my earth by riffin sajeev

8/3/2019 My Earth by Riffin Sajeev

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Contents

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----1111

The Solar System

Introduction 01

Formation 02

The Nebular Hypothesis 02The Planetesimal and Tidal Theories 03The Condensation Model 03

Contemporary Theories 07

Formation of planets 08

Timeline of Solar System evolution 13

Formation of Earth 16

Origins of Life 17

Physical characteristics of Earth 20

Structure of the Interior of Earth 20

Core 24Mantle 25Crust 25

The Earth's Atmosphere 26

First Atmosphere 27Second Atmosphere 28Evidence from the Rock Record 29Biological Evidence 29Other Possibilities of Structuring the Atmosphere 33Composition of the Atmosphere 33Functions of the Atmosphere 35Water 35Weather 36Clouds 36


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The Proto-earth Eon 36

The Hadean Eon 36Archaean Eon 37Proterozoic Eon 38

Phanerozoic Eon40

Etymology of Proterozoic geological period names 40Geological history of Earth 41

Clock of Eras 43Major Divisions of Geologic Time 44Geologic Time Scale: Its History and Development 44Evolutionary Timeline 46

Paleontology 50

Dating Methods 50

Absolute Dating Methods 51Radio Carbon Dating 51Thermo luminescent Dating 51Potassium-Argon Dating 51Uranium-Lead Dating 52Fission-Track Dating 52

Relative Dating Methods 52Chemical Methods 52Varves 52Paleomagnetism 52Faunal Dating 53

Dating a Fossil 53

geological time scale 54

International Commission on Stratigraphy (Basic Table) 54

International Commission on Stratigraphy (detailed Table) 55


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CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER---- 2222Precambrian

Introduction 63

Life in Pre Cambrian 66

Planetary environment and the oxygen catastrophe 67Subdivisions of Precambrian 68

Hadean 69 Archean 69 Proterozoic 70

Life in Proterozoic Era 71Origin of the Earth and Life 72

The Origins of Multicellularity 76 The Precambrian 76

Precambrian Era Fossils 82

References 85

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER3333The Triassic Period

Introduction 86

fossils of Permian 86

Paleogeography 89

Major Events in Triassic Period 89

Climate and Life 92

Terrestrial Life 93 Aquatic Life 93 Avian Life 93 Plant Life 93


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Coal 95

PermianTriassic extinction event 95

Dating the extinction 96

Extinction patterns 97

Marine organisms 98 Terrestrial invertebrates 99 Terrestrial plants 100

The Laurasian/Pangaean Flora 101The Gondwanan Flora 101

Terrestrial vertebrates 102 Possible explanations of these patterns 102

Biotic recovery 103

Changes in marine ecosystems 104

Land vertebrates 105

Causes of extinction event 106

Impact event 106 Volcanism 107 Methane hydrate gasification 109 Sea level fluctuations 111 Anoxia 111 Hydrogen sulfide emissions 111

The supercontinent Pangaea 112

Combination of causes 112

Fossil Evidence of the Permian-Triassic Extinction 113

The Triassic Aftermath 113


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Geologic Evidence of the Permian-Triassic Extinction 114

The Volcanic Scenario 114

Late Triassic extinction event 115

Fossils of Triassic period 116

References 118

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----4444The Jurassic Period

Introduction 119

A Splitting Super Continent 120

Stratigraphy 122

Jurassic Plant Life

Jurassic Animal Life 1

Jurassic marine Life 1

The Age of Dinosaurs 132

Pangea Splits 133 North American Mountain Building 133 Warm Climate Fosters New Species 133 The Seas of The Jurassic Period 133 Predators of The Deep 133 Mega Predators-The Marine Reptiles 134 Abundant Plant Life Feeds The Dinosaurs 134 Jurassic Park 134 The Sauropods-Dinosaur Giants 135 The Theropods-Two Legged Hunters 135

The Ornithopods-Bird Hipped Plant Eaters 135 Bird like Dinosaurs or Dinosaur like Birds? 135 The Jurassic Period Mammals 135


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Plankton 136

Jurassic Fossils

More Extinctions 141

References 141

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----5555Cretaceous Period

Introduction 143

Stratigraphy 143

Paleogeography 144

Climate 145

Stratigraphic subdivisions 146

Major Events in Cretaceous Period 147

Early Cretaceous Period 149

Late Cretaceous 150

Climate 151 Geography 151 Vertebrate Fauna 151

Dinosaurs 151 Birds 154 Mammals 154 Marine Life 154 Flora 154 Flowering Plants 155 KT Mass Extinction 155

Rock formations 156

Life 156

Plants 157

Terrestrial fauna 158


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Marine fauna 158

Extinction 159

Cretaceous Fossils 160References 164

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----6666Plate Tectonics

Introduction 165

Types of plate boundaries 169

Transform (conservative) boundaries 169 Divergent (constructive) boundaries 170 Convergent Boundaries 172

Oceanic-Continental Convergence 172Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence 172Continental-Continental Convergence 173

Continental drift 173

Wegener and his predecessors 173Evidence 174

Major features of Plate Tectonics 176

Sea Floor Spreading 177Subduction 179Subduction discovered 180

magnetic striping of ocean ridges 181

Mapping with earthquakes 181Geological paradigm shift 182

The Formation of the Himalayas 182

Driving forces of plate motion 185

Friction 185 Gravitation 185 External forces 186


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Relative significance of each mechanism 187Volcanic Landforms and Plate Tectonics 189

Shield Volcanoes 189Stratovolcanoes 190Tephra Cones 191Maars 192Lava Domes 193Craters and Calderas 194Resurgent Domes 195Geysers, Fumaroles and Hot Springs 195Plateau Basalts or Flood Basalts 196Global Distribution of Volcanoes 196

Diverging Plate Margins 196

Converging Plate Margin 197

Plate tectonics on other planets 198

Climate variation through time 200

Method Used to Determine Ancient Climates 200The Paleogeographic Method 200

Mapping the Past Positions of the Continents 200

Paleomagnetism 201Linear Magnetic Anomalies 201Paleobiogeography. 202Paleoclimatology 202Geologic and Tectonic History 202Mapping the Changing Distribution of Mountains,

Lowlands, Shallow Seas and Deep Ocean Basins 202

Early Cambrian Climate 205

Early Permian Climate 206

Early Triassic Climate 207

Early & Middle Jurassic Climate 208

Early Cretaceous Climate 209

Miocene Climate 210


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References 211

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----7777Landforms

Introduction 212

Major Land Forms 212

Mountains 212Valleys 214Hills 215Plains 216Plateaus 218

Loess 219Glaciers 220

How do glaciers affect the land? 222

Glacial Erosion 222Glacial Landforms 223

Other Landforms 225

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS 225

Alluvial Fan 225Bajada 226Bar 227Beach Terrace 227Braided (Anastomosing) Stream 228Earthflow 229Lahar 229Rockslide 230Slump 230Playa 232Tombolo 233

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS 233Arch 233Badlands 234Butte 235Canyon 235Chimney 236


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Gully 237Hanging Valley 238Hogback 239Hoodoo 240Hoodoo Rock 240

Mesa in Sedimentary Rocks 242Mesa in Volcanic Rocks 242Sea Arch 243Tor 243Volcanic Necks 244Water Gap 245Wave-Cut Platform or Terrace 246

TECTONIC LANDFORMS 247Escarpment 247Sag Pond 248Shutter Ridge 248Stream Offset by Fault Movement 249

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS 250Caldera 250Cinder Cone 250Geyser 251Hornito 252Lava Pillows 253Maar 254Mud Volcano 255Tuff Cone 256Tuff Ring 256Tuya 257

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----8888Dinosaurs

Introduction 258

History of discovery 259

Modern definition 261

General description 262

Distinguishing features 262


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What is Warm Blooded? 263

Why Warm Blooded 264advantages and disadvantages of being warm or

Cold-blooded 266

Origins and early evolution of Dinosaur 267

Low diversification in the Cretaceous 268

Classification 268

Hadrosaurs: The Duck-Billed Dinosaurs 275

How Dinosaurs Raised Babies and Children 277

Physiology of dinosaurs 279

Feeding and digestion 279Reproductive biology 280Respiratory System 281Uncinate processes on the ribs 283Cardiovascular system 284

Growth and lifecycle 285

Metabolism 287Debating Issues 287

Metabolic options 288Bone structure 289Growth rates 290Oxygen isotope ratios in bone 290Predator-prey ratios 291Posture and gait 291Feathers 292Polar dinosaurs 293Evidence for behavioral thermoregulation 294The crocodilian puzzle and early archosaur metabolism 294

Features and description of dinosaurs 296

Jurassic 296 The Brachiosaurus 296 The Stegosaurus 297 The Liopleurodon 298


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The Ceratosaurus 299 The Dilophosaurus 299 The Guanlong 301 The Plesiosaurus 302 The Allosaurus 302

The Monolophosaurus 303 The Brontosaurus 304 The Heterodontosaurus 305 The Compsognathus 30 5 The Supersaurus 30 6 The Barosaurus 30 7 The Camptosaurus 30 8 The Nanosaurus 30 8 The Cryptoclidus 30 9 The ichthyosaurus 310 The Giraffatitan Brancai 311

Cretaceous 312 The Tyrannosaurus 31 2 The Polacanthus 31 3 The Deinonychus 314 The Quetzalcoatlus 315 The Ankylosaurus 316 The Velociraptor 316 The Elasmosaurus 317 The Triceratops 318 The Microraptor 318 The Tylosaurus 319 The Centrosaurus 32 0 The Parasaurolophus 320

Evolution and paleobiogeography 321

Paleobiology 322

Size 323Largest and smallest 323Behavior 325

Soft tissue and DNA 328

The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds 329

The Origin of Birds 331The Thecodont Hypothesis 331The Crocodylomorph Hypothesis 331The Theropod Hypothesis 332


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The Evolution of Feathers 332

The Origin of Flight 332

How did it evolve 332Leaping 332

Wing-Assisted Incline running333

The Arboreal Theory 333The Cursorial Theory 334Flight Capabilities of Archaeopteryx 334Flight Improvements After Archaeopteryx 335

The Cretaceous Radiation 335

Current evolutionary trends in birds 338

Extinction 340

Failure to adapt to changing conditions 340Possible Paleocene survivors 341

The dinosaur renaissance 341

References: 341

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----9999Extinction

Introduction 343

Causes of mass extinctions 343

Extinction of dinosaurs. 347

The K-T Boundary 349

The Core 350Tiny Creatures Tell a Big Story 351The K-T Boundary and Iridium 352Tunguska Fireball 353Barringer Meteor Crater 353The Asteroid Theory 354The Deccan Traps Volcanoes 359The Bug Theory 360The Double Whammy Theory 360


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Climate Change 361Disease 361Ice age 361

General Pattern of Extinctions 362

Major extinction events 364

Non-Continuous Evolution and Dinosaur Extinction 365

The Deccan Traps Volcanism-Greenhouse Dinosaur

Extinction Theory (In Detail) 370

The VolcanoGreenhouse Theory 371Deccan Traps Mantle Plume Volcanism 372K-T Marine Extinctions 374

References 375

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----10101010Fossils

Introduction 376

Sedimentary rock 377

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 378 Classification 379

Clastic rock 381 Organic 383 Chemical /Biochemical Rocks 384 Carbonates 384 Other Chemical Rocks 385 Other Bio Chemical Rocks 385

Fossil-Bearing Rocks 385

Understanding Stratigraphy 386

Fossils Formation 387

Fossilization of an ammonite 389Types of fossils 392


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Trace fossils 392 Occurrence 393 Classification 394 Paleoecology 394 Paloenvironment 394 Stratigraphic correlation 395 Ichnofacies 396 Inherent bias 396 Evolution 397 Common ichnogenera 398 Other notable trace fossils 400 Confusion with other types of fossils 400

Microfossils 401

Resin fossils 402

Pseudofossils 402

Living fossils 404

.Rare Fossils 411

Fossil Amber 413

Fossil Amber Chemistry 413Amber, Natural Selection and Chemical Warfare 414A Container for the whole Tree of Life 414Fossil Amber Ecosystems 414Amber's Geographic Dispersion 415

Index fossil 416

The Major Fossil Groups 418

Geological Formations 419

Usefulness of formations 420Defining lithostratigraphic formations 420

Formations in India and its remnants 421

Lameta Formation 421 Maleri Formation 421 Dinosaur research history 422


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Indosaurus 422 Kotasaurus 423 Lametasaurus 423 Rajasaurus 424 Laevisuchus 427

Indosuchus 428 Abelisaur 429 Alwalkeria 430 Isisaurus 432 Titanosaur 433

Fossil collection 437

Finding fossils 437 Collecting ethics 439 Equipment 439 Preservation and documentation 440

Earliest fossiliferous sites 441

Developments in interpretation of the fossil record 441

Tertiary Fossils 447Glossary of Scientific Terminology Related to Fossils 448

References 464

CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER----11111111MAMMALS

Timeline of evolution 466

Detailed timeline 466

Glacial age 471

Ice age theory 472Evidence for ice ages 473Major glacial ages 474Glacials and interglacials 475Causes of ice ages 478

The First Mammals 483


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Triassic takeover 484

Definition of "mammal 485

Fossil of mammals 487

Amniotes 488

Synapsids 489

Therapsids 489

Therapsid family tree 490

Biarmosuchia 490

Dinocephalians 490

Theriodonts 490

Cynodonts 491

Multituberculates 491

Morganucodontidae 492

Docodonts 492

Hadrocodium 493

The Evolution of Mammals 494

Evolution of mammalian features 495

Jaws and middle ears 495Milk production 495Hair and fur 495Erect limbs 496Warm-bloodedness 496

Earliest-known Mammals(the Mesozoic Era) 498

EOZOSTRONDON 498DELTATHERIDIUM 498JEHOLODENS 498MEGAZOSTRODON 498ZALAMBDALESTES 498


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Earliest-known Mammals(Pleistocene Epoch 499

ANDREWSARCHUS 499BALUCHITHERIUM 499CAVE LION 500

CHALICOTHERIUM 500COELODONTA :Woolly Rhino 500DINICTIS 500DINOHYUS 501DOEDICURUS 501GOMPHOTHERIUM 502INDRICOTHERIUM 502MAMMOTH 502MASTODON 502MEGACEROS 502MEGATHERIUM 503MEGISTOTHERIUM 503MOERITHERIUM 503PARACERATHERIUM 504SABER-TOOTHED CATS 504SMILODON 504UINTATHERIUM 505WOOLLY MAMMOTH 505

Lifestyles of the Early Mammals 506

The Age of Mammals 506

Evolution of major groups of living mammals 507

Fossil-based family tree of placental mammals 508

Family tree of placental mammals according tomolecular phylogenetics 510

Timing of placental evolution 512

Expansion of ecological niches in the Mesozoic 513

Human evolution 514

References 529


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APPENDICES

APPENDIX- I Glossary of Terms 533APPENDIX II List of dinosaurs 541APPENDIX III List of rock types 576APPENDIX IV List of extinct birds 581APPENDIX-V List of Fossil Sites 635APPENDIX- VI List of extinct mammals 643APPENDIX VII List of plesiosaurs 646APPENDIX-VIII List of Pterosaurs 654APPENDIX-IX List of ichthyosaurs 666

my earth by riffin sajeev

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