resource-poor farmers to reduce their use of purchased inputs such as pesticides or fertilizers, with benefits to the environment and human health as well as farmers’ incomes. The future of the wellbeing bioeconomy via 2030 as a consequence will likely be determined by using the interactions between the world science and industry innovation procedure, the increasingly global regulatory procedure, the more and more divergent range of national and regional health care delivery techniques and the stakeholder and advocacy agencies that so far have no longer come to be systemically organized.

Break the Future Little is known about the specified genetic and biochemical associations among microorganisms, crops and the atmosphere, as a result many examples of abilities alterations worthwhile to agriculture are still speculative. One field of large promise-genetic engineering to beef up nitrogen fixation-is proving primarily challenging. All dwelling things need nitrogen, but vegetation cannot directly take in and use nitrogen fuel, which makes up greater than 75 percent of the atmosphere. To be available to crops, nitrogen gas need to first be “fixed,” or converted into nitrogen-containing compounds either with the aid of industrial methods or via targeted micro organism and blue-green algae that reside in the soil. Essentially the most well-known bacteria competent to repair nitrogen belong to the genus Rhizobium, which neighbors with individuals


16

of the legume household such as soybeans, beans, peas, peanuts, alfalfa and clover. Genetic engineers need to find approaches to fix up nitrogen in this vegetation and lengthen the ability to others. This development would play an important role in lowering production bills through reducing the necessity for vigor (petrochemical) inputs used in producing nitrogen fertilizers.

Researchers are pursuing a number of specific strategies to make stronger nitrogen fixation. Maybe the simplest method is to support the symbiotic relationship now discovered in nature-to genetically engineer Rhizobium to fix nitrogen more efficaciously for common host legumes. A 2nd technique could be to create Rhizobium that might infect and fix nitrogen for other plants, in exact the cereal plants. However, it might be possible to transfer the capacity to fix nitrogen to other microorganisms that already live in association with a given crop. A further procedure entails seeking to engineer crops to repair nitrogen themselves.

Some progress has been made in these tactics, due to vast common research on the genetics and biochemistry of nitrogen fixation. Researchers have recognized bacterial genes, referred to as nod genes, involved in nodulation. When bacteria invade leguminous plants, the nod genes are activated, nodules kind the place the bacteria stay and nitrogen fixation starts off evolved. Researchers at the moment are seeking to decipher the chemical signals that prompt the bacterium and reason the plant to grow the nodules. The bacterial genes that sincerely perform nitrogen fixation, the nif genes, are well studied. Scientists are gaining an understanding of the regulation of those many genes expression, but their relationship is enormously tricky. One in all many ultimate problems is that within the discipline, laboratory-modified rhizobial inoculants lose out to competing indigenous strains. Both the public and personal sectors must expand their efforts to advance an extensive body of abilities of the ecological aspects of biotechnology in agriculture. In detailed, experiences ought to be executed to additional our understanding of conduct and results of genetically engineered organisms. Additionally, public ought to be informed about biotechnology. These efforts are foremost to support future functions of biotechnology and to accurately inform regulators and the general public about viable risks involved and get greatest benefits from agriculture through power of biotechnology.

Research within the biosciences, publicly and privately (together with both commercially and charitably) funded and technological improvements that emerge from this study, are more likely to be the main determinants of future healthcare eventualities. Funding in bioscience and biotechnology is currently excessive within the developed world and can also be expected to develop there and in addition to grow to be a way more major feature in the economies of the new rapidly constructing economies. Country wide governments are prone to proceed to invest in principal discovery on this sector, partly for the reason that it is obvious to be a

principal element of a nation’s global competitive position. There’s also an increasing development for governments to spend money on “translational study”, to take products additional alongside the development route and in the direction of market application, in an attempt to cover the investment gap between the top of general research funding and demonstration of an funding opportunity for the private sector. GM vegetation has been close to totally disruptive of agrochemical innovation techniques but they would have been a lot much less disruptive innovation for seed companies of any size. Nevertheless, as soon as the agrochemical enterprise had determined to focal point its future innovation system on GM plants, these other avid gamers have been both bought out with the aid of agro-biotechnology companies or left the area, as for illustration did Unilever. One could speculate that, if GM vegetation had been developed by using seed firms, European regulators would have been much less more likely to erect such an hard regulatory procedure, even though the merchandise would still had been regulated with no trouble. The study neighborhood and the enterprise have so far paid little attention to the role of regulatory methods in deciding upon the sorts of manufacturer that are capable to develop innovative technological competence and markets for, the merchandise themselves.

ConclusionMold contamination of various food commodities with consequent exposure of the community to mycotoxins is a hazard that has continually existed. This evaluation suggests that the sector population is repeatedly bare to mycotoxins. There is a critical necessity to raise realization among the public regarding prevalence of these toxins in food commodities. Mycotoxin contamination of nutrients with immoderate levels represents critical human well being dangers and the concerned authorities should deliberate this obstacle of contamination urgently. Furthermore, maximum limits of mycotoxins for all food products should be primarily centered in the country. Right agricultural practices must be adopted and conditions of harvesting, storage, handling and processing must be expanded. Samples of commodities from storage retailers should be analyzed for mycotoxin presence at commonplace intervals to be certain the merchandise is riskless for consumption. Management and control methods must comprise preharvest, harvest and postharvest control specialists and this could aid in minimizing the mycotoxin contamination when the ultimate product reaches the consumer. Cognizances have to be raised among farmers about the wellbeing risks associated with mycotoxin-contaminated meals and feedstuff. Most of the existing reports depict analyses of aflatoxins in the nation, so there is a have got to focal point on different mycotoxins in food commodities as different nations have performed. It’s apparent from this evaluate that majority of the reports observed were depicted in the paper, as a consequence more elaborate nation vast experiences are needed to light up the infection difficulty more generally.


17

Moreover, since it is still unknown what causes Aspergillus to produce aflatoxin in only certain plant species. This could lay the foundation for the development of improved germplasm with enhanced resistance to A. flavus and open new challenges and methods for combating A. flavus infection and aflatoxin contamination. Development of effective management of aflatoxin production or pathogen control manner will also be an important prerequisite for sustainable use of biotechnology for crop improvement and food safety.

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