msw 005 social work practicum and supervision

School of Social WorkIndira Gandhi National Open University

Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068

SOCIAL WORK PRACTICUMAND

SUPERVISION

EditorGracious Thomas

July, 2010

© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2010

ISBN: 978-81-266-5474-9

Print Production : Shri Kulwant Singh, Section Officer, School ofSocial Work.

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PrefaceThe programmes of study in Social work developed andlaunched by IGNOU is timely and much needed whenglobalization is in full swing and the untrained workers,who are involved in welfare activities and looking forsocial work training programmes through distancemode as well as specific areas of specializations inphilanthropy, counseling and criminal justice system.This volume gives an overview on theoreticalunderstanding about social work practicum. Thiscourses is very unique as compared to the coursesoffered under MSW programmes across the country.

We have presented the basic information on social workpracticum i.e. its concepts, importance, models nationalas well as international scenario, and its applicabilityin the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) system. Italso focuses on roles and expectations of variousstakeholders involved in social work practicum. It hasbeen extremely difficult for the social work professionto establish itself in developing countries like India dueto the problems associated with voluntary work versuspaid work. The most important task, therefore, for theprofessional is to make sure that clients understandthe services they receive from professional socialworkers and not confuse it with services of other people.Thus, and expectations of people involved in social workprocess are important.

“Field Work Supervision” is part of educational

practicum. It is generally defined as the relationshipbetween a student or subordinate and supervisor wherethe later overseas the development of the studentthroughout the practicum experience. Some of thechapter have articulated various issues such as models,environmental aspects in social work supervision,supportive functions in supervision, and field practicumsupervision in distance learning mode. We have alsodiscussed social work practicum in various settings. Ithas incorporated specific roles of social workers inindividual, family and community setting, medical andpsychiatric setting, corporate sector, door agencies andNGO sector.

The first chapter on “Social Work Practicum concept:meaning, nature, importance and scope” clarifies theterm, field work practice. Then, it explains the variousmodels such as medical, ecological, generalist practiceetc. of social work practicum. Later on the chapterincludes central themes in social work practicum, fieldwork approaches, competencies for social work practice,and ethical as well as legal issues in social workpracticum. The narration of the ‘History of social workPracticum’ is based on US experience. It has firstdifferentiated volunteering from the social work whichis a profession. Gradually the chapter hascomprehended the emergence of social work as aprofession in the US compared earlier elitist model tothe present situation examined the importance of inter-professional practice and related the practicumfollowed in USA to India context.

“Social Work Practicum: Global and National Scenario”describes the methods of providing field education,

highlighting the difference and similarities betweenpractices in India and other parts of the world. Thischapter covers global standards for field education andtraining, field education in a developing country,problems in conceptualizing field training and fieldapplications in Indian context. The chapter on “SocialWork Practicum in open and Distance Learning” providedesigns and strategies of field practicum in social workeducation offered in distance learning mode. It hasfirst compared field practicum approach between theconventional and distance education systems, thenincorporates field practicum in social work educationin distance mode outside India, as well as the IGNOUmodel. IGNOU’s field practicum for BSW 1st year hasbeen illustrated as an example in this context.

The chapter on “Orientation for social work practicum”describe the importance of practicum experience,relevance of practicum to the educational process ofpreparing you for an advanced level of social workpractice, identify ways in which you can orient yourselfto the client population, the agency, and thecommunity in which you will be working, and to expandyour knowledge base about the value of studentexchange programmes and the practice of social workthrough a global perspective.

The student will act as an agency staff member undera supervisor and, as time progresses in the agency,he/she will be given more responsibility as a memberof the agency team. The on “Roles and expectations insocial work practicum highlights initially the specificroles and expectations of the supervisor as an educatorin this facilitation process. This chapter also discusses

the administrative tasks of the agency in providing astructured environment in which you will learn how toapply the knowledge you have acquired. Lastly itexplains your learning expectations while working withindividuals, families and groups in a multi-disciplinarypractice based setting.

The chapter on ‘Roles and Expectation of the socialwork Training Institute’ is a unique chapter in theentire social work curriculum of IGNOU. It hasarticulated issues like minimum criteria for becomingan agency to provide practical training in social work,role of training institutes, expectations of the learners,university-agency partnership and so on. Towards theend, the chapter has provided knowledge oninternational accreditation standards for social workprogrammes based on the International Association ofSchools of social Work (IASSW) and InternationalFederation of Social Workers (IFSW) International Codeof Ethics and academic standards for internationalsocial work education.

Every profession has certain principles to be followedand several skills to be acquired by the professionals.These are applicable in most practice situationsregardless of client’s characteristics or practice settingor roles assumed by the professionals. The chapter on“Principles and skills for social work and agencypractice” is designed to discuss these principles andskills.

The chapter on ‘Models and Modes of Social WorkSupervision’ deals with the definition and generalfunctions involved in supervision, developmental and

task models of supervision, modes of supervision, andculture as well as administrative context of supervision,.This chapter ends with the additional information onthe role of supervision in professional development andwithin the administrative structure of a human serviceagency. ‘Administrative and Environmental Aspectsin Social Work Supervision’ provides a detaileddiscussion about the need to have knowledge onorganizational structure of the field work agency; rolesand expectations of supervisor, how to develop a positivesupervisory relationship based on an identified styleof supervision; performance issues relating to decisionmaking, appropriate use of authority, professionalboundaries, role constraints, etc; and how to deal withthe conflicts in supervision.

‘Supportive Function in Supervision’ relates to theprocess of developing essential skills that will be helpfulin dealing with a variety of stress often associated withsocial work practice. By and large, this chapterdiscusses about common stressors leading to burnout,compassion, fatigue, impact of stress on professionalfunctioning, using supervision to deal with stress, anddealing with conflict in supervision.

The chapter on “Field Practicum supervision in DistanceLearning Mode” focuses on nature, functions, roles andqualities of supervisors of field practicum in social workprogramme offered through open and distance learningmode. At the end, it reflects certain issues which areinherent in the supervisory process i.e. culture andperceptual disparity between student and supervisor,getting training to perform supervisory role, and

dealing with role conflicts which are inevitablecomponents of the complex process of supervision.

The Chapter on ‘Individuals, Family and Community’describes field work practice with individuals, field workpractice with families, and field work practice withcommunities. It is aimed at helping you to practicesocial work with family by gaining certain amount ofmaturity before you attempt to apply skills as familyproblems are complex in nature. In the communitysetting, you should be sensitive to the value systemsof community as it may differ from your own valuesystem.

The chapter on ‘Medical, Psychiatry and Child Care’explains the nature of social work practice in healthcare setting, mental health setting, and child caresetting. This chapter makes the student aware thatthere is diversity as well as constant change in thefield and therefore he/she should be prepared to dealwith the changing scenario. The description on‘Education and Research’ examines avenues for fieldwork intervention in the schools. Colleges anduniversities where students and youths are the targets.This chapter has also provided a glimpse on social workresearch and evaluation rsearch that assess the utilityof social intervention and human service programmes.

Correction is one segment of criminal justice systemby which the society seeks to protect the public, punishoffenders, change behaviour and in some casescompensate victims. The chapter on ‘correctionalServices’ is designed in this direction. It deals withthe definition and philosophy of having correctional

services, history of development of correctional services,administration and correctional social work.

In the recent years we find that several social workersare being employed in corporate, settings, donoragencies and NGOs. The chapter on ‘Corporate Sector,Donor Agencies and NGOs explains the scope of fieldwork in corporate sector, field work in NGO sector andfield work in donor agencies. The academic exerciseto prepare this volume extended over a period of twoyears. I had several rounds of dissension and radioconferencing with Professor Neil Abell and Prof. PatriciaLager of the college of social work at Florida StateUniversity (FSU). The Social work faculty at FSU wereextremely helpful to me in getting several of the veryimportant chapters included in this book. I am thankfulto Professor Neil Abell, Professor Patricia Lager, Mrs.Manju Kumar, Professor P.K. Gandhi, Professor AsokSarkar, Mr. Gurupada Saren, Dr. B. Hamann, andProfessor M. Ashomore from FSU, Ms. Nita Kumari,Dr. K. Hemlata, Ms. Sushma Murthy, Ms. Manju Gupta,Mr. JoselynT. Lobo, Ms. Sangeeta Dhaor and Mr.Josheph Varghese for their hard work, enthusiasm,commitment and this valuable contribution.

Prof. Gracious ThomasDirector

School of Social Work,IGNOU, New Delhi

Contents

1. Social Work Practicum: Concept, Meaning,Nature, Importance and Scope 9Patricia Lager, B. Hamann

2. History of Social Work Practicum:Development of Field Education 23Patricia Lager, B. Hamann

3. Social Work Practicum: Global and NationalScenario 45Neil Abell, B. Bamann

4. Social Work Practicum in Open and DistanceLearning 65Manju Kumar

5. Orientation for Social Work Practicum 94Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, M. Ashmore

6. Roles and Expectations in Social WorkPracticum 111Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, M. Ashmore

7. Roles and Expectations of Social WorkTraining Institute 129Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, Neil Abell

8. Principles and Skills for Social Work andAgency Practice 150Gracious Thomas, Nita Kumari

9. Models and Modes of Social WorkSupervision 191Patricia Lager

10. Administrative and Environmental Aspectsin Social Work Supervision 206Patricia Lager

11. Supportive Functions in Supervision 220Patricia Lager

12. Field Practicum Supervision in DistanceLearning Mode 236Manju Kumar

13. Individuals, Family and Community 263

K. Hemlata, Sushma Murthy

14. Medical, Psychiatry and Child Care 286Manju Gupta

15. Education and Research 320Joselyn T. Lobo and Roshini Nilaya

16. Correctional Services 350Sangeeta Dhaor

17. Corporate Sector, Donor Agencies andNGOs 376Joseph Verghese

1Social Work Practicum: Concept,

Meaning, Nature, Importanceand Scope

*Patricia Lager, B. Hamann

IntroductionIt is important for social workers to have a strongtheoretical base. There is a necessity to provideopportunities for students to apply the knowledgeacquired in the classroom. It is only by doing that thestudent can comprehend the nuances of working withclients. It may have seemed abstract while learningabout skills and values in the classroom and this canbe clarified when put into practice. In the beginningthere may be anxiety and inhibition to work withpeople, but there is a positive learning process as thestudent gets more comfortable applying the values,skills and knowledge of social work. The skills will gethoned only with practice, regardless of the amount ofknowledge acquired. Some things learned in theclassroom may seem very different in the real world.Studying about the developmental stages may seemsimple in class but dealing with issues associated with

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA & Dr. B. Hamann, USA

2 Social Work Practicum and Supervision

adolescence may be quite different. Social workpracticum helps students deal with administrative, legaland communication issues. Practicum gives anopportunity to work with supervision, intake, and caserecording and reporting. It is an integral part of thesocial work curriculum at the undergraduate and post-graduate level.

Definition of Social Work PracticeVarious professions use different words to describe thepractical use of classroom learning. Different terms usedare practicum, internships, field work, or fieldexperience. Some professions have a year longinternship for the doctoral degree. Some placementsin the field of shorter duration or which are less intensemay be called field work or practicum. This is not truein all cases. In graduate or undergraduate social work,the terms used for practical training is field work, fieldplacement or practicum.

Social work practicum programs vary in differentschools. Some may be structured and placements maybe made by fitting the students’ interests and aptitudeto the agency. Still other schools may allow the studentsto freely choose the setting or supervisor and coordinatewith the agency. Some schools may define what thestudent is expected to learn in a particular setting whileother schools may leave the decision to the agencysupervisor. A student is usually made aware of what isexpected in practicum. Arrangements are usually madewith the agency regarding what practical experiencethe student is required to achieve. There are someagencies which have a specific practicum program andif the school finds that is acceptable then the agency

determines the practicum program. In India, agencieswould sometimes get the students placed to completejobs that are pending in the agency (updating files,home visits). School field work liaisons usually workwith the field agency supervisor to plan the students’placement program.

In a complex network of social, economic, political,cultural, and geographical factors, social workersperform various roles to promote social development.Social work practicum uses theoretical knowledge ofhuman behaviour, social development, environmentaleffects (on individuals) and impact of individualbehaviour on society. Social workers professionallyapply skills, values, techniques, and principles, to helpindividuals, groups and communities overcome personaland social problems. In social work practicum, this,however, is secondary to the central objective of student,learning.

Models of Social Work PracticumAccording to Zastrow (1995), the diagnosis of clients’problems, the causes of which were believed to be inthe client, was the model adopted by U.S. social workersin the 1920’s to the 1960’s. This medical model wasused to assess and treat problems. Emotional andbehavioural problems were supposed to be affected bygenetics, diseases, early trauma, metabolic disorders,and conflicts within the individual or the defenses usedto combat them. These problems were regarded asmental illnesses and given medical labels. The medicalmodel was humane and treated those (with suchproblems) as persons in need of help and amenable totreatment.

Social Work Practicum 3


In the 1960’s U.S. social workers reemphasized the viewthat the environment affected the individual and waslikely to contribute to causes of clients’ problems. Areform approach that attempted to change the clients’system brought needed services to clients. In India,Balwadis were established in areas that did not haveit, to ensure that children were educated. A snack or amid-day meal was provided to enhance their nutrition.Health care centers were set up to motivate clients totake care of themselves. Family planning centers triedto motivate families to limit the number of children sothat the quality of life would improve and reduce stress.These are examples of efforts to change the systems toimprove clients’ well-being. The ecological modelfocused on the interaction between the individual andthe environment that may not be conducive to a healthybalance. The people are not considered to be separateentities but rather as systems that actively reciprocateenergy through their boundary with other existingsystems, like the family and community. The person ishelped to adjust better to the environment. The socialworker sees to it that the persons’ needs are met bythe environment.

The ecological model seeks to work with individuals,families and small groups to help them cope better withregular changes in life like growing up, birth, death,sickness, marriage, divorce, empty nest, and other lifecycle transitions. The interaction between people,families, and groups with their environment is also anarea where social workers deal with. The maladaptivepatterns are identified and dealt with using appropriateapproaches. In this model, another area of social workis to see that the environment reciprocates with the

individual to meet the needs, through services andaccessibility to the resources. When a young girl fromthe lower caste is raped in the rice fields by thelandlord’s son, the family blames her. They try to keepthe matter concealed. The families in the lower castegradually stop sending their girls to school or to evenwork on the field to keep them safe. The social workerwould work with the individual girl’s self esteem andemotional problem. The social worker helps the familydeal with their helplessness to fight against the higherclass victimization. If possible the social worker mayeducate families in the lower caste about theirconstitutional, social, and legal rights and help themcommunicate with the landlord or the media if thatdoes not work. On the other hand the social workerwould work with the local government (Panchayat Raj)and see that laws against rape are upheld and theperpetrators are punished. This shows the social workerusing the ecological model to work at three levels –individual and group, the environment and theinteraction or relationship between the two.

The student may find it easier to work at the individualand family level. Working with the community(government, local leaders or upper class members)would be more difficult even for the social worker. Thestudent can either accompany or observe the supervisorin action or can approach (escorted) with caution. Often,it would be more difficult for a female student to confrontdominant male members in the community. It mightbe a good learning experience for the student toapproach activist groups working for particular causesor media group with suggestions.



The Central Themes in Social WorkPracticumThe process starts from the initial arrangements madefor practicum through the final understanding ofintegrating theory into field work. It is divided underthe following paragraphs (Birkenmaier and Berg-Weger, 2007):

Preparing for a Social Work Practicum

A student considering field work placement shouldaccept personal strengths, weaknesses and emotionsthat could help or impede field work. It is important toacknowledge what one expects of the field placement,supervisor and what one expects to learn. Even thoughthere may be areas that cannot be foreseen, there areothers that can be anticipated and the student canprepare for the upcoming events. Some of them are asfollows:

Building relationships with field instructor, staffand the clients

Finding and accepting ones role and position inthe agency

Identifying and getting to know the agency andsocial work programs staff that will help answerquestions, deal with problems and crisis situation.

Chalking out a plan of action and managing timeto avoid stress and overload.

– Identifying personal learning styles and rolesto take on.

– Deciding how much personal informationshould be shared with field staff.

In preparing to be a professional social worker, thedecision to become a social worker is the first step. Toestablish a professional identity and get affiliated tothe professional group is a long process. Practicum isan important phase in this process. It is not an end associal workers keep growing and changing as skills arehoned and knowledge gets wider. Social work practicumhelps the student identify with the profession andestablish personal and professional boundaries. Fieldwork is an opportunity to adjust to transitions (of coursework, supervision, practicum, graduation, professionalsocial worker), variety of roles (case worker, groupworker, community organizer, student, supervisee), andstresses.

Safety issues in the field: In United States of America,social workers are second only to police officers in thatthey are at risk of having work related violence directedtowards them (Landers, 1993). The level of danger hasincreased over the years along with the new child safetylaws that need to be enforced, involvement of familiesin court cases, and expectations that social workerswill solve violent cases (Berkenmaier & Berg-Weger,2007). Students may be threatened by clients, staffand other professionals. Identifying threats to physical,emotional and mental safety and taking reasonableprecautions (client restraints, locks, working in teams,standard precautions against medical risks, attendingworkshops to train for defense against violence) arenecessary for effective functioning.



Student may confront sexual harassment which maybe verbal or nonverbal, ranging from sexual jokes tosexual intercourse. It can include asking for unwanteddates, unwanted touching, pressure for sexual activity,comments about body, sexual boasting, sexist andhomophobic comments. Students need to documentdetails of the harassment, work accomplishments, seekout other victims and directly approach the harasser toput an end to the harassment. If this fails, the agencyor field work instructor should be able to address thisissue. Other resources should be contacted if thesesteps fail.

In India, prevention works better than taking steps afterthe fact. This is because even though laws exist againstsexual harassment it would be near impossible to proveor get the laws to be enforced. Supervisors usually seeto it that the student does not work late into the nightor work alone with a client or professional. Studentsmay not know where exactly their home visits wouldtake them. Here too it is wise to go in pairs or decide tospeak to the client outside the house. If sexualharassment does take place, it is best to speak to theagency supervisor and also to the school field workliaison.

Supervision: is a form of teaching by a seasoned socialwork practitioner who imparts training and educationwith some level of authority. The mentoring relationshipwould include advising, consulting, understanding andhelping. It is different from the job supervision becausepracticum supervision involves a teacher-learnerrelationship and not to oversee if the job is performedwell. A student is not expected to know everything

during practicum. A student also learns from mistakesmade. However, the student should understand that amistake could be costly and may really hurt a client. Itis important that the student maintains opencommunication with the supervisor and is truthfulabout his/her actions, feelings and inhibitions tominimize the mistakes or its impact on the client. Asupervisor may provide consultation or feedback.

Organization of the agency: Expectations differ fromone organization to another. A student also comes inwith expectation of the organization. The student workswithin the organizations’ values, objectives,philosophies and resources. Knowledge of theorganization is important to offer the best possibleservice to clients and for work with staff and otheragencies.

Governmental agencies are complex, with loads of paperwork, rigid structure, conservative philosophy and largersalary. In for-profit organizations, the salary is higherand so are the expectations. There may be moreresources, more flexibility to change in body and useof cutting edge technology. Non-profit organizations relyon government for partial funding and use a lot ofvolunteers. It could be based on a religion which coulddecide some policy. The size of the agency alsodetermines what or how much and quality of treatment.

Practicum with individuals and families (micro socialwork): This requires systems theory knowledge anddevelopment of skills and techniques. Skills requiredin this are to explore the problem, feelings, goal setting,termination and application of appropriate treatment.Critical thinking or conceptual understanding required



to integrate theories and treatment strategies issharpened during field work. Self directed learning ofprofessional competency requiring flexibility, selfinitiative and risk taking may be learnt over practicumand all through the work experience period.Interpersonal, administrative and professional skills canbe learnt during practicum.

Practicum with groups (mezzo social work): Interventionusing groups can be cost effective and an efficient useof time, energy and skills. Skills of communication,education, mediation and negotiation are useful ingroup work. Even though many social workers may notprimarily be group workers, generalist social workersmay very well use group work for education or therapyat some time or the other. Social work administratorsuse skills in conducting groups when they facilitatecommittees, work groups and supervise groups of staff.Leading groups through discussions, conflict oreducation enables the student to gain valuable skillsthat come in useful in intervention and at the workplace with colleagues or supervisees. The following aremodels of group work and the role of the social groupworker (Berkenmaier & Berg-Weger, 2007).

Social goals model is based on problem-focusedinterests and goals. They could include safetygroups, parent-teacher associations, communitydevelopment groups working on specific tasks, andcoalitions advocating for improved welfare laws. Thesocial worker would play roles of an initiator,convener, organizer, facilitator, and advocate or bea resource person.

Reciprocal goals model is based on self-help, mutualaid in which members share experiences, support,ideas, solutions or their time. Anonymous groupso n12-step programs, support groups for grief,caregiver and patient are examples of these groups.The social workers’ role would be that of a facilitator,mediator, educator and a support.

Remedial goals model is based on the principle thatgroup interaction brings about change.Psychotherapy, marital therapy, trauma survivorsand child abuse perpetrators group are someexamples of this group. The role played by the socialworker would be that of a therapist, clinician,educator or mediator.

During practicum the student may not have a chanceto work with all models of groups. Any practice withgroups would erase some of the inhibitions and anxietythe student may have before group work practicum.

Practicum in the community (macro social work): Someproblems cannot be solved with micro and mezzo socialwork. They need a broader approach that tackles socialpolicy, organizational change or communityorganization. Skills are listed for the different levels ofmacro social workers (Berkenmaier & Berg-Weger,2007).

Skills required for administrative social workers couldinclude budgeting, financial management, working withboards, organizational design, development, anddiagnosis, computer information systems, human



resource management, networking, marketing, andmedia relations.

Community organizers, social activists or socialresearchers may need skills of program development,implementation and evaluation, fundraising, coalition,planned change techniques, macro-level advocacy,community analysis, inter-organizational planning,leadership development, citizen participation, small-group decision making techniques, task forcemembership development and retention, economicdevelopment techniques and computer informationsystems.

Social policy analysts or lobbyists or elected officialsneed skills in advocacy, lobbying, policy analysis,management, issue analysis techniques, social policyresearch and use of legal system.

Legal issues in social work practicum: In the UnitedStates of America, social workers come in contact withthe legal system on behalf of their clients, organizationor themselves. Even though students undergoingpracticum may not encounter such situations, theyneed to be aware of the legal implications of situationsand activities related to courts and the law. It couldinclude testifying in court, providing mediation,petitioning the court, help in class action lawsuits,advocating or helping draft legislation.

In India, the legal system works very slowly and worksmore for those who have money. Many crimes are notreported because of the belief that the higher classcan buy their innocence. Many times the police wouldfalsify investigative reports. They have even reported

dowry deaths as accidents and the victims and theirfamilies have been made to suffer even more. Lawenforcers are afraid to do their duty because ofrepercussions on their job (transfer, demotion or lossof jobs) when the perpetrator is a rich, upper classperson.

Even though marital discord and conflict my break afamily, there are not many divorces. When there isseparation because of abuse, neglect or disease, thenthe father usually gets custody because of affluence ordominance in society. The wife may be sent homebecause she did not bring enough dowry (bride price),but her children would not be allowed to go with her(unless the husband or his family doesn’t want thechildren).

To prepare for termination, at the end of the practicumperiod, the student gets ready to close cases andprojects. This closure is important for the student tocome to terms with the end of practicum and focus onknowledge, skills and values gained during practicum,and note areas of learning for the future. An evaluationof what the student has learned is useful to reinforcethe gains. It may be a good time to note what thestudent has contributed to the agency. It is importantto end relationships with staff, co-workers and fieldinstructor. This closure is important to realize that thesupervision is ended and if the student graduates, itwill be going on to an independent job. The client needsto feel respected and the relationship should be endedto reinforce the professional role and boundaries.

In India the student is more direct, gives advice or mayeven take the role of a parent of older sibling. It is



important (even if the student feels that the sessionsshould not end) to terminate and say specific goodbyesto all the staff. Clients need to be made aware of theirgrowth and encourage students to instill the confidencein the clients to carry on independently, whilereassuring that the family will always be there for them.

Social Work Practicum ApproachesSocial case work is used by practicum students to helpindividuals on a one-to-one basis. All social agenciesthat provide direct services have social case workers.The case workers’ job ranges from counselingindividuals to adjust their environments to suit theirneeds or to adapt to changing environments.Caseworkers may help adolescents deal with emotionalturmoil, women deal with joint family disputes, mendeal with problems with landlords on the agriculturalfield, clients with an addiction to focus on their askingfor help, or enable members to work with stigma of thelower caste, among many other issues.

Group work consists of the group worker facilitatingdifferent group activities to meet various objectives.Individuals are helped to develop in different ways(socially, emotionally, and intellectually) through groupprocesses. The groups are different in rural and urbanareas. In urban areas, the group may provideinformation like marriage, religion, career, sex, legalrights, and art. In rural areas the groups are orientedto provide basic necessities and education of bank loans,private enterprise, child health and governmentprograms. The Mahila Mandals or women’s groups offerimportant information to women for social andeconomic improvement.

Group therapy is used for individuals with emotional,behavioural, or social problems. Individuals are helpedto overcome their problems through group processes.Many individuals can be helped at the same time inthe group. The group worker is able to comprehendthe needs and feelings of the group as he/she is afacilitator of the group unlike that of a case worker.This is used in hospitals, schools, agencies, or self-helpgroups.

Family therapy is a type of group therapy that helpsfamilies deal with problems in communication,behaviour, emotion and relationship. The joint familysystem that includes the grandparents and siblings ofthe father, his wife and children may have complexproblems that need help. Problems arising betweenparents-in-law and daughters in law, breadwinner’sloyalty to mother and wife, marital conflict, childrearing, keeping tradition and modernism are someissues that can be dealt with in family therapy.

In organizing the community, the student in practicumencourages and stimulates the local residents to plan,develop, coordinate and implement programs. Thecommunity organizer is a catalyst of change. In therural areas, the community organizer may enlist thehelp of the local Panchayat or village elders to settledisputes over building a school in the temple grounds.A social work administrator may lay down objectives,analyze conditions to provide services, recruit andsupervise staff to form the organizational structure, andsee to the budget and funding of the agency. Mostadministrators work in the urban areas. It would be



very difficult for a social worker to be an administratorin a very rigid, rural, hierarchical structure.

Competencies Required for Social WorkPracticumSocial workers undergoing practicum may primarily bedirect practitioners to clients or indirect serviceproviders. However, the direct practitioners have to dosome administrative work, supervise at times, have agood knowledge of the resources and be a team player.The administrators, supervisors and other indirectservice providers, on the other hand may take up somecase loads working as true generalists. According toMorales and Sheaffor (1995), the direct social workersneed some basic competencies.

Use of self that is sensitive of one’s limitations andcapabilities: The social worker needs to be aware ofpersonal strengths and weaknesses and be able to useall the skills, values, knowledge in helping the client.

Giving and receiving help: While helping clients, thesocial worker needs to be aware that the primary reasonfor this act is to benefit the client and not for selfsatisfaction. While receiving help the client may beembarrassed, feel inadequate or find it demeaning. Anunderstanding of the intricacies of the helping processis necessary.

Professional helping relationship: A positiverelationship between the social worker and client, basedon mutual respect and trust is important for an effectivehelping process. A genuine, warm, empathetic socialworker, who has positive regard, can engage the clientin a successful helping relationship.

Sensitive approach: Social workers need to be aware ofdifferences in culture, gender, age, religion, anddisability. An understanding of variations in clientswould enable the social worker to see the impact ofsuch factors on the clients’ social, emotional andbehavioural functioning.

Code of Ethics: The social worker needs to be aware ofthe requirements for ethical practice. It is the publictrust that grants professional sanction. To earn thistrust the social worker must adhere to ethical practiceof social work. The social worker provides the bestpossible service and tries not to control damage.

Understand the behaviours of individuals and families:The professional social worker needs to have a repertoireof individual and family behaviour, family and socialstructure, family and individual life cycles, humanphysiology, anatomy, growth, development andanticipated times of concern. The impact of any eventor situation on individuals and families is another areaimportant knowledge required of the social worker.Knowledge is garnered from biology, psychology,sociology and anthropology.

Gathering information on clients: Conducting aninterview helps focus on information about the clientand the environment while identifying resources thatcould be used in the treatment phase. This would helpto easily determine the methods to be used in helping.Some of the skills that are useful in conducting aninterview are listening, questioning, and reflecting helpin establishing an empathetic relationship with opencommunication.

Analysis of clients’ information: After the information



is gathered, the data is analyzed and the problem isidentified. A proper determination of the problemsituation would lead to selecting appropriate treatmentmethods. Once the strengths and limitations areassessed, resources that need to be garnered aresought. Information is gathered using a variety of toolsand forms.

Empowering the client: An important part of helping isto assist the clients understand and accept the problemand situation. It is a big step towards finding a solution.Assisting a client in clarifying a problem or resolving aconflict should not include deciding and functioningfor the client. The client should be empowered to makedecisions and actively solve the problem. This wouldgive the client confidence to handle future problemsthat may occur.

Helping the client throughout: Various skills are requiredwhen the social worker builds a professionalrelationship from intake through termination. Afterallowing the client to reveal his or her situation, thesocial worker collects data to describe the problem andidentify resources and strengths that can be utilizedin the helping process. Once the problem is analyzedand a plan of action or a contract is drawn up, then theclient is helped to resolve his problem. At the end whenthe helping relationship is terminated, the process isevaluated to learn from the positive outcomes.

Ethical and Legal Issues in Social WorkPracticumStandards for treatment or codes of ethical practice bywhich professionals function have existed to ensure

that the client does not come to any harm or mishapbecause of the professional’s course of action. Thesestandards are set up by professional organizations torestrict their members from committing malpractice.Such guidelines evolve from debates and discussionsof practitioners and experts in the field, as represented,for instance, by the ethical standards adopted by theInternational Federation of Social Workers. Code ofethics is formulated according to conditions prevailingat some particular point. As a result they are bound tochange as existing situation may require new standards.Such guidelines or standards are not law by themselves.However they are accepted by state licensing boardsand practice laws. When a professional, acts in amanner that is not in line with the guidelines set bythe professional organization, then sanctions may beimposed or worse still professional license may berevoked or the person may be removed from theprofession. Civil action for monetary damages orcriminal prosecution may be the outcome of certainviolations.

Some authorities that provide such guidelines orstandards in the United States of America are theAmerican Counseling Association (1995), AmericanAssociation of Marriage and Family Therapy (1990),American Psychological Association (1992), AmericanSchool Counselor Association (1984), Association forSpecialists in Group Work (1990), and NationalAssociation of Social Workers (1993).



ConclusionAny practicum experience should provide anopportunity to integrate theory into practice. A varietyof settings provide the field work experience for thestudents to see how the knowledge they have gleanedin the classroom actually works. Students usually getto practice many approaches in social work. They get achance to work with individuals, groups, communityand get some awareness of social administration, socialpolicy and social action. Along with the knowledge,students need to be aware of the skills, values andethical guidelines that are required for practice of socialwork.

It is very important to learn about the social practicesand values of the community within which field practicatake place. Supervisors can be important guides tounderstanding the network of social services availablein a particular region, and can help orient the studentto the agency context in which they will work. Clearlydefining student learner roles is an important step, sothe student can benefit fully from the educationalopportunity, while still providing appropriate service toboth clients and agencies. Faculty liaisons can helpensure that everyone’s needs are addressed and thatopportunities to integrate classroom training with “realworld” experiences are maximized. A fruitful social workpracticum would be the final shaping of the student inbecoming a professional social worker.

References

American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy(1990). Code of ethical principles for marriage and familytherapists. Washington, DC.

American Counseling Association (1995). AmericanCounseling Association Code of Ethics and Standardsof Practice. Alexandria, VA

Association for Specialists in Group Work (1990).Ethical guidelines for group counselors: ASGW 1989Revision. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work,15, 119-126.

American Psychological Association (1992). Ethicalprinciples of psychologists and code of conduct.American Psychologist, 46, 1597-1611.

American School Counselor Association (1984). Ethicalstandards for school counselors. Alexandria, VA.

Berkenmaier, J. & Berg-Weger, M. (2007). Thepracticum companion for social work: Integrating classand field work. 2nd Ed. Allyn & Bacon: MA.

Engelbrecht, L. (2006). Cultural friendliness as afoundation for the support functions in the supervisionof social work students in South Africa. InternationalSocial Work, 49(2), p. 256-266.

Landers, S. (1993). Social workers combat on-the-jobattacks. NASW News. February,3.

Leslie, D. R. & Cassano, R. (2003). The workingdefinition of social work practice: How does it work?Research on Social Work Practice, vol. 13, pp, 366-375.



National Association of Social Workers (1993). NASWcode of ethics. Silver Spring, MD.

Pawar, M. Hanna, G. & Sheridan, R. (2004).International Social Work Practicum in India. AustralianSocial Work, 57(3).

Rai, G. S. (2004). International field work experience:A survey of US schools. International Social Work, 472),213-226.

Zastrow, C. (1995). The Practice of Social Work. 5th Ed.Wadsworth Inc. Ca.

2History of Social Work Practicum:Development of Field Education

*Patricia Lager, B. Hamann

IntroductionSocial work profession was not planned and thoughtout at the beginning. It emerged in response to humanneeds and suffering. In different parts of the world,lending a helping hand was instinctive. Thedevelopment of social work was influenced by social,political and professional pressures. The economicchanges, the wars and the rise of other helpingprofessions have played a large part in the emergenceof social work as a profession. It is essential for socialwork to be a profession so that clients can feel securein the knowledge that they are given services bypractitioners who abide by an ethical code of conduct.It would make the general public and other professionsrespect the profession of social work. This would ensurethe recruitment of qualified social work personnel. Asocial worker finds the work personally satisfying,financially motivating and ensures a higher status alongwith other professions.When people could not cope upwith their problems, when the suffering could not be

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA & Dr. B. Hamann, USA


alleviated by the social network or when there was nohelp forthcoming, there arose the response of varioushelping professions. They responded to physical,emotional, intellectual, spiritual and social needs. Itwas soon noticed that the intervention was moreeffective and efficient when the professionals hadadvanced knowledge and skills. As the knowledge baseincreased for the profession with increased theory,concept, and practice, the membership became morerestrictive and exclusive. The professional boundarybecame more defined. Social work is devoted to theindividual and the environment and therefore has bothpublic and private models of professions. Social workerscan work both in the public and private sectors. Thehistory of social work led to changes in education ofsocial workers and the practical training theyunderwent.

History of Social Work Practice in the USSocial work developed due to various events like wars,economic depression, political stand taken, andinternational conditions. The history of US is presentedas a model to show the development of social work andpractical training in the field in particular. Some of theearlier history is comparable to that of India. Indiansocial work has its beginnings in voluntary helping ofthe underprivileged. Whether it was the Hindus,Muslims or Christians, each religion held helping thepoor and needy in high esteem. To be a good person itwas necessary to help the needy. Many organizationshave existed over years that helped the underprivileged.Establishing social work as a profession has not beeneasy. People in India generally believe that social work

is from the heart and should not be a paid work. It hasnot been easy for the profession to show the peoplethe impact of change which is not dramatic as in themedical field.

Some of the important events that influenced thechanges and development of social work into aprofession are displayed below in Table (Morales andSheaffor, 1995).

Table : Events in Social Welfare and Social WorkHistory in the US

Aprox Date

Dev. of S. W. Practicum

U.S. History Event

Social Welfare Event Social Work Event

Founding of US

Volunteer workers helped

Agricultural society

Orphan homes and first charitable societies, Poorhouses

1800

Volunteer learned from predecessors

Child labour laws

Ma. General hospital. House of refuge for juveniles, NY

Dorothea Dix’s crusade for mentally ill

1863

Paid workers trained with organizers

Civil war

MA. Board of Charities

Natnl. Conf. of Char. & Correction First paid s. wrkrs.

1877 1899

Students were trained in agency

Buffalo Charity Aid Society

Friendly visitors NY School of Philanthropy

1898

Students train in hospitals

Spanish-Amer. War

First juvenile court

Introduction of medical SW

1910

Social work students placed in psych. Hosp.

World War I White House conference on children US Childrens’ Bureau

Introduction of Psychiatric and School SW, Flexner Is SW a profession

1915

Practicum focus on the medical model of S.W.

Progressive era NAACP National Urban League

Richmond – Social Diagnosis, Assn. of Trng. Schools for Profnl. SW

History of Social Work Practicum: Development ofField Education 25


Volunteering and Social Work as anOccupationIt can be seen from the table above that social workpractice began in a voluntary capacity, as a response

1920

Development of professional case work

Women’s suffrage, Stock mkt. crash

County and state relief agencies Freudian influence Am. Pub. Welf. Assn.

Am. Assn. of SW Milford conf. Am. Assn. of Schools of SW

1930

The Great Depression F.D. R. Admin.

New Deal programs Federal Emergency Relief Act Civilian cons. corp.

1935

Practicum in group work

Social Security Act

Am. Assn. of Group Workers

1941

Students get oriented to s.w. admn. and research

World War II

Natnl. S. Welf. Assembly

Natnl. Assn. of Sch. of S. Admn. Assn. for study of comm. Orgn. S. W. research grp.

1952

2-yr. grad. Prog for students

Korean war Brown vs. Bd. Of ed.

US Dept. of Health, Ed. And Welfare estbd.

Council of S. W. education (merger of AASW & NASSA

1955

Emphasis on knowledge & case work

Kennedy admn.

US Civil Rights Act Juv. Delinquency Act

NASW (merger of Defn. of SW prac. Code of ethics

1963

2-yr supervised experie-nce & NASW membership for jobs

Kennedy assassin-ation Vietnam war

MR and Comm. Mental Hth. Facilities Act, Food Stamp Act, Civil Rights Act-1964

1965

Increase in no. of BSW’s in practicum

M. L. King assassin-ation

Equal opportunity Act, Medicare Act, Medicaid, Narcotic Addict Rehab. Act

Academy of Cert. SW, NASW recog. of BSWorker as professional

1970

BSW pract. is generalist focus

CSWE begins BSW Accredit. process (generalist focus)

1972

Students get oriented to standards of S.W. practice

Watergate, Nixon resignation

Child Abuse, Prevention & Treatment Act

CSWE approves “adv. standing” for BSW graduates

1977

Carter admn.

Ed. of all handicap. Child. Act, Indian Child Welf. Act, Pvt.iz.tion of human services

NASW Conceptual Framework series

1980

Practicum Includes skills in pvt. practice

Reagan admn.

Social Security Block Act, AIDS epidemic, Tax Equity & Fiscal Resp. Act of 1982

Expansion of pvt. Pract., Expansion of doctoral SW (GADE)

1989

G.H.W.Bush admn.

Academy of Certified Baccalaureate SW

1993

Students learn to be accountable

Clinton admn. Health care reform Welfare reform

SW licensure in all states

to human need. When family and mutual aid becameinadequate, volunteers helped the poor and the infirm.At this time practicum for social workers was learningat the agency. There was no organized learning inschools. All the training was on the job and volunteerslearned purely from practice and from the experienceof their supervisors and predecessors. Social agenciessprang up in response to the need to relate warmly topeople who asked for help.

It was soon realized that social workers needed to bepaid and this made social work into an occupation. Wars,passing of laws, specific administrations that supportedparticular programs, welfare programs and events andmovements have all contributed to the development ofsocial work as a profession. The wars gave rise to manywomen leaders who took it upon themselves to procurefederal aid for the cause they were working for. In thelate nineteenth century, social research was conductedto find out causes of poverty and suggestions foralleviating it were given. The first theory of practice wasintroduced by Mary Richmond with her “Friendlyvisiting among the poor” (1899) and “Social Diagnosis”(1917).

The setting up of settlement houses also brought abouta change of attitude in workers who respected theclients who came to learn skills for urban living. Theearly twentieth century brought about social workerswho contributed to the development of children andother welfare programs. Case work in child welfareagencies and charity organizations was limited to anarrow base and economic focus. Medical social workin hospitals changed the sphere of casework and basis



of patients’ problems. The social and psychologicalaspect of patients’ illness was given importance by themedical social worker.

Social workers were working in other areas like mentalhealth, correctional institutions, schools and laborindustry. This paved the way for social work practicumin specialized areas. The National Conference onCharities brought together volunteer and professionalstaff of social agencies to exchange ideas about thesocial services, problems faced, and to study thepractical work done. This shows that there was concernabout the development of practical work and how itshould be done. By 1914, social work was establishedas a distinct occupation, quite different from volunteersand other professions helping the most under-privileged in the society.

It was noticed that if, the theoretical knowledge, valuesand skills were channeled properly to the appropriatetarget group or individual, then, the outcome was moresuccessful. As concepts and theories were developedand social work programs became more intense, themembership rules became more stringent andeducation more specific. This led to the professionbecoming more exclusive.

Emergence of Social Work as a Professionin the USThese ideas of channeling social work into a professionreinforced the need for formal field training. To createprofessional field training the skills need to be bettergrounded in principles like a critically defensibleknowledge base. Focused goals, techniques and field

training would help achieve such goals. AbrahamFlexner (1915) laid out the following criteria based onwhich he absolutely stated that social work was not aprofession:

1) Professions have a large individual responsibility.

2) Professions are mainly intellectual operations.

3) Professions draw their base from science andlearning.

4) Professions work the base up to a practical andclear-cut end.

5) Professions possess an educationally communicabletechnique.

6) Professions generally organize themselves.

7) Professions become increasingly altruistic inmotivation.

In 1921, Mary Richmond pointed out that social workneeded a code of ethics to have a high social standingamong professions. The National Conference on SocialWelfare initiated the proposal to draft such a code, butit did not materialize at that time. In 1917, the NationalSocial Workers’ Exchange provided vocationalcounseling and placement and also worked towardsdefining and identifying professional standards.

The American Association of Social Workers tried todevelop a unified professional association but at thattime there were specialized groups trying to establishtheir own identity (1918, American Association ofHospital Social Workers, 1919, National Association



Visiting Teachers, 1926, American Association ofPsychiatric Social Workers, 1936, American Associationfor the Study of Group Work, 1946, Association for theStudy of Community Organization, 1949, Social WorkResearch Group). The struggle of these groups to thrustforward and maintain their identity shows the divisionof the wider profession of social work. There was aneven greater need for a single unifying professionalassociation.

Students were trained in hospitals, psychiatric settingsand communities. Students were trained to work withindividuals and groups. At the same time there was astruggle at the administrative level to instill a set ofstandards by which social worker would abide to protectthe clients. The students were educated in specializedfields based on problem faced and the setting of theclients. This further moved the profession towards otherdisciplines instead of furthering the professional skill,values and knowledge base.

Up until 1919, social work training was based on agencytraining. Then the Association of Training Schools forProfessional social Workers was set up (to establishstandards in professional social work education) ofmembers from agency and university affiliated schools.This was later converted to the American Association ofSchools of Social Work which stipulated that only twoyear graduate programs would be recognized asprofessional social work education. At this time socialwork education programs were offered at agencies andat universities. These centers did not agree to the two-year stipulation and this brought about the creation ofNational Association of Schools of Social Administration

consisting of public universities that offeredbaccalaureate and one-year masters program. They didnot feel the need for a two year program and emphasison professional case work.

These two organizations merged into the Council ofSocial Work Education in 1952. This came in responseto the Hollis-Taylor study of social work education thatsuggested a two-year graduate program as minimumrequirement for a professional social worker. Theknowledge and skills in social work practice was alsogiven due attention at that time. Richmond compiled avariety of techniques for use by caseworkers in differentsettings in her book “Social Diagnosis”. Thisdevelopmental surge was stumped a bit, by theprofessions fascination with psychoanalytical approachand techniques. For a while there were nodevelopments in the professional field of social workthat developed methods other than casework.

The need to form a unified association was seen in theformation of the Temporary Inter-Association Councilof Social Work Membership Organizations. This cameinto being in 1952 with the merger of the AmericanAssociation of Social Workers and other specializedassociations. The National Association of Social Workerswas formed with the merger of specialist associationsthat strove hard to maintain their identities. Thepurposes of the NASW are:

1) To streamline the administration of social workservices

2) To develop research in social work



3) To make positive changes in social work practice

4) To advance social work education

5) To improve social conditions

6) To orient the public to social work profession

7) To enhance the salaries and working conditions

8) To develop, promulgate and enforce the Code ofEthics

9) To certify the competence to social workers

10) To aid in the development of social work in othercountries

11) To recruit to the profession

The Academy of Certified Social Workers required NASWmembership and a two-year supervised experience.Many jobs required the membership in the Academy.The 1950’s was a time of debating about the nature ofsocial work and its future. Greenwood (1957) identifiedthe attributes of a profession based on a relativeapproach. They included a systematic body ofknowledge, professional authority, code of ethics anda professional culture. Based on these criteria he saidthat social work was indeed a profession.

A year later the NASW came up with the workingdefinition of social work practice that clarified theprofessional boundaries. Gordon critiqued thedefinition which helped clarify the knowledge, valuesand practice methodology in the definition. The Codeof Ethics was the standard set up to guide the practiceof ethical professional social work in 1960. Social work

had become recognized as a profession and had arepertoire of its own jargon that made it exclusive.Graduate schools were university based or affiliated tothe university and they could be accredited based onspecific standards. All the changes in the professionand its growth do not really make the social workerdeviate from keeping the client’s needs first in the field.Providing service to the needy was still its main mission.Some states even started licensing social workers.However, a professional social worker needs to do morethan follow the heart and “help”. It is important forsupervisors to keep up with the changes in theprofession and orient students to tie history withcurrent events in social work and notice how the eventshave shaped field work over time. Organizations thatonce worked for the profession are later found to beless useful and therefore can be consolidated into oneunifying unit. The unification of all the associations toform one single body strengthened the resolve to createone unique profession. Professionals know that eventhough “helping” is the main focus of social work, thepolitical aspects of social work profession influence thenature of practice itself.

In India, the specialist associations strive to maintaintheir identity (which weakens the professional identity).Psychiatric social workers for example tend to identifymore with their inter disciplinary team members. TheNational Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciencesoffers a two year post masters degree to psychiatricsocial workers (Master of Philosophy in PSW). Thisprestigious course was offered to only 12 students inthe whole country after passing an entrance exam andinterview. The curriculum aims at providing a pre-



doctoral training to the social worker. The training isintense and is geared more towards the field ofPsychiatry (Neurology and Neurosurgery). Studentsspend most of their days in practicum doing intakeinterviews, making provisional diagnosis, prognosis andtreatment regimen of patients. This may be due toadministrative policy arising from need for moreprofessionals for the large number of patients who comefrom all parts of India. Training does cover some socialwork intervention for individuals, families and groups.At the end of the two year program the student isproficient in Psychiatric disorders and even someneurological and neurosurgical terms. The social workresearch and core professional development issomewhat diluted. The weekly social work conferencesand supervisory meetings offer potential for the future.

Elitist Model to the PresentAt the end of the 1960’s with the movements from thewomen’s rights, civil rights, and welfare rights, therewas a moving away from clinical social work and intosocial action and social welfare. Controversy wascreated by those upholding the clinical social work viewto strengthen the profession and those who believedin social change. This was fueled by the LyndonJohnson administration and the increased federalsupport. However, under the Reagan and Bushadministration federal funding for welfare was cut shortand social workers again turned towards the clinicalaspect. Social work practice adopted a generalistapproach.

NASW relaxed its membership rules, inviting moremembers to join. A baccalaureate graduate from a CSWE

accredited undergraduate program could become amember. The Academy of Certified Baccalaureate SocialWorkers in 1990 was set up focusing NASW on a multi-level social work. CSWE recognized many baccalaureateprograms based on specific requirements. Many of theseprograms were situated in urban and rural areas. Thisenabled many aspiring social workers who could nothave attended urban schools to take advantage of theschools in their area. Many students from disadvantagedand lower income areas were given an opportunity tocomplete the educational requirements withoutneeding both levels of social work degrees. Thegraduates could also find jobs in smaller communitieswhere urban graduates may have hesitated to take upjobs.

This shift also makes an impact on the type of fieldwork offered to students. Students can be placed insmall agencies in the rural areas. They did not have todo their practicum in urban settings. According to Gore(1988), problems faced by the social work professionarise from a discontinuity between rural and urbanlife. In India this is especially important because mostof the population live in rural areas. The main lifestyleis agricultural. Students who want to become socialworkers cannot only train in urban settings and hopeto work in rural areas. To bring about social change itis important to focus on the rural areas and trainstudents in those settings. Most schools of social workare in urban centers. It may be difficult to set upuniversities in rural areas, but distance learning canopen doors to many more students from rural areas.Satellite centers that help students with distancelearning and offer a library would be useful. Gore (1988),



also suggests that social work education must find aviable link between professional function of social workand the development process.

Schools of social work in India have part of thepracticum focusing on community organizing. Studentsdo get to attend a few mahila mandal (womens’ group)meetings, see the balwadi (pre-school for children –usually free and offered by the government in ruralareas but can be private too in urban areas) functioningand may meet the head person or persons in thecommunity. It is difficult for the student to see howsocial work intervention in the community actuallyworks. Some schools sponsor free meal programs orskill based programs in the community. Students thensee how this helps the community members. Someurban schools offer social research opportunities forstudents in the rural areas. Still other urban areaschools work with the medical and psychiatric outpatient clinics that offer free check up. Many times thestudents get to see how these programs work and maybe help in setting up the clinic and hand out freematerial. The students do not really get to see any socialwork intervention at these clinics.

Inter-Disciplinary Practice and EducationMany service agencies that helped clients employedworkers from different helping professions. Often theboundaries of the different helping professions werenot distinct. There were areas where professionalsoverlapped their function. To avoid turf disputes andtrouble and for the smooth rendering of service toclients, it was necessary for team work and inter-disciplinary cooperation. Students learn about

collaboration in theory and many times they do havean opportunity to put it into practice during practicum.Students learn that it is important to work within theprotocol and limits set. At the same time it is beneficialto work with other professionals to ensure that the clientgets the best service. Case managers are also in chargeof individual cases and they see that the services arenot duplicated and that the client gets all the requiredhelp. This collaboration of various related professionsis also important so that each professional does notfalsely believe that the other is taking care of the clientand then let the client fall through the cracks. Goodadministration of the team approach sees that the inter-disciplinary work is carried on smoothly. The field worksupervisor (may be the case manager of the casesassigned to the student) helps the student with thecases and is responsible for the client getting the besthelp. The student in turn needs to make sure that thework done is reported in the case file and discussionsare not missed with the field work supervisor. This wouldensure that work is not duplicated or simply not done.When it is not possible to carry out a particular requestor job, it is important for the student to discuss thiswith the supervisor who could delegate this to anothersocial worker.

In India, the interdisciplinary approach is seen workingbest at a medical or psychiatric facility. A hospital hasa team of professionals who go on rounds discussingthe problems, treatment and prognosis of patients. Thesocial worker’s role is well defined, whether it is workingwith the patient’s family, community resources, orpatients’ attitudes and feelings. The student at thepracticum setting works with the team, under the



supervision of a field social worker. The social workstudent gets the feel of working with the team andcollaborating in harmony for the welfare of the patient.This sort of team work can be experienced in differentsettings where social work is part of a team. In theindustrial setting it may be working with the union ormanagement for the workers’ benefit. In the correctionalsetting it could mean working with the administration,legal system, and/or psychologist in helping the client.The school system has the school authorities, schoolpsychologist, health professionals, special educationexperts with whom the social worker works to aid thestudents. In any case the student doing a practicumcan get the benefit of learning how to work in a team.Skills of adjustment, contact, listening, and team workhelp in this process.

Practicum in India has many challenges. Working withdiversity of language, religion, caste, culture anddifferent socio-economic status is not easy. The studentcomes in with pre-existing beliefs and values. They maybe in conflict with values of social work and the valuesprevalent in the society. A social worker from a middleclass family (who gave hard work and education highpriority) may find it hard to work with an upper classor upper caste youth who has paid an enormousamount of money in donation to get into a medicalcollege. Showing respect for the client at the outsetmay not come easily for the student who feels angerwith people who use money to get what they wantregardless of merit.

A student from a high caste on the other hand mayhave similar feelings towards a client from the lowest

caste (harijan or sudra) because the client got intoengineering because of government policy of reservationfor the backward community. It is important that thosefeelings don’t transfer to the practicum setting wherethe clients’ current problem is the issue and not societalvalues or prejudices.

Low status of women, problems of girl children andattitudes of men towards women play a vital role infield work. It is difficult for a student who is aware thatequal status should be given to both genders and seethe submissiveness of girls and women when the maledominance is prevalent in the community. Studentsmay feel angry at such injustice and may be provokedto a confrontation where the clients are unaware of thesituation to be unjust or unacceptable. Even the womenare ingrained in a society where such injustices areconsidered as part of religion (Muslim and Hindu) anda way of life. A female student may be prejudiced andtake the side of the wife while doing marital therapy. Amale student could be directive and not allow the rightto individual self-determination to play a role becauseof the bias that the female client is not capable ofmaking decisions. This right is not really seen at workfor another reason. In India, the professional is given ahigher status in the helping relationship and the clientis submissive and expects to be directed towards theright path.

Working with poverty at close quarters and at a regularbasis has been difficult for students even though theyencounter it daily (Pawar, et. al., 2004). An urbanstudent placed in a slum to conduct an educative groupsession would need to walk through narrow squalid



streets into small huts and shacks. The student couldbe overwhelmed with the dirt and squalor and fail tosee anything positive. The student could very welltransfer such feeling of disgust and make the clientfeel inadequate and inferior. Pawar, et al. (2004) talkabout begging that irritates the students who are notused to it.

It is difficult for urban students to get used to publictransport, infrastructure and different concept of timein rural areas (Pawar, et al., 2004).The public transportcould be infrequent and very slow. Finding a particularaddress in an urban slum or a village is not easy. Itcould be frustrating at first but students should takethe help of local people to direct them to the right place.The farmers go to work in the fields early in the morningand usually take some rest after lunch. Due to theseasonal nature of agriculture there may be times whenthey appear to be lazy and demanding of their wives.Students may not see them at all during peak plantingand harvest time. It is important for students to attemptto meet clients when they can spare time and notintrude when they are very busy. Most people in thevillages are very hospitable and welcoming. The socialwork student needs to be careful not to take advantageof their warmth.

There is a need for longer supervisory sessions anddifferent set of communication skills (Pawar, et al.,2004) when problems arise. The supervisor needs tobe sensitive to the students’ capacities and weaknesses.Normally the supervisor may have a brief daily talk withthe student about new and old cases. At the end of theweek a time may be set to discuss progress or lack of it.

At the end of the whole placement there would be along feedback session. However this may not be enoughfor all students. A student may require discussing thecase in detail everyday. A written set of directions maybe needed by the student to carry out theresponsibilities.

Students placed in medical settings in India, tend tofeel inferior to the other interdisciplinary professions.It is not uncommon for students to allow clients to callthem doctors and even refer to themselves as doctors.Sometimes supervisors introduce the students to theclients as doctors. Supervisors are under themisconception that clients may not want their servicesif they are not doctors. This is not an ethical practiceand should be avoided at all costs. Even if a few clientsrefuse to accept social work intervention there will bemany more who will realize its benefits. This lowersthe status of social work even more. Clients may falselybelieve that doctors are helping is areas which isactually the boundary of social work.

Students placed in research practicum (in medical setups) should maintain similar ethical standards. Clientsshould be made aware of the true nature of the researchand allowed to leave anytime without negative impacton medical treatment which was their primary reasonfor being there. It is not unheard of for students toimply that the research is part of the medical treatmentand that they would be directly benefiting from it. It isthe supervisor’s role to set this straight and direct thestudent towards maintaining proper standards of socialwork practice. If the supervisor does not do so, it isthen the students’ duty to uphold high ethical standardswhen working with clients.



ConclusionOver the years social work has grown from voluntaryhelping to an occupation and a recognized profession.It is a multilevel profession with baccalaureate andmasters level of education offered in colleges anduniversities. Social workers in agencies and privatepractice have the autonomy to help clients in need. Inthe U.S., NASW is the national organization for socialworkers which clarify the knowledge, skills and values,and sees that social workers function ethically and donot violate the standards set down to protect the clients.Its equivalent in India is the National Association ofProfessional Social Workers in India (NAPSWI). TheCSWE in the U.S. is the authority that is responsiblefor setting educational standards and assuring thatcolleges and universities adhere to common guidelinesin developing and managing professional training.Some of the history of social work is comparable tothat of the beginnings of social work in India. Socialwork in India had its beginnings in voluntary helpingto the underprivileged. Even though most of theknowledge of social work in India is borrowed from theWest, it is difficult to transplant the theory that is basedon a different culture to India. India is now on the brinkof major economic developments. The open market isdoing well and the large middle class is thriving. Themajority of the poor though, are facing deprivation andinequality. The government’s priority is inindustrialization, defense and growth of the marketeconomy. “Will the cast offs be apportioned to the careof social worker whose intentions notwithstanding, canplay only a limited role in alleviating human miseryarising out of structural force?” (Kumar, 2002:80-90).

This may shape the history of social work profession inIndia and in turn make an impact on the educationand practical training of students to help theunderprivileged. On the other hand would it be easierfor social workers to ignore the poor and turn to otherproblems, which the rich middle class would face withthe rise in new income and change in lifestyle andvalue system. Would social work education turn towardstraining the rural students and train them to empowerthe poor or would the focus be on training urbanstudents to deal with new problems of multinationalcompanies dramatically increasing the middle classincome and change in life style? Social work practicumwould shift accordingly.

References

Bruce, E. J. & Austin, M. J. (2000). Social worksupervision: Assessing the past and mapping the future.The Clinical Supervisor, 19(2).Flexner, A. (1915). “Is Social Work a Profession?)National Conference on Charities and Correction.Gordon, W. E. (1962). Critique of the WorkingDefinition. Social Work, 7, p. 3-13.Gordon, W. E. (1965). Knowledge and Values: TheirDistinction and Relationship in Clarifying Social WorkPractice. Social Work, 10. p. 32-39.Gore, M. S. (1988). Levels of Social Work Provisions inRelation to Needs in a Developing Society. The IndianJournal of Social Work, vol. 49 (1), p. 1-9.



Greenwood, E. (1957). Attributes of a Profession. SocialWork, 2, p. 45-55.Hollis, E. V. & Taylor, A. L. (1951). Social WorkEducation in the United States. New York: ComumbiaUniversity Press.Ivry, J. & Lawrence, F. P. (2005). Fieldwork rotation: Amodel for educating social work students for geriatricsocial work practice. Journal of Social Work Education,41(3).Kumar, 2002. Social Work in India: A “Bright” Future?The Indian Journal of Social Work, 63(1), p. 80-90.Morales, A. T. & Sheaffor, B. W. (1995). Social Work: AProfession of Many Faces. 7th ed. MA: Allyn & Bacon.(Pawar, M., Hanna, G. & Sheridan, R. (2004).International Social Work Practicum in India. AustralianSocial Work, 57 (3), p. 223-236.Richmond, E. M. (1917. Social Diagnosis. New York:Russell Sage Foundation.

3Social Work Practicum: Global and

National Scenario*Neil Abell, B. Bamann

IntroductionField education is widely considered to be among themost important components of training for professionalsocial work. Its diverse functions include groundingthe theories and methods established in the core,“classroom” curriculum in the “real world” experiencesof persons providing and receiving social services. Assuch, careful construction of field learningopportunities for students is among the mostchallenging tasks faced by social work educators. Liketheir students, teachers are required to test what theyhave carefully constructed in the protected atmosphereof the university against the realities of practiceenvironments and the providers and clients who workand seek services in them.

As we will see, careful attention has been paid to thefoundations for field education. A major example ofthis is the extensive process undertaken by the IFSWand the IASSW to develop the field components of their

* Prof. Neil Abell, FSU, USA and Dr. B. Hamann, USA


Global Standards document. To achieve theserecommendations, the authors found it necessary toaddress standards first generated in the West (chieflyEurope and North America), and to critically assess theirrelevance across the diverse social and cultural settingsencompassed by their organizations. The result was aset of guidelines covering curriculum, settings,supervision, and the responsibilities of all parties tothe exchange. These guidelines were not viewed asrigid mandates, but as carefully consideredrecommendations to be adopted only after carefulconsideration of their usefulness in specific localcontexts.

Ultimately, translating students’ learning goals intoconcrete, specific learning objectives required adeepened understanding not only of the nature of socialproblems, but of the balance social workers collectivelyseek between providing remedies for people sufferingfrom existing conditions and confronting the socialcircumstances, political, economic, and otherwise, thatmake such problems possible. The result has notalways been comfortable, as field education pressedconcerns with taking on the causes, and not just thesymptoms, of social distress. Consequently,implications for social development are introducedbelow, with special consideration for the potential thatfield education can provide. We consider not onlystudents’ formal learning opportunities but also themeaningful dialogue and community development thatcan occur where field education takes place. Along theway, we address the selection of field settings andsupervisors, relationships between academicinstitutions and local communities, and issues that help

or hinder development of successful social work fieldexperiences.

Issues in field education in India illustrate this rangeof concerns, and set the stage for making the most ofyour own field experiences.

Global Standards for Field Education andTrainingIn 2004, the International Federation of Social Workers(IFSW) and the International Association of Schools ofSocial Work (IASSW) published their Global Standardsfor the Education and Training of the Social WorkProfession (Sewpaul & Jones, 2005). As part of thiscomprehensive and carefully crafted document, theauthors developed a set of specific recommendationsfor field education. These included therecommendations that programmes should consistentlyaspire to achieve: Field education (that is) sufficient in duration and

complexity of tasks and learning opportunities toensure that students are prepared for professionalpractice.

Planned coordination and links between the schooland the agency/field placement setting.

Provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors orinstructors.

Appointment of field supervisors or instructors whoare qualified and experienced, as determined bythe development status of the social work professionin any given country, and provision of orientationfor fieldwork supervisors or instructors.

Social Work Practicum: Global and National Scenario 47


Provision for the inclusion and participation of fieldinstructors in curriculum development

A partnership between the educational institutionand the agency (where applicable) and service usersin decision-making regarding field education andthe evaluation of student’s fieldwork performance.

Making available, to fieldwork instructors orsupervisors, a field instruction manual that detailsits fieldwork standards, procedures, assessmentstandards/criteria and expectations.

Ensuring that adequate and appropriate resources,to meet the needs of the fieldwork component ofthe programme, are made available (2005: 220).

The authors noted that, in some countries, therecommended links between schools and theiragency/field placement settings take the form ofindependent student units established by schoolsin communities defined either by their locations,or by their specialized interests. These, too, couldbe acceptable field training sites. The larger goalwith respect to international field educationstandards remains achieving a balance betweenuniversal recommendations to be adoptedeverywhere, and culturally relevantrecommendations tailored to the customs andneeds of specific sites.

Field Education in a Developing CountryRambally (1999), writing on her field educationexperiences in the Eastern Caribbean, noted thedifferences between working in some developing

countries where a network of social work agencies andtrained supervisors are in place, and in other developingcountries where field settings were still beingestablished. These circumstances, she wrote, suggestedan intersection between field education and thepromotion of organizational change and socialdevelopment. Such development may occur in the formsof therapy, organizational change, communitydevelopment, social education, and social action, andrepresent opportunities for social work field educationto contribute to the social development of the settingswhere it takes place.

Defining Social Development

Social development is a broad concept, which must beapproached with the utmost respect for the culturalvalues and social norms of the settings involved.Rambally noted that it included:

“the integrated, balanced, and unified developmentof society and the capacity of the social system togenerate broad and favorable changes in levels ofliving…

planned social change and economic developmentto promote the well-being of all….and

principles shared with social work, such ascollaboration, cooperation, and social justice” (1999:488).

Citing Falk, she observed that most social workers havedifficulty making the connections between these broadconcepts and their day-to-day work.



Establishing Field Sites and Opportunities

A “hands-on” approach is often required to establishfield settings, including such tasks as buildingsupportive relationships with key persons in thecommunity, meeting with agency and communityrepresentatives to ensure their concerns and goals arebeing included, and obtaining approvals from decisionmakers and authorities to increase the potential forfuture success (Rambally, 1999). Clearly specifyingthe qualifications of potential supervisors required anunderstanding of agency bureaucracies, and skill inavoiding giving offense or settling for less skilledinstructors simply because they had worked in theirenvironments for a longer period of time. Respectingthe extra effort expected once field supervisors assumedtheir new responsibilities was also an important way ofminimizing future problems as agencies absorbedstudents into their midst.

In small communities with relatively limited fieldtraining opportunities, other concerns arise. Students,for instance, may come from the very same agenciesoffering field training. Great skill is required wheneducators negotiate new roles and responsibilities forthe student and attempt to ensure that if he or shecompletes a field practicum in an agency where he orshe is also employed, that educational goals are notcompromised while juggling the student and employeeroles. Further, when almost everyone in a servicenetwork knows (or knows of) each other, achievingunbiased, objective supervision may be difficult. Wherepossible, it seems best to avoid mixing student/employee roles, or establishing supervision with persons

who already have existing relationships. In somesettings, the small number of qualified supervisorsmakes it necessary to establish joint, or group studentsupervision, with responsibilities shared by the School’sField Placement Coordinator, and the agency’s fieldinstructors.

Resolving some of the issues identified above can leadto social development in the host community. Workingwith agencies to lay the foundation for field supervisioncan raise awareness of the scope and helping role ofsocial work. Upper level students may learn how to beassertive, to negotiate with authority figures, and toform clear, theoretically sound arguments backing uptheir needs and requests (Rambally, 1999). In addition,organizational boundaries in service delivery can beginto blur when field instructors meet for training seminarsand deepen their collaborations and communication.Finally, supervisors and supervisees, guided by theformal educational objectives of a learning contract, mayhelp to anchor aspects of agency practice in currenttheory and literature, and provide students with basesfor becoming more assertive and assuming greaterresponsibility for their own learning.

These small changes can combine over time, creating astrategic position for field education, leading to cleareridentification of social needs or problems in servicedelivery, and generating ideas for productiveimprovement. “Depending on the context, fieldeducation can become more than a medium for theintegration of knowledge and values….and can act as aforce for organizational change and a catalyst for socialdevelopment” (1999: 494).



Problems in Conceptualizing Field TrainingEven in the best of circumstances, achieving fieldeducation ideals remains challenging. In a studyincluding respondents from 67 countries and all sevenregions of the world as identified by IASSW (Africa, Asia,Australia/Oceania, Europe, Latin America, the MiddleEast, and North America) (Skolnik, Wayne, & Raskin,1999), some common points of concern included:

a shortage of qualified field instructors

a shortage of appropriate field settings

questions regarding the role of the field liason, and

how to help students integrate field and practice.

In nearly two-thirds of the countries sampled, nooutside standard-setting organization mandatedguidelines for conducting field education. (Note thatthe IFSW/IASSW Global Standards may serve asguidelines internationally, but are not necessarilyformally adopted and/or mandated in specificcountries.) In 94% of the programs surveyed, agencyemployees, most often selected by the schools, serveas field supervisors. Respondents cited the lack ofproperly trained, highly qualified practicum instructorsas the most critical problem in field education.

Worldwide, most field placements take place in medicalhospitals, family service agencies, and psychiatrichospitals. To support this work, schools provide socialwork methods training in specializations includingpractice with individuals, families, and groups;community development; social planning and change;

administration/management, and research. Fields ofpractice included child welfare, gerontology, andmental health, with women’s issues being leastfrequently taught. Only one-third of schools requiredthat practicum assignments were linked specifically tomethods taught in classrooms, and about half requiredassignments linked to their fields of practice.Consequently, establishing clear connections betweenstudents’ classroom learning and field educationsremains problematic worldwide.

Consistency of placements also varied widely, withstudents receiving their training in as few as one andas many as four different settings. Practicumrequirements ranged from 200 hours to 1000 hours,with some consisting of rotating through a series ofobservational opportunities and others involvingsemester or year-long placements. As Skolnik, et al.(1999) observe, advantages of these options deserveconsideration.

“While observational experiences and rapid rotationslimit the opportunity to gain practice skills by ‘doing’,they do offer potential benefits. Rotations through aseries of agencies can provide a breadth of experienceto support a foundation curriculum which seeks to helpstudents grasp the full range of social work practiceand provide a context for understanding thetransferability of professional skills” (1999: 479).

Challenges to a Social Development Approach

Finally, Skolnik, et al.’s (1999) survey highlighted thedifficulties in addressing social development concerns,and associated these with the observation that less



widespread attention is given to macro-practiceaddressing the socio-political context of social problems.Many areas, they write, sanction social workersprimarily “to help individuals adapt within society,rather than to change that society” (1999: 480). Thisissue was echoed by observations in South Americawhere some schools attempted to teach an “integratedmethod”, placing greater emphasis on changing socialstructures than on helping those who suffered inrelation to them (Resnick, 1995). Schools teaching suchapproaches had serious problems finding agencies thatcould support related field training.

Ultimately, this led social work educators to realize that“no matter how important and interesting it hadbecome, in most cases, it was too idealistic an approachto be applied to the real world and that they had toreturn to more conservative models”(1995: 78-79).

Illustrations and Applications in IndiaNational Scenario

India is rich in diversity with regard to religion,language, lifestyle, geography, castes, class and culture.India is now on the brink of major economicdevelopments. The open market is doing well and thelarge middle class is thriving. The majority of the poorthough, are facing deprivation and inequality. Thegovernments’ priority is in industrialization, defenseand growth of the market economy. “Will the cast offsbe apportioned to the care of social workers whoseintentions notwithstanding, can play only a limited rolein alleviating human misery arising out of structuralforce?” (Kumar, 2002)

This question may well shape the history of social workprofession in India and in turn make an impact on theeducation and practical training of students to helpthe underprivileged. On the other hand would it beeasier for social workers to ignore the poor and turn toother problems, which the rich middle class would facewith the rise in new income and change in lifestyleand value system?

Problems Faced by Student Social Workers in India

There is a serious lack of literature that is of Indian orforeign origin available to the students and professionalsin India. Even though most of the knowledge of socialwork in India is borrowed from the West, it is difficultto directly apply the theory that is based on a differentculture to India. Some of the history of social work iscomparable to that of the beginnings of social work inIndia. Social work in India had its beginnings involuntary helping to the underprivileged. There aremajor differences when one considers the familystructure, religious beliefs, legal emphasis, status ofwomen and prevailing value system. There is a direneed to develop indigenous social work literature.

Many social workers who are qualified are attracted towestern universities and jobs in the west for manyreasons. It is very difficult for social workers to be proudof their profession when it is generally believed thatthey probably ended up in social work professionbecause they could not get into engineering, medicine,law or business, (the professions that are held high inpeoples’ esteem). Social work as an occupation is lookeddown upon because helping another human being isconsidered as a voluntary act of human nature since



centuries. There is a constant need to justify social workto be an occupation and to prove that the reason forbecoming a social worker was because one wanted to.

The low pay scale of social workers and lack ofwidespread public support of this occupation has ledto ‘brain drain’ to the U.K., U.S.A. and Australia.Another reason social workers go abroad is for higherstudies. Many get frustrated when they see that ethicalstandards that they read in theory are not reallypracticed. This is especially seen in social work research.The emphasis (by some professors) of studentsconducting research interviews, entering data and notactually getting experience in doing analysis andwriting articles also frustrates social workers.Harassment of students by professors is another reasonthat makes students dejected and turns them to othercountries or other fields.

In India, the specialist associations strive to maintaintheir identity (which weakens the professional identity).Psychiatric social workers for example tend to identifymore with their team members from other disciplines.The National Institute of Mental Health and NeuroSciences offers a two year post masters degree topsychiatric social workers (Master of Philosophy inPSW). The curriculum aims at providing a pre-doctoraltraining to the social worker. The training is intenseand is geared more towards the field of Psychiatry(Neurology and Neurosurgery). Students spend mostof their days in practicum doing intake interviews,making provisional diagnosis, prognosis and treatmentregimen of patients. Training does cover some socialwork intervention for individuals, families and groups.

At the end of the two year program the student isproficient in psychiatric disorders and even someneurological and neurosurgical terms. The social workresearch and core professional development issomewhat diluted. The weekly social work conferencesand supervisory meetings offer potential for the future.

According to Gore (1988), problems faced by the socialwork profession arise from a discontinuity between ruraland urban life. Most of the population lives in ruralareas. The main lifestyle is agricultural. It may bedifficult to set up universities in rural areas, butdistance learning can open doors to many morestudents from rural areas. Satellite centers that helpstudents with distance learning and offer a librarywould be useful. Gore also suggests that social workeducation must find a viable link between professionalfunction of social work and the development process.

In India, the students are taught the generic coursecontent in the first year of some of the masters programson the basic premise that a social worker needs to beable to manage various types of situations, playingdifferent roles and adopting appropriate methods. Thesecond year would allow the students to choose theirspecialization area. Schools of social work in India partlyfocus on community organizing. Students attend a fewmahila mandal (women’s’ group) meetings, see thebalwadi (pre-school for children) functioning and maymeet the head person or persons in the community. Itis difficult for the student to see how social workintervention in the community actually works. Someurban schools offer social research opportunities forstudents in the rural areas.



Problems Faced by Social Workers

In India, the interdisciplinary approach is seen workingbest at a medical or psychiatric facility. The socialworker’s role is well defined, whether it is working withthe patient’s family, community resources, or patients’attitudes and feelings. The social worker gets the feelof working with the team and collaborating in harmonyfor the welfare of the patient. This sort of team workcan be experienced in different settings where socialwork is part of a team. Skills of adjustment, contact,listening, and team work help in this process.

Low status of women, problems of girl children andattitudes of men towards women play vital roles. It isdifficult for a social worker who is aware that equalstatus should be given to both genders and see thesubmissiveness of girls and women when the maledominance is prevalent in the community. When ayoung girl from the lower caste was raped in the ricefields by the landlord’s son, the family blamed her.Families had to yield to the landlords’ unjust wishes.The social worker worked with the individual girl’s selfesteem and emotional problems. The social workerhelped the family deal with their helplessness to fightagainst the higher class victimization. The social workercould have educated families in the lower caste abouttheir constitutional, social, and legal rights but it wouldbe dangerous to work with the landlord or the media.In a just world, the social worker could help the clientwork with the local government (Panchayat Raj) andsee that laws against rape are upheld and theperpetrators are punished.

Social workers feel angry at such injustice and may beprovoked to a confrontation where the clients areunaware of the unjust situation. The right to individualself-determination is not really seen at work in India.Professionals are given a higher status in the helpingrelationship and the client is submissive and expectsto be directed towards the right path.

In India, prevention is better than treatments becauseexisting laws are not easy to enforce. The legal systemin India works for those who have money. Many crimesare not reported because of the belief that the higherclass can buy their innocence. The police have beenknown to falsify investigative reports. They havereported dowry deaths as accidents. Law enforcers areafraid to do their duty because of repercussions on theirjob (transfer, demotion or loss of jobs) when theperpetrator is rich and from the upper class.

Marital discords and conflicts cause stress in families.There are not as many divorces as there are separationsbecause of abuse, neglect or disease and the fatherusually gets custody because of affluence or dominancein society. The wife may be sent home because she didnot bring enough dowry (bride price), but her childrenwould not be allowed to go with her (unless the husbandor his family do not want the children). Social workersfind such injustice difficult to work with. Working withdiversity of language, religion, caste, culture anddifferent socio-economic status is not easy. The socialworker comes in with pre-existing beliefs and values.They may be in conflict with values of social work andthe values prevalent in the society. A social worker froma middle class family (who gave hard work and



education high priority) may find it hard to work withan upper class or upper caste youth who has paid anenormous amount of money in donation to get into amedical college. Showing respect for the client at theoutset may not come easily for the student who feelsanger with people who use money to get what theywant regardless of merit. A social worker from a highcaste on the other hand may have similar feelingstowards a client from the lowest caste (harijan or sudra)because the client got into engineering because of agovernment policy of reservation for the backwardcommunity. It is important that those feelings do nothinder the helping process.

The social worker would have to acknowledge personalprejudices while working in an urban slum. A hutdweller may have different priorities (from that of thesocial worker) and not care for his family. The socialworker understands the client’s right to determine hispriorities and does not impose his/her own bias. Thesocial worker may find it easier to work at the individualand family level. Working with the community(government, local leaders or upper class members)would be difficult.

Working with poverty at close quarters and at a regularbasis has been difficult for students even though theyencounter it daily (Pawar, Hanna, & Sheridan, 2004).An urban social worker placed in a slum to conduct aneducative group session would need to walk throughnarrow squalid streets into small huts and shacks. Thesocial worker could be overwhelmed with deplorableconditions and fail to see the positives. The social workermay show disgust and make the client feel inadequate

and inferior. It is difficult for urban social workers toget used to public transport, infrastructure and differentconcepts of time in rural areas (Pawar, et al., 2004).The public transport could be infrequent and slow.Finding a particular address in an urban slum or avillage is not easy.

Social workers in medical settings in India tend to feelinferior to the other interdisciplinary professions. It isnot uncommon for social workers to allow clients tocall them doctors and even refer to themselves asdoctors. Sometimes other professionals introduce thesocial workers to the clients as doctors. They are underthe misconception that clients may not want theirservices if they are not doctors. This is not an ethicalpractice and should be avoided at all costs. Even if afew clients refuse to accept social work interventionthere will be many more who will realize its benefits.This lowers the status of social work even more. Clientsmay falsely believe that doctors are helping is areaswhich are actually the domain of social work.

Social workers in research practica (in medical set ups)should maintain similar ethical standards. Clientsshould be made aware of the true nature of the researchand allowed to leave anytime without negative impacton medical treatment which was their primary reasonfor being there. It is not unheard of for social workersto imply that the research is part of the medicaltreatment and that they would be directly benefitingfrom it.

It is important to have a basic generalist foundationand use specialized techniques where appropriate. Ageneralist social worker would be sensitive to different



cultures and be able to approach with varied skills. Infamilies where the young girl child is given up to thetemple in prostitution (devadasi system), a social workerwould serve as a social activist in promoting the rightsof the girl child at the macro level. The social workerwould also have to work with the family with sensitivityto the cultural needs. A generalist social worker alsoworks with the girl child at the individual level.

A social worker needs to have different skills to workwith clients in urban areas and rural settings. A socialworker from an urban setting would have to draw on adifferent repertoire of skills when working with clientsin a village. The social worker may have to work throughexisting groups in the village (mahila mandal /women’s’group and Balawadi/pre-school.

ConclusionGlobal standards for social work field education havebeen developed as recommendations, rather thanmandates, for conducting this critical component ofprofessional training. Given its importance, fieldtraining requires extensive advance planning,thoughtful and sophisticated engagement with localcommunities, and careful recruitment of institutionsand individuals with the right set of opportunities andskills. Faculty liaisons must have clear understandingsof both the learning objectives established in theclassroom, and the real world possibilities available incommunity settings. Respect for existing bureaucraticstructures and cultural practices and values are criticalto development of realistic field training opportunities.

Social development opportunities naturally arise when

the skills and talents essential for good field trainingconverge. In such instances, opportunities to movebeyond providing remedies and on to addressing rootsocial, economic, and environmental causes sometimesemerge. When this is the case, all involved areencouraged to remember the values of social justiceand human dignity, and to carefully consider when itis and is not useful to pursue larger rather thanimmediate goals. Skolnik, et al., citing Slocombe’sexperience in Australia, conclude that “field work stillremains the single most important factor in thepreparation of social workers, yet is the most vulnerableto mediocrity, lack of standardization, poor qualitycontrol, few resources, and the myriad of other frailtiesso prevalent in the welfare and educational climatetoday”(1999: 482).

Students are encouraged to approach these excitingopportunities with respect for the clients they willobserve and serve, and for the agency administratorsand supervisors who work hard, along with classroominstructors, to provide them with the best opportunitiespossible. The supervision process, whether in individualor group formats, provides opportunities for applyingprior training on social work methods andspecializations and for critically assessing one’sstrengths and weaknesses as a developing professional.When approached with reasonable confidence and awillingness to learn from both successes and mistakes,the outcomes for all concerned can be great.



References

Gore, M. S. (1988). Levels of social work provisions inrelation to needs in a developing society. The IndianJournal of Social Work, 49(1).

Kumar, A. (2002). Social Work in India: A ‘bright’future? The Indian Journal of Social Work, 63(1), 80-90.

Pawar, M., Hanna, G., & Sheridan, R. (2004).International social work practicum in India. AustralianSocial Work, 57(3), 223-236.

Rambally, R. E. T. (1999). Field Education in aDeveloping Country: Promoting Organizational Changeand Social Development. International Social Work,42(4), 485-496.

Resnick, R. P. (1995). South America. In T. D. E. Watts,Doreen;Mayadas, Nazneen S. (Ed.), InternationalHandbook on Social Work Education (pp. 65-86).London: Greenwood Press.

Sewpaul, V., & Jones, D. (2005). Global Standards forthe Education and Training of the Social WorkProfession. International Journal of Social Welfare, 14,218-230.

Skolnik, L., Wayne, J., & Raskin, M. S. (1999). AWorldwide View of Field Education Structures andCurricula. International Social Work, 42(4), 471-483.

4Social Work Practicum in Open

and Distance Learning*Manju Kumar

IntroductionThe main purpose of social work education is to preparecompetent and effective professionals who can meetcomplex client needs within diverse public and privatehuman service settings. Social Work Educationcombines scientific enquiry with the teaching ofprofessional skills and values. The training in socialwork enables the practitioners to perform a variety ofroles using multiple social work practice methodologies.

It is crucial that the education and preparation ofbudding professionals is provided at levels that aresuited to their heavy responsibilities and demands ofthe field. The increasing complexities of life require thepractitioner to intervene in a number of human systemsand at different levels.

You may recall that major changes have been witnessed(relatively) recently in Social Work Education System.Two main reasons have lead to these changes.

*Manju Kumar, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi.


First, there has been an acknowledgement of the needof larger number of trained professionals to operatesocial care and social developmental programmes atdifferent levels of intervention. This means that socialwork educational system has to equip professionals notonly for senior and supervisory level jobs, but also toproduce professionals who could operate, withsensitivity and empathy, at grass root levels in widergeographical areas.

Second, there has been a growing criticism of the elitistand urban slant in social work education. Practitionersin the field (especially in India) claim that theaspirations of students with master’s degree do notmatch the realities of social work practice at the grassroot levels where they are needed the most. Also,postgraduate qualified professionals find it hard tobridge the socio-cultural gap between themselves andthe people in rural / tribal / remote areas.

Besides, the existing systems of higher education havenot been very accessible to persons in disadvantagedpositions whether socially, geographically oreconomically.

A number of initiatives have been adopted in the lastfew decades to respond to the above-mentioneddevelopments. Most educational programmes abroadnow offer degrees at undergraduate and / orpostgraduate levels. Undergraduate degree is generallyperceived to equip entry-level professionals for directgeneralist practice, leaving those with postgraduatequalifications for supervisory and macro levelinterventions.

Explosion in information technology has opened diverse

avenues for reaching out to potential students so farexcluded from the higher education network. Likemany other professional education systems, Social Workeducators have experimented with online / web-basedlearning, multimedia initiatives, interactive TV and soon. Most of these technologies have helped in enrichingstudents’ learning of the theory and informationcontents in Social Work Courses.

In India, The Second Review Committee on Social WorkEducation (UGC, 1975) emphasized the need to providea holistic framework for the development of a ladderprogramme of education where there were severaltermination points related to job functions in thecountry.

The UGC Committee recorded in its findings that SocialWork Educational Programme in the country tendedto be ‘elitist’. Two of the conditions, which supportedthis observation, were that most of the educationalinstitutions were located in cities and the studentshailed largely from the urban middle class. Thecommittee felt that there was a need for a systematicgeographical distribution of social work education.

The conventional system of social work education hasnot proved to be responsive to social developmentconcerns of contemporary society and to the need fortrained professionals to manage social developmentprogrammes. There is also a demonstrable need forsocial workers in areas, which lack educationalopportunities and resources. Inadequate number offormally trained social work professional’s forces localorganizations to employ paraprofessional and non-social work personnel.

Social Work Practicum in Open and Distance Learning 67


The alternate educational strategy in the form ofDistance Learning Mode extended to social workeducation has been one of the most significantdevelopments in the field of Social Education System.A large number of educational institutions in countrieslike UK, USA, Canada and Australia offer BSW and /orMSW degrees through distance learning.

After an extensive analysis of the published literatureauthors of a review concluded that “course and programoutcomes achieved in social work distance educationcourses and programs are comparable to those achievedin traditional face-to-face programs”. (Macy, et. al, 2001,p.72)

Provision of Field – based learning has been one of themost important concerns, however, that delayedconsiderably the acceptance of Distance Learning Modefor social work education, particularly in India.

The School of Social Work (SOSW) at the IndiraGandhi National Open University (IGNOU) recognizedthe need to initiate an alternate educational programmeto address the training needs of large number ofuntrained staff already employed in the social welfaresector. SOSW believed that Distance Educationprogramme could help a large number of those personswho are unable to avail the benefits of the conventional,expensive and full time education system. Supportedby a need assessment survey, the School pioneeredthe design of a first Three-Year Bachelor of Social Work(BSW) course programme grounded in the DistanceLearning methodology.

Introduction of BSW course aims to meet the need for

a broader based trained social care / developmentworkforce. The students enrolled from across thecountry will be equipped to address the social serviceneeds of the underserved indigenous populations. Itis also vital that the profession reflects the widercomposition of the communities it serves. For thosewho are already employed in the social care sector, thecourse offers an opportunity for upward mobility,economically, socially and professionally by pursuingpart-time educational programme.

Extensive use of multimedia- teleconferencing,videoconferencing, and video lectures added to studymaterials and face-to-face interactions with the tutorsat the study centres provide effective support to thestudents’ learning of theory component of the BSWCourse.

Field Practicum in Conventional andDistance Education SystemsEven at the risk of repetition, I will reiterate that youcan ‘learn social work only by doing’. It is widelyacknowledged among Social Work educators that FieldWork is an integral and necessary component of SocialWork Education.

This component of “learning by doing” in social workeducation is variously designated as Field Work, Field-Based Learning, Field Instruction or Field Practicum.The uniform content in all of these is a field – basedplacement of students, planned assignments to beundertaken by them at these placements, recording ofthe work done, reflection and evaluation of experiencesin the field; and utilizing supervisory guidance to



achieve specified sequential learning. To make it a‘professional learning’, this practical work is groundedin classroom course content (theory) and is done withinan ambit of overarching ethical code.

Achieving minimum standards of performance in FieldWork is essential for successful completion of the coursein Social Work. In the available literature on social workeducation in India and abroad, ‘Practicum’ have beenused to describe the content that educationalinstitutions organize for students’ practical experiencein the fields of social work practice.

In pursuit of Social Work degrees, students are requiredto undertake varied and challenging practiceplacements. In these placements, the students arerequired to draw on theoretical knowledge from theirformal courses in order to place their field experiencesin a broad context and to develop practical skills.

“Learning by doing” has been the hallmark of socialwork education and the thrust of a social work practicumis to learn how to apply theoretical social work materialto a hands-on situation; how to cope with the practicallimitations of a real-life environment and how to beuseful to ‘real’ people with ‘real’ problems in a realsetting that is less than ideal.

Conventionally, bulk of learning through Field WorkPlacements occurs concurrently with classroomteaching. Students are placed in one / two settingsduring each year of the total course period. Eachstudent is assigned to a qualified and social work trainedField Work supervisor who guides his / her superviseethroughout a specific placement. Besides, ideally an

experienced social work trained professional employedat the placement agency works out assignments forthe student and provides on-the-spot guidance.

Field Work programme requires students to fulfillcertain mandatory conditions like, attending specifiednumber of field work days and number of hours at thesocial agency where the student has been placed forfield practicum, and regular submission of records ofexperiences at the placement to the Field Worksupervisor. Successful completion of field instructionis essential for obtaining social work degree. Theevaluation process (often in formal or informalconsultation with agency supervisor) is based onparameters drawn from objectives and learningoutcomes stated in the Field Work Programme.

The potential student entering the ‘conventional’system of social work education is one who has beenpursuing his/her educational career continuouslywithout major breaks i.e. those joining bachelor’scourse after senior secondary certificate or itsequivalent; and those seeking admission to master’scourse after graduation. Very few of those who arealready working in the social work fields manage toenter the portals of social work education institutionsexcept when a particular institution accepts candidatessponsored by their employers. This trend is graduallydisappearing with almost all of the students beinginexperienced and raw.

Historically, social work education in India followed thewestern model and depended almost entirely onwestern literature. The language, culture and socio-economic status of the students and the people they



were expected to serve became increasingly divergent.Further, as the educational institutions have beenlocated chiefly in urban areas, students in remote areasare not able to access facilities of higher education.

One of the main differences between a distanceeducation student and a campus student is that manydistance education students are part-time students, andthus tend to take their courses over a greater numberof years than students in full time conventional system.Secondly, the potential students availing of theDistance Learning System present a mixed lot. Thestudents enrolled for Social Work Courses under theDistance Learning (DL) System present,understandably, a wide variety of levels of educationand / or work experience. They belong to differentregions, speak different languages and come fromdiverse socio-cultural backgrounds.

Designing a Field Practicum Programme in Social Workwithin the Distance Learning Mode is indeed achallenging task. Drawing a rough parallel with theconventional system, Social Work EducationalInstitutions incorporate all significant components offield-based learning in the structure of Field WorkProgrammes within the distance learning mode as well.

Field Practicum in Social Work Educationin the Distance Mode – OverseasIn almost all the countries, the Schools of Social Workoffering BSW / MSW courses through Distance Learninghave developed Field Work Manuals and guides givingdetailed guidelines for students and supervisorsrespectively. While all the components of field practicum

as extant in the conventional system are there, theactual patterns of field practicum differ chiefly as to (i)the number of placements in each year, (ii) types ofsocial agencies specified for each successive year of thecourse, (iii) focus of the learning outcomes expected tobe successfully achieved, (iv) number of hours / daysto be spent by the students at their placements; and(v) supervision to be provided by the faculty of theSchool or the Trained Agency Staff member or jointlyby both.

The students are permitted to carry on their fieldpracticum in their own communities and, in some cases,in the agencies where they are currently employed.Specific guidelines have been provided to work out theirassignments in field practicum. Field Work Manualsprovide parameters for selection of placements as alsothe responsibilities of the agencies for sharing in theeducational enterprise. Roles of the field work guidesand code of conduct for students being placed for fieldlearning are clearly delineated. Some of these Manualshave been listed at the end for your reference.

A serious and concerted effort is made to give dueimportance to field practicum so as not to dilute thisvital component of social work education. A largenumber of Courses offered through distance educationin the USA have been accredited by the Council of SocialWork Education (CSWE).

Field Practicum in Social Work Educationin the Distance Mode – IGNOU ModelAs said earlier, designing a Field Practicum Programmein Social Work within the Distance Learning Mode was



a challenging task, particularly taking into account thereservations of a number of social work educators aboutoffering social work course through distance learningmedium in India.

The School of Social Work (SOSW) at the Indira GandhiNational Open University (IGNOU) initiated BSW Coursefor a wide variety of student population. As true todistance learning mode, use of self- instructional studymaterials is supplemented by use of audio-visual mediaand face-to-face interaction with tutors in the studycentres.

Field Work Program is designed to provide studentswith a wide range of social work learning opportunities.The BSW students enter the course with different levelsof experience and learning. The field experience isexpected to build on what the individual studentalready knows. The Field Practicum has to cater to thetraining needs of a young raw student, coming rightafter completing senior secondary school as also of amuch more mature student who may have beenworking in an agency similar to the ones selected forField Placements.

With the offer of MSW, PG Diploma in Social Work,M.Phil courses on the anvil, designing of relevant fieldbased learning has assumed much higher significance.

Keeping in view the significance of field-based learning,satisfactory completion of field work is mandatory tosecure the award of social work degree. Achievingminimum standards of performance in Field Work isessential for successful completion of the course inSocial Work.

While students are required to put in 25 field workdays during BSW course, they will put in 45 to 60 fullfield work days during MSW. During PGDSW (MSW IYear), students will be expected to complete a smallresearch study beside the field placement work.Evaluation of BSW students, done both by internal andexternal examiners, has equal weightage. This isexpected to maintain objectivity in evaluation ofstudents’ work.

Recognizing the importance of personalized supervisionand guidance in field practicum, each student isassigned to a Field Work Supervisor (FWS). Supervisorsare required to be trained social workers with MSWqualification. Supervisors are given an orientation totheir role and function at the beginning of each yearthrough teleconferencing, radio and face-to-facecontact.

Profile of Students

The students of BSW course of IGNOU present,understandably, a wide variety of levels of educationand / or work experience. They belong to differentregions, speak different languages and come fromdiverse socio-cultural backgrounds. They belong todifferent age-groups bringing, therefore, varying levelsof maturity. They could be married, with children. Theymay be returning to academics after an interval of sometime; they may have come without any prior exposureto the field situations; or they may belong to themarginalized social groups which are in need ofprofessional interventions. A significant number ofstudents are females, requiring special care inarranging field-based learning in rural / remote areas.



The students in post graduate programmes may bedrawn from among BSWs or graduates from allieddisciplines. The field experience has, therefore, to fulfilldifferent set of learning objectives. More opportunitiesfor critical thinking, reflection and analyses of micro-macro linkages need to be planned.

Strategies of Field Instruction

The training in social work enables the practitioners toperform a variety of roles using multiple social workpractice methodologies. “Within a dynamic interactionalprocess of expectations and outcomes” (Brij Mohan,2002) students acquire:

a) A repertoire of knowledge and skills in analysis andassessment;

b) A confidence to apply knowledge to practice;

c) The ability to create opportunities for growth ofthose in need of help and;

d) Work collaboratively with other professions.

To facilitate this learning for the widely divergentpotential student population, a number of strategieshave been adopted.

i) Specif ic learning objectives and targets forachievement have been delineated. B S Wperceived both as a terminal point for entry-levelprofessionals as well as a step to post graduatecourse specifies certain educational objectiveswhich need to be achieved by each student by theend of the Course.

Appropriate learning objectives have been clearlyspecified for students working towards postgraduate degree.

ii) Field learning is planned sequentially for eachsuccessive year of the Course.

Completion of First year of MSW leads to theaward of Post Graduate Diploma in Social Work.As such field training during the first yearequips professionals for generalist practice ina wide variety of fields including social andcorporate sectors, civic administrative andfinancial institutions and the media centres.

The final year of MSW, leading to degree of MSWfocuses on training in primary methods of socialwork like case work, group work and communityorganization etc.

All the three years of BSW cover differentdimensions of professional training andsocialization. A different set of objectives havebeen worked out for Field Work for each of thethree years. These objectives associated withlearning outcomes for each year reflect thesequential nature of field-based training.

During the first year, students develop an awarenessof roles and functions of professional workers andacquire basic skills of teamwork, observation andcommunication skills and learn to deal with simpleproblems of individuals and families. Also, they areexposed to institutions carrying out developmentwork in the community and learn how to usesupervision.



During the second year, they get opportunities forpracticing case work and group work methods andget exposed to the agencies carrying out welfarefunctions.

Third year exposes students to agencies addressingspecial problems, social or individual. They areexpected to perform professional roles, work withinsocial work ethics and begin to think critically onthe problems requiring professional interventions.

iii) Components of field practicum are clearly specified.

iv) Students of each year receive their Field WorkJournal, which acquaints them with theexpectations and gives guidelines for working inthe Field. The journal states clearly the do’s anddont’s in field work, i.e., a code of conduct; thelearning outcomes expected to be achieved; thestructure of field work; and the inputs of supervisorthey can avail of. The Journal also provides spacefor recording their field experiences and reflectionsalong with comments of the Supervisor. Field Worksupervisors are provided with Field Work Guidesthat include, beside the above information,guidelines for supervising and evaluating students.

v) Learning is provided to the students at their‘doorsteps'. The field practicum – whetherplacements or supervision – takes place in theirown communities. This is in tune with thephilosophy underpinning the distance learningmode as an alternate educational system to reachout to the so far inaccessible population.

vi) Field Practicum is a mandatory component in M.Phil course as well. This is an innovation in socialwork education system, at least in India.

Structure of Field Practicum in BSW Courses

Field Practicum in BSW course consists of NineComponents. Enumeration of Components of FieldWork Programme is not intended to indicate that theyare independent entities. They are rather parts of acomposite whole—the total learning experience in thefield.1) Orientation Visits2) Field Placement3) Agency Client Relationship4) Assignment of Tasks5) Nature of Social Work Process6) Teamwork7) Administrative assignments8) Recording9) Field Instruction

1) Orientation Visits: These observational visitsexpose the students to a wide range of social workpractice and help them find a context forunderstanding the transferability of professionalskills. They are helped to identify different concernsthat the organizations are focusing on and theirresponses to the same. Helped by the Supervisor,the students use the guidelines provided in theField Work Journal for recording their observations,analyze the same and reflect on their experiences



in respective agencies. These visits, thus, enablethem to develop observational skills, a spirit ofenquiry, and appreciation of social workinterventions. These visits further prepare them fortheir Placements.

2) Field Placement: The aim of Field Placement is toenable the students to respond to real life situations,adjust to people from different backgrounds; andto gain experience in reconciling differentapproaches towards the same problem. Agenciesare the settings where students acquire essentialskills, tackle ethical dilemmas, test professionalvalues and learn to apply knowledge gatheredthrough academic course work.

Some of the factors influencing the placementdecisions include existing experience or orientationof the students; distance to be commuted by thestudents; interest and preferences of the students;and needs, expectations and limits of the agencies.Groups of three to six students are placed in eachagency. The purpose of placing students in groupsis to help them learn how to adjust with each otherand to acquire teamwork skills.

Another important factor influencing the selectionof the placement agency is to ensure a ‘fit’ in themission, aims and service delivery system of theagency and the learning objectives of the fieldpracticum. At the beginning of the fieldwork sessionthe supervisor along with the student makes alearning plan based on fieldwork situation and thefieldwork objectives of the particular year.

In case a student is already working in social sectorand the work place is selected for field work, theFieldwork Supervisor will help the student to getmaximum exposure in practicing those skills, whichcannot be practiced in the employing agency.

3) Agency-Client Relationship: The client is thecenter of the whole social work process andtherefore the client-social worker-agency system isto be understood properly. The students learn toappreciate the significance of establishing positiverelationship with the clients who seek help at theconcerned agency. Students try applying theprinciples of relationship while assisting in thehelping process of the agency. It is by establishinga relationship with the client that the social workerachieves the aim of improving the client’s socialfunction.

They learn to appreciate the value of sensitive,humane and empowering approaches tointerventional strategies – whether in directinteraction with the clients or in referral services.

4) Assignment of Tasks: Breaking down of the fieldwork objectives into tasks and relating these to theexpected learning outcomes is quite a challengingexercise. The aim of doing specific tasks is to exposestudents to situations where the social workmethods are used in rudimentary form. The taskmay or may not directly be perceived as social workinput, but the process of its planning and executionis likely to involve interaction with individuals,groups and other agencies. The tasks can be chosen



depending on the need of the target populationand the resources available. Working out ofassignments also requires keeping in view thedifferential in the experience and capabilities ofthe students.

Planning of tasks is vital to the students’ learningas it is through the doing of these tasks thatstudents acquire social work skills, identify theirstrengths and areas for improvement, gainknowledge of the needs and problems of clientgroups and critically review the services and servicedelivery systems meant for the people in need ofprofessional intervention. More than the actualtask, it is the total experience that providesnecessary learning environment.

5) Nature of Social Work Process: Field Practicumenables the students to analyze processes involvedin the application of different social work methodsin the field. Working on field-based assignments,students get familiarized with different tools forassessing needs and problems of the client groups,planning and implementing interventions, forexample interviewing; home visits; recording;positive worker- client relationship and networking;and evaluating the results of the interventions. Theylearn to recognize different steps involved insystematically planning and organizing variousactivities. Identifying social work processes was allthe more important for those already working insocial work agencies so that they and theiremployers could appreciate the value of professionaltraining.

While in the first year, students identify processesof need assessment, planning, execution andevaluation of different tasks, during 2nd and 3rd

years, students learn the processes involved inapplication of case work and group work; problem-solving at different levels of intervention; processesin performing different social work roles; and micro-macro linkages.

6) Teamwork: Social workers have to work in teamsand the team members may be other professionalslike lawyers, doctors, nurses or volunteers. Theapproach of other professionals will be very differentfrom social workers. The social work in such caseshas to not only take care of the psychological andsocial needs of the individual/s, but also has tohumanize and integrate the various approaches.

Students learn to work as members of the team oftheir co-workers. They also observe about staff ofthe agency working as team members.

7) Administrative Assignments: To be able to workas efficient professionals in the social agenciesstudents are expected to take up administrativetasks like maintaining simple service statistics ofthe agency; participating in the planning of basicprogrammes; assisting in tasks like maintainingcorrespondence, documentation and report writing,project proposal formulation, conducting needassessment surveys; learning to keep simpleaccounts and budgeting; attending decision-making meetings etc.

8) Recording: Recording is one of the important tools



of social work practice. Social work records serve toreview, check and monitor the progress of the case;to facilitate consultation; and to form the basis ofreferral. The records provide significant data foradministrative decisions regarding clients andservices; and for purposes of research, educationand advocacy.

Students learn to differentiate between professionalrecords and literary or creative writing. Starting towrite verbatim descriptive records with someanalytical inputs in first year, they learn to writeincreasingly more professional records of their fieldexperiences. They learn to write case studies ofindividual clients, reports of home visits, groupprocess records and to develop community profiles.They learn the application of processes of selection,analysis and reflection in recording. They learn towrite process records of case work interviews andgroup sessions, analyze and evaluate the sessionsand prepare future plans based on the same.

The students are encouraged to write in vernacularso that they have comfort level in communicatingtheir field experiences and learning from the same.

9) Field Instruction: This is a very crucial componentof the Practicum. The Field Practicum designprovides for at least five individual and five groupconferences to be conducted at the Study Centre.

Individual Conferences enable students to processtheir experiences in the agency placements –linking knowledge, skills and values acquired inacademic course work to experiences and activities

in the field. They are encouraged to discussworkplace issues such as self-care, stress in thehelping process and concerns about service deliverysystem at the agency. Sometimes, students mayshare their personal problems which are impingingon the their performance in the placement.

Group Conferences: Group sessions have proved tobe very important medium for students getting peersupport. It has been found that common areas ofteaching like induction, skills of recording,presentation skills, and discussion of commonproblems in working with clients could be dealtmore effectively and economically in the groupconferences. Students learn to present their viewpoints logically and convincingly, field questionsand receive feedback. In these group sessions anincreased variety of learning experiences becomeavailable. Group conferences help students toappreciate effectiveness of alternative solutions tosimilar situations as they are exposed to a range ofopinions and viewpoints.

However, the Supervisors have to be cautious aboutpotential rivalry, which may inhibit learning.Negative feedback from peers could exposeindividuals to ridicule. The Supervisors helpstudents to be supportive rather than overly criticalof each other.

Guided Field Learning a Component of FieldPracticum

Field Work Supervisor is the hub of all field worklearning and professional socialization of social work



students. His role has been envisaged as a crucial linkbetween the students and the field-based learning. Itis the Field Work Supervisor who is responsible toachieve a degree of ‘fit’ between the field workprogramme’s objectives and expectations and thebureaucratic arrangements of the agencies. Supervisor’sliaison with the Agencies is an important form ofeducational support for the Practicum. Administrative,teaching and helping – the three basic inputs by thesupervisor – are put to a tougher test here than in theconventional system. The students’ profile, the self-study mode of the course and the goal of developingcompetent, sensitive and committed professionalsrequire the Supervisor to be creative, innovative,dynamic and perceptive.

Field Practicum for BSW I Year: AnIllustrationTo illustrate some of the components of the FieldPracticum design here is a brief description of FieldPracticum as organized for students of BSW I year(IGNOU) at a Study Center in Delhi (Kumar & Thakur,2005)

Students’ Profile: of 17 students enrolled in the BSWCourse, more than half were females. Barring two, allthe students (15) were working. Most of those employedwere engaged in social care and community work. Thisconforms to the students’ profile anticipated in thedesigning of the course. The students demonstratedhigh degree of motivation and commitment to their ownlearning. Those employed perceived the course as anopportunity for enhancing their professional skills andfor improving their job profiles. The students employed

in non-social work jobs had wished to join this fieldbecause it offered them both a career and a sense ofworth. Their career plans were well crystallized andthis resulted in their positive response to all supervisoryinputs.

Orientation Visits: Students visited five social serviceagencies such as AVARD, Project ConcernInternational, Gandhi Smarak Nidhi, Promotion ofEmployment for Disabled People and PrayasObservation Home for Boys. These observational visitsprovided the students a wide range of social workpractice and helped them find a context forunderstanding the transferability of professional skills.They identified different concerns that the organizationswere focusing on. The students were helped by theSupervisor to use the guidelines provided in the FieldWork Journal for recording their observations, analysisof the same and reflection on their experiences inrespective agencies.

Placements: Students put in at least 25 full workingdays at the agency selected for placement. Some of thefactors influencing the placement decisions includedexisting experience or orientation of the students;distance to be commuted by the students; interest andpreferences of the students; and needs, expectationsand limits of the agencies. The Supervisor arrangedfield placements, as far as possible, close to wherestudents lived or worked. Groups of three to sixstudents were placed in each agency. The purpose ofplacing students in groups was to help them learn howto adjust with each other and to acquire teamworkskills.



The aim of Field Placement was to enable the studentsto respond to real life situations, adjust to people fromdifferent backgrounds; and to gain experience inreconciling different approaches towards the sameproblem.

Agency-Client Relationship: The students learnt toappreciate the significance of establishing a positiverelationship with the clients who sought help at theconcerned agency. Students tried applying theprinciples of relationship while assisting in the helpingprocess of the agency. They realized the value ofsensitive, humane and empowering approaches tointerventional strategies – whether in direct interactionwith the clients or in referral services.

Assignment of Tasks: As it was the first year of theCourse and the students’ group was a mixed one thesupervisor actively engaged the Agency Supervisor (atrained social worker responsible for guiding studentsin the agency) in interpreting the goals and identifyingrelative complexity of tasks. This helped in matchingcapabilities of students, particularly those fresh fromschool or working in non social work jobs, withcompetence required in different activities. Studentsengaged in individualized problem-solving process, andassisted the agency staff in planning and organizing ofsports events, cultural programmes, health andawareness camps. They conducted educational andrecreational activities in groups to learn to observeprocesses of interaction and programme planning.

It became necessary to plan assignments for thosealready working in social sector in such a way that they

learnt to appreciate the difference in the approach of atrained social worker. An effort was made to diversifytheir assignments so that they did not repeat the kindof tasks their existing jobs entailed.

Nature of Social Work Process: Working on field-basedassignments, students got familiarized with differenttools for assessing needs and problems of the clientgroups, planning and implementing interventions, andevaluating the results of the interventions, for exampleinterviewing; home visits; recording; positive worker-client relationship and networking. They recognizeddifferent steps involved in systematically planning andorganizing various activities. Identifying social workprocesses was all the more important for those alreadyworking in social work agencies so that they and theiremployers could appreciate the value of professionaltraining.

Teamwork: Students learnt to work as members of theteam of their co-workers. They also recorded theirobservations about staff of the agency working as teammembers.

Administrative Assignments: The students being in firstyear received limited exposure to administrative tasks.One of the students was able to analyse data gatheredin a research enquiry and prepare a report for the same.Some others were engaged in documentation, andcorrespondence.

Recording: Students were helped to comprehend thedifference in literary or creative writing and professionalrecords. They were encouraged to write accurately insimple but clear language. They wrote in Hindi or



English, depending on their comfort level. They learntto write case study of individual clients, reports of homevisits, group process records and to develop communityprofiles.

Field Instruction: As per the programme design, five tosix individual were conducted at the Study Centre.Besides, the students frequently contacted theSupervisor through telephone and e-mails.

Group conferences were not conducted due toconstraints of resources but out of a conscious choice.The knowledge that students’ problems in the field werecommon to their co-workers kept their morale andmotivation high and helped develop professionalidentity.

Overview: The students demonstrated a very highdegree of commitment to field learning. They completedthe stipulated field work days within the year. Thefeedback from the agency supervisors was veryencouraging. This was particularly gratifying as mostof the field placements selected also received student -trainees from social work institutions following theconventional system.

Field Practicum in Distance Learning Mode– Evaluatory CommentsThere is much controversy over the delivery of socialwork education via distance education. People willquestion, how can you learn to relate to people andhelp them if you are not interacting with them face-to-face? “This question fails to understand that while somecontent is delivered in a DE format, the application of

the acquired knowledge is usually practiced face-to-face, and always under the supervision of an approvedsocial worker who serves as your supervisor and mentor.Sometimes, this mentoring/supervision may take placeover teleconferencing or interactive TV, but it usuallyinvolves being assigned to a social service agency whereyou will perform your work face-to-face and receivesupervision in the same manner”. (Marshall L. Smith,2007)

Brief description of the Field Work Programme underthe BSW and MSW Courses of IGNOU brings out thefact that it is the design of Social Work Field Practicumthat brings the Courses very close to the conventionalsystem of social work education. Distance Educationtechnologies have come to stay. There are those groupsof potential students for who distance education is theonly viable alternative. In these cases, “distanceeducation technologies become a mechanism fordelivering resources – courses and programs – intoremote service delivery areas……There are feweralternative routes to raising the level of professionalsocial work practice” (Mcfall & Freddolino, 2000).Successful implementation of an elaborately designedField Work Programme as part of BSW Course launchedby IGNOU has demonstrated that Social Work Educationthrough the distance mode is here to stay.

ConclusionField Education is a central component of social workeducation. It is the only course which is completedprimarily within a workplace setting, whether in directpractice, policy analysis, research and/or community



development, and as such it offers key opportunitiesfor the synthesis of theory and practice. Field Practicumin DL mode as in the conventional system ensures thatstudents are placed in a range of social work settingsaccording to their learning needs and goals.

You have acquired knowledge about the strategiesadopted by Social Work Educators following the DLMode in India and abroad. Outlining the Design of FieldPracticum within the IGNOU Model, the only initiativein India, we have covered the different components ofthis design in detail. The case study of Field Learningof one of the groups of students enrolled in BSW CourseI Year illustrates these components in actual practice.Although no scientifically designed comparative studyof field – based learning through conventional and DLMode has so far been undertaken, it is widelyacknowledged among social work educators the worldover that social work education through the DL modehas come to stay. It is largely on account of elaboratedesign of field practicum that social work courses inthe distance learning mode have received duerecognition in the Field.

References

Brij Mohan :The Future of Social Work Education:Curricular Conundrums in An Age of Uncertainty,Electronic Journal of Social Work, Vol. 1 No. 1, February15, 2002Macy, J.A., Hollister, C.D., & Freddolino, P.P.:Evaluation of Distance Education Programs in Social

Work, Journal of Technology in Human Services, 18(3/4), 63B84, 2001Smith Marshall L.: Distance Learning: The Future HasArrived!, The New Social Worker, Vol.13 No.1 , Winter2006Smith Marshall L.: Toward a Guide to DistanceEducation in Social Work, http://www.socialworker.com/home/Feature_Articles/Technology, December 2007University Grants Commission: Report of Second ReviewCommittee for Social Work Education, UniversityGrants Commission, Govt. of India, 1975School of Continuing Education: Field Work Guide forSocial Work Educators and Supervisors, IGNOU, 2004Kumar Manju L. & Thakur Manish K.: Social WorkPracticum in Distance Learning: Indian Context, paperpresented at 2nd National Seminar on Social Work andHIV / AIDS, New Delhi, Sept. 16-18, 2005http://socialwork.dal.ca/distance/http://www.nmhu.edu/pdfs/socialwork/socwk-selfstudy.pdfStudent Field Manual: A Guide for Distance EducationStudents, Faculty of Social Work University of Manitoba,2005Field Education Manual: School of Social Work,Michigan University, 2004Field Education Manual: Masters of Social WorkProgram, University of Victoria, 2002MSW Field Practicum Manual: http://www.wlu.ca


5ORIENTATION FOR SOCIAL WORK

PRACTICUM*Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, M. Ashmore

IntroductionSocial work exists because it fulfills crucial social needs.Social work serves people and society where there ismalfunctioning or inadequacy. Enhancing the humanpotential is another important aspect of social work.Social workers provide important services to help peoplesolve problems that limit their functioning and servicesto enhance the quality of their lives (Morales & Sheaffor,1995). These services may be direct counseling orworking with clients individually or in groups to solvespecific problems or enhance their general functioning.Indirect services are also rendered on behalf ofindividuals or groups to make the organizations andinstitutions more responsive to human needs. In mostcountries social work exists because society sanctionsthe services provided to fulfill the needs. However incountries like India, especially in the rural areas,despite the felt need for external help, people do nottotally sanction the role of professional social workers.

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA & Dr. B. Hamann, USA and Prof. M.Ashmore

Social work has existed in India for centuries in theform of voluntary service. This makes it difficult forsociety to sanction the remuneration paid for socialservices rendered. In many cases, social workers rendertheir services along with other professionals as a team(doctors, teachers and with those who provide basicnecessities). Many social workers have renderedservices under the guise of other professionals. As aprofession, it has been extremely difficult for social workto establish itself. It is therefore twice as important incountries like India to thoroughly train students tomaintain their own professional identity. It is importantfor students to make sure that their clients understandthe services they render are from professional socialworkers and not confuse it with services of other helpingprofessions.

A social worker requires training and skills in diverseareas to be able to effectively help individuals, families,groups, communities and organizations dealappropriately with their problems. The theoreticalknowledge is provided by schools of social work andagencies and institutions in the society that offerpractical training to reinforce the classroom experience.Practical training or field placement is the internshipserved by the social work student within an agency orcommunity affiliated with the social work program.

The objective of this field placement is to enable thestudent acquire supervised social work experience toenhance the knowledge and skills learnt in theclassroom. It is the practicum experience that allowsthe student to put the critical thinking skills taught inclass into practice. It is an opportunity for the studentto leave the classroom and enter the world of the social

Orientation for Social Work Practicum 95


work profession. This type of training under closesupervision allows the student to apply the conceptslearned in the classroom to real life client situations.Social work values and ethical dilemmas discussed inthe classroom take on a new and deeper meaning whenworking with live clients and their life situations.

In India students are placed in agencies that helpwomen and children, hospitals, psychiatric institutions,prisons and industries. Many schools of social workemphasize the placement of students in ruralcommunities. Often it is not easy for field workcoordinators from the social work program to get thefield work plans to work as planned because the agencyor community may have constraints in carrying out theplans. It is not easy to commute from one place toanother in India. The roads are crowded and publictransport is not very reliable. Students would probablygo to one agency or field placement on a given day andnot make it to two. Some schools of social work pushstudents to go to two settings on the designated fieldwork day, in order to give them a more diverseexperience. Students from urban areas find the ruralplacements very difficult to handle emotionally andphysically. It is a rude awakening to see that manyother people do not live the comfortable life that thestudents were used to. Despite the difficulties in makingthe field placements structured, every effort is taken toensure that the students get adequate opportunity toput their theoretical knowledge into practice.

Social Work as a ProfessionA profession needs to have three unique characteristics(Morales & Sheaffor, 1995). There is a need for

professional autonomy, to be free from constraints thatcould limit its (professions) ability to act in the bestinterests of the clients. Society grants professionalauthority to people who have the required knowledgeand skills to provide the needed services. Professionalresponsibility is required by developing codes thatidentify the expected ethical behaviour of practitionersand establish procedures for restricting unethical orincompetent practice. Social work therefore needs toprovide responsible and competent service to be grantedthe exclusive authority to offer its services to people.

In reference to the discussion written earlier, it hasbeen very difficult for social workers in India to establishthe professional base and carve a permanent niche inthe professional rank. Culturally it is believed to be anintrinsic right of the needy to be voluntarily helped byother humankind. It would take concentrated effortsto bring about this attitudinal shift. It is crucial for socialworkers to be ethical and conform to the codes of theprofession. Society would be more open if they noticesocial workers being truthful about their professionalbackground, not hiding behind other professions andbeing upfront about what service they can offer andtheir limitations. Students need to know that they canbe proud of their professional identity. In a land thatreveres engineers and doctors, many students havestumbled into social work because they did not meetthe requirements for engineering and medicine. Schoolswelcome all types of students regardless of theiraptitude and interests in order to maintain theirenrollment quota. This perpetuates the low self esteemof students who start their social work career thinkingthat they are in a less sought after profession because



they did not have the higher competence required bythe more sought after professions. Even if it is difficultfor the schools of social work to raise their standardsfor entering the profession, there is a definite need toweed out students who have no interest in humanservices. There is a continued necessity to removestudents once enrolled into the program, who showpoor interest and embarrassment in the profession. Onthe other hand the teachers have to emphasize theimportance of the profession and the crucial role it playsin fulfilling societies’ needs. At a macro level, thecommunity and agencies can work with media toportray a positive image of the social work profession.

According to the National Association of Social WorkersCode of Ethics (2) the historic and defining feature ofsocial work is the profession’s focus on individual well-being in a social context and the well-being of societyand environmental forces that create, contribute to andaddress problems in living. The profession of social workcovers many practice areas involving a continuum ofclient systems. They may be individuals, families,groups, organizations and communities orcombinations of any of these systems. The professionis committed to the values of service and social justice.Social work upholds the dignity and worth of theindividual and emphasizes the importance of humanrelationships, integrity and competence. These valuesdifferentiate social work from all other professions.

In India, supervision is an important component ofsocial work program. The field work agency supervisortakes over the role of teacher and mentor. The supervisorgives the student the opportunity to see social work in

practice and be a part of the change process. Dependingon the personal style of the supervisor and the agencypolicy the student may be allowed to workindependently or under guidance with clients and seetheoretical knowledge put into practice. The social workprogram coordinator makes sure that the field worksupervisor knows what the student is expected to learnat the placement. The field work supervisor in turnensures that the student is given enough exposure tolearning skills and putting theoretical knowledge intopractice. The student will draw upon the skills practicedin classroom role-plays as well. There are some skillsthat student can learn only by doing. Role plays andsimulations can help but not really show the studentthe seriousness of helping clients. What seemed easyin the classroom may seem overwhelming in practicebecause of the anxiety involved with helping changesome aspects of peoples’ lives.

In the practicum experience students will begin to applythe skills learned in class to clients served by theagency. Some of the skills will be learned throughobservation of the supervisor or other social workerswithin the agency. Some agency policies may requirethat the student always work under supervision. In suchsituations the student can learn a lot from watchingthe supervisors doing their job. There may be clientswho are very sensitive or the nature of the job mayrequire licensed or professionals with the requiredqualifications. Here too the student can learn by sittingin on interviews and counseling sessions. Somesituations may be regarded as too dangerous for thestudent. There may be such times when the studentcan learn by listening to the experiences of the



supervisors. Students sometimes get to simulate fieldwork situations and work through solutions.

The student will also be faced with agency protocolsand “real life” in work situations that affect both clientsand employees in the agency. These experiencesprepare the student to enter the practice field upongraduation with some experience and confidence inhaving already faced “real” situations. The experiencegathered in the field help to alleviate the anxiety thestudent usually has in dealing with clients for the firsttime. With this out of the way, the job experience wouldbe started with more confidence that can benefit theclient, social worker and agency.

The student’s skills and performance as an entry levelprofessional social worker will be observed and evaluatedby the supervisor. Instruction will be provided by thesupervisor on ways to improve performance helping thestudent to gain the necessary skills and confidence topractice upon graduation. The field work supervisorgives feedback that encompasses skills in dealing withclients, families, agency staff, and the generalcommunity. The feedback could include some aspectof the student’s attitude or behaviour that has a bearingon working with clients in the agency. It is importantfor the student to receive seemingly negative feedbackin the healthy spirit of training to be a better socialworker.

The student is also given the opportunity to givefeedback about the field work supervisor and theagency. In some cultures even though feedback isinvited by the supervisor the students are at adisadvantage purely because of the student teacher

distance that is usually kept at all levels of learning. Itis only the positive feedback that can comfortably begiven by the student.

In India, placements at times lead to job offers by theagency. Many times local students demonstrate theirknowledge, skill base and ability to learn whileundergoing field training. Supervisors spot brightstudents and readily offer jobs that are open. Studentsare also encouraged in India to make contacts duringfield placements for future job searches. Many studentsget certificates from the field work supervisors abouttheir work at the agency to use as references for theirfirst jobs.

Orientation to the PracticumIn most cases students will have a formal orientation tothe field agency. During the orientation students willbe provided with information such as the agencypersonnel and their roles, a tour of the building, whereto find and file agency paperwork, how to requestsupplies needed for the job, agency policies andprocedures, protocols for serving clients within theagency and expectations in terms of timeliness to workand professional dress code. Students must rememberas they enter their field placements they will no longerbe viewed as “students in the classroom” but asrepresentatives of the agency. They should presentthemselves in both dress and demeanor as such. Inaddition, “unspoken rules” should be observed by thestudent. For example, observation of how the socialwork staff conducts their practice with clients isimportant to note. Actions that maintain confidentiality,such as discussing client cases behind closed doors



and only within the agency, making sure clientpaperwork is not open to public eyes, and followingthe guidelines of the agency in releasing confidentialinformation are expected.

In India, even though girls can wear western styleclothes to classes, they are advised to wear traditionaldresses (salwar kameez, saree or something long andcovering most of the body) in keeping with the culture.It is true that clients judge the social worker based onwhat they wear and how they conduct themselves. Thisjudgment is harsher for girls and women in keepingwith the prevalent culture. Some students may find itdifficult to work with certain cultures where womenare not supposed to raise their head when speaking tomen. Such male clients may refuse to be helped byfemale students. Instead of taking this personally,students can respect the culture and observe and helpin other ways that don’t have this face to face interactionwith men. Examples of such work would be workingwith the community, contact collaboration, funding ormoving paper work in the agency.

There may be times when there are few or no cases towork with. Usually agencies have plenty of brochures,literature on their history and functioning in societyfor students to read. Students can discuss hypotheticalcases or previous case files with the supervisors. Somesupervisors in India plan the training period well andsee that students get to do some research in the sparetime. They allow the students to conduct case studiesor mini surveys to support a hypothesis. Wheresupervisors are not as structured, students are advisedto be assertive and ask questions and try to learn as

much as possible. Students come with so muchenthusiasm and sponge as much information aspossible. In some cases, students’ zest for learning hasbeen quelled due to apathetic field work supervisors oragencies that do not really respond to such earnestness.This could be avoided if the field work coordinator fromthe social work program had made adequatearrangements with field work supervisors and matchingof students to appropriate agencies.

Students can learn from observing the supervisors atwork. Their kindness to clients, maintainingconfidentiality, showing respect, and being empatheticare qualities to uphold and practice. Some field worksupervisors may be unkind to the clients like inmatesin prisons, destitute women, abandoned children orfamilies of sick patients. The supervisors may beoverworked, overburdened with lots of cases or just feelsuperior to the helpless clients. Whatever the reason,it is important that the students note this as a negativeand unacceptable behaviour and definitely not put itin practice. The student should show respect to theclient especially because they feel helpless and thatthey are at a disadvantage. It is important to put intopractice all the values and principles of social worklearnt in the classroom even if they don’t see it practicedaround them. It is usually not proper for students tobring up such observations in the agency. However itis important to make note of the discrepancies in theoryand practice and discuss it with the supervisor, fieldwork coordinator and other students.

Students can and should take an active role in orientingthemselves to the agency by researching information



regarding the client population served by their agency,reading and discussing the agency mission statement,reading literature/brochures about the agency,researching the history and role of the agency in thecommunity, observing the interactions of staff andsupervisors with the clients and asking questions insupervision sessions. Such preparation before startingthe field work placement would really enhance thequality of the learning experience.

In India this is not as easy to research the agency orcommunity because of lack of resources, literature andcomputers. However, staff and other related personnelhave vast stores of knowledge and discussing variousaspects of the agency and community with them wouldbe really beneficial. Questioning students who wereplaced in the agencies earlier would be helpful. Makinga list of questions to ask the supervisor or other staffmembers helps to channel the learning process andget some answers to make up for the dearth inliterature. Student easily learn about forms to be filled,reports to be written, trail of paperwork, the basicfunctioning of the agency and its role in the community.It is not as easy to learn skills in working with clientsand agency staff. Once the skills are conceptualized,they can be honed with practice. It is true that themore one works with clients the better one becomes.

When students are placed in rural communities orurban slums, very little is available in the form ofliterature. Much of the information gathered prior tothe field work placement is purely from other students,staff and community members. Many times suchplacements are a surprise or total shock to students. It

is very difficult for students from relative comfort to seepeople live in squalor or with very little basic necessitiesand definitely no comforts. It is heart rending to seechildren with large bellies and brown hair and learnthey are signs of malnutrition. Many people may wearrags, sleep on the bare ground and eat one meal ifthey are lucky. Much of the intervention done wouldbe enabling people to get community support andmobilize funds. Students can learn a lot while workingwith mahila samaj, local panchayat or school teacher.Even if they do not see the fruit of their interventionstudents can be assured that they have sown the seedto change attitudes that are detrimental to developmentand educated the people to available resources.Learning at this level involves attitudes, emotions andbehaviour. Classroom lessons or books do not preparestudents for such exposure and deep learning. Differentstudents learn varied lessons from such placements.While one student may think that his/her wholeoutlook to life and social work has changed after thisplacement, another student may think that it was atotal waste of time because he/she may never want towork (after graduation) in such a place in reality becauseof little or no remuneration involved.

In some cases, where the number of cases to be workedis of paramount importance, then the quality of workwith clients may be compromised. For instance whileworking on a team in a public psychiatric hospital, eachmember may be required to take on a heavy load ofcases in the outpatient clinic. The social worker mayhave to work up many case histories or follow upprocedures and hand over the final treatment care ofthe clients to the doctors. This would definitely improve



the interviewing techniques of the social worker. Onthe other hand the diagnosis, treatment, prognosis andsocial work intervention plan of the client may bedecided by the doctors leaving out the crucial input ofsocial workers. At some institutions in India, the socialworker is required to work up about five to six newcase histories (per day) and fifteen to twenty follow upinterviews (per day). Some institutes require the headof team to involve all the students in determining thetreatment plan or at least listen to it.

International Practicums through StudentExchangesSocial work practicum in a different culture is bothchallenging and rewarding. There is a need for positivemental attitude, good psychological make up and anopen mind. A lot of preparation and planning goes intosuch placements. There is a dearth of literatureregarding field education in general and internationalplacement in particular. Patford (2000) analysed sevensignificant learning experiences (feeling at a loss andneed to gain knowledge and skills; academic learning’operating solo’ organizational constraints; discomfortingsocial interactions; regulating emotion; andreappraising his/her commitment to social work) andseven lessons (the embodiment of social workprinciples/values in practice; self-management; theimpact of organizational structures and staffrelationships on practice; the management of emotion;that life is fragile and unpredictable; the importance ofprocess; personal suitability for particular social workroles in particular settings).

Pawar, Hanna and Sheridan (2004) write about twoAustralian students who were sent to India for theirfield work placement. The systematic preparation begana year in advance. The students’ safety and conveniencewas given prime consideration. Direct meetings wereheld between the mentor (to provide personal andprofessional support) and the students, the fieldeducation supervisors, the students and thecoordinator. The roles, tasks, expectations of the practicaand communication channels were discussed alongwith bureaucratic and administrative procedures. Therewere orientation sessions to familiarize the studentswith the Indian customs, dress code, eating behaviourand religious beliefs. Personal preparation dealt withdealing with anxiety, health, food, dress, finance, legalrequirements, travel documents and contacts. Theacademic preparation included familiarizing withlanguage, culture, purpose of the placement, processof placement, considering a framework for criticalincident analysis, reading field work manuals andattending and recording orientation sessions.

The learning objectives included being able to articulatethe importance of the UN Convention on Child rightsand to be aware of the issues and gaps in agency policiesand procedures. They were required to identify thepriorities within the agency and identify communityneeds. It was important to know the evaluation processin group work and give children the opportunity to talk.Another objective was to feel confident to discuss arange of cultural and learning issues with thesupervisor and make use of constructive criticism. Theyhad to be responsible, accountable for the work and beacutely aware of their values which are different in an



Indian context. They had to ensure that there isprofessional and personal growth and define thecommon themes used in group work and analyze andcritically evaluate models used in practice.

To achieve these objectives, the students had regulardiscussions, read funding reports, policy manual andrelevant Acts. Group work, practice of code of ethics,supervisory discussions, and daily record writing wasan important aspect of the field placement. The issueof girl children in India was researched mainly due tothe students’ interest.

The objectives at the health setting included identifyingthe nature and limitations of the health project, Indianhealth and educational systems. The students had toidentify a group with unmet needs, understand theirperspective and need for social work intervention. Theywere required to prepare effective needs-basedworkshops for the group and work with relevant skills.They had to develop knowledge, ethics and values aboutsocial work practice in India and work effectively withstaff and colleagues. The students’ strengths and areasfor future development needed to be recognized. Therewas a need to understand the role of educator in thegroup, the situation of Indian female adolescents, andto integrate theory and practice in group processes andrecordings.

The activities included, visiting agencies, hospitals,observing doctor/patient interactions, social workintervention and formulating specific skill base. Thestudents prepared, conducted, and recorded series ofpreventive and educative sessions for adolescent girls.They ran discussion group with hospital social workers

and students. They addressed differences andsimilarities in ethical issues in the two cultures andadapted to and learnt to work within time frames andhealth and education infrastructure.

Regardless of challenges encountered during theplacement, the students believe that the benefitsoutweigh the difficulties. It is an unique opportunity toovercome challenges, gain insight into a new culture,observe social work in a different milieu, learn to besensitive and work with Indian social workers withdifferent values and attitudes.

ConclusionThe field of social work serves an important function inIndia by responding to the crucial social needs ofindividuals who are having difficulty functioning in asociety in which these needs are not being met. Therole of social work is to enhance human potentialthrough the provision of services that allow theseindividuals to meet their needs and attain a satisfactorylevel of functioning. The development of theoreticalknowledge and skills is an integral part of social worktraining. The objective of the field placement is toenable the student acquire supervised social workexperience to enhance the knowledge and skills learnedin the classroom. The field work agency supervisortakes over the role of teacher and mentor in assistingthe student to meet this primary objective through thepracticum experiences. However, students must alsotake an active role in their learning through self-directedness in seeking out learning opportunities andresearching various aspects of the agency and client



functioning. An international practicum is an uniqueopportunity to gain insight into a new culture andSobserve the practice of social work within a differentmilieu.

References

Morales, A. T. & Sheaffor, B. W. (1995). Social Work: AProfession of Faces Many. 7th ed. Allyn & Bacon:Boston.

Patford, J. (2000). Can I do social work, and do I wantto?: Students’ perceptions of significant learningincidents during practica. Australian Social Work,53(2), 21-28.

Pawar, M., Hanna, G. & Sheridan, R. (2004).International Social Work Practicum in India. AustralianSocial Work (57), 3, 223-236.

6Roles and Expectations in Social

Work Practicum*Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, M. Ashmore

IntroductionThe student will act as an agency staff member undersupervision and as time progresses in the agency willbe given more responsibility as a member of the agencyteam. Many agencies are multidisciplinary settingswhere a variety of professional groups are represented.In a hospital setting, for example, the student will workalongside other social workers, nurses, doctors, physicaland respiratory therapists as well as clerical staff. Thestudent will need to become familiar with eachprofessional’s role on the team. Protocol in resolvingany conflicts must be understood and adhered to. It isimportant to understand the agency hierarchy and themission of the agency. Students can find out thisinformation prior to beginning the field placement byreviewing the literature or website of the agency.Further, students should ask questions during theirorientation process that will help to define the roles ofall professionals as well as the role of intern within theagency setting.

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA & Dr. B. Hamann, USA and Prof. M.Ashmore


In the classroom students explore many changetheories that are applied to case examples in order todemonstrate the effectiveness of a particularintervention. While in the practicum, students may findthat in “real life” client change occurs much moregradually. It is important for students to be aware ofthis and understand that the change process whenapplied to people takes time. Students may findthemselves frustrated when clients do not seem to be“getting better”. This is a great topic for supervision.Learning the boundaries of a helper and our limitationsas social workers is one of the most valuable lessonslearned through the practicum experience.

Roles and Expectations in the Social WorkPracticumField work is an interactive learning process in astructured environment. The social work curriculumdoes expect certain learning and teaching goals ofstudents and supervisors. It is important for graduatestudents to develop specific expectations of the agencyor setting field instructor.

In India, even though a formal contract or form is notusually signed, the social work program liaison arrangesfor the students to undergo field work training in variousagencies. The student and the field work supervisorare made aware of the knowledge and skills that thestudent is expected to learn.

Role of a Field Work Student

The most important role is that of integrating oneselfto the functioning of the agency or setting. At the

graduate level, the field work student would probablyhave earlier field work experience. However, there wouldbe a first time experiences involved at some point oftime. There is a need to understand the following areasin order to ease the integrating process (Birkenmaier& Berg-Weger, 2007).

1) Understand the mission, services, population orcommunity served policies and funding.

2) Find out what discipline and service is the primaryfocus of the organization.

3) Comprehend the knowledge, values and skillsneeded.

4) List the knowledge and skills expected to be learntin the field work experience.

5) Acknowledge the strengths possessed that wouldhelp in this experience.

6) Familiarize the traditional roles that students havepreviously taken up.

7) List out questions that one would like to ask thesupervisor.

Expectations from Student in Field Work

The initial field work may comprise of observing,attending orientation, reading manuals and literature.Such passive learning would progress to facilitatinggroups, meetings and case work. This could leadgradually to more autonomous working with clients. Insome settings in India there is more structure than inothers. In a hospital, the student would be expected to

Roles and Expectations in Social Work Practicum 113


attend rounds, treatment conferences and group worksessions. The student may or may not be allowed toautonomously conduct a treatment plan or group worksession even at the end of the training period. Thisdepends on the policy of the agency.

In a rural community, the student may attend balwadi(preschool), mahila mandal meetings (women’s’organization) and panchayat (village local government).The student may be allowed to enable the women toget bank loans for starting small businesses or arrangefor the bank officers to talk to the women. The studentsat times work through the balwadi to reach out to thefamilies who need help or information. The studentsmay take up an issue with the panchayat or just observeits session. How active or passive the field work trainingin the community would depend partly on the particularcommunity’s openness, field work supervisors’ limitsand greatly on the students’ initiative.

There are some general guidelines for students andfield work instructors for optimizing the field workexperience (Munson, 2002).

1) Observing experienced social workers perform theirroles

2) Gain orientation to specialized cases and practiceapproaches

3) Engage in collaborative co-facilitation activities

4) Invite and accept feedback of work done

5) Request direct supervision

6) Develop more self awareness

7) Welcome support and encouragement

8) Obtain training in group work

9) Improve diagnostic skills

Expectation of the Student from Social WorkProgram’s

Many social work programs are required to adhere tothe accreditation requirements of the council on SocialWork Education. There is flexibility in the method ofdelivery of the field work curriculum. In the UnitedStates of America the following tasks are required ofstudents (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger, 2007):

1) Completion of practicum forms required by theagency and the school

2) Verification of health status and completion ofhealth related requirements (immunizations,medical tests, or health related precautions andregulations)

3) Verification of malpractice coverage

4) Completion of personal information (background,criminal records, child abuse checks, healthinformation, or drug screening)

In India, many of these tasks are not required. Studentsare however required to take health related precautionswhile working in hospitals and communities wherethere may be a risk of contracting contagious diseases.Students are also required to ensure that they do notpass on infections to susceptible patients (renal failure,burn or surgery patients).



Students are also required to respect different culturesprevailing in India. They are oriented to variousreligious practices and are required to abide by themto avoid offending clients because of ignorance. Duringhome visits, they remove footwear before entering theclient’s houses. The proper form of address is requiredto be used while referring to elders.

Student’s Expectations of the FieldSupervisorIn general, the field instructor should support thestudent and facilitate learning by ensuring that theenvironment is conducive to acquiring knowledge andskills. A good balance between offering challenges andsupport would be best for the students’ fieldexperience. The student can expect the following tasksof the field instructor (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger,2007):

1) Be committed to the educational growth anddevelopment of the student

2) Take on the role of a mentor

3) Show respect and fair treatment

4) Provide continued feedback of students’ strengthsand areas of growth

5) Communicate supervisors’ expectations of student,evaluation philosophy, availability, supervisorysessions, contacts and resources

6) Support in developing a plan of learning(orientation of activities, staff, schedules;opportunity to observe instructor, staff and other

students; case assignments; staff studentcollaboration).

7) Provide information (agency, field work parameters,structure, organization’s plan, students’ role)

8) Clarify physical and emotional boundaries of thefield work experience

9) Make available agency, field, professional,administrative and logistic information required forthe student to function adequately

10) Inform student of dates and schedules of meetings,events and conferences

11) Making clear expectations of student regardingdress, behaviour, work hours, homework, andcollaboration with staff and other professionals.

12) Provide adequate feedback regarding, writing,learning and skills.

In India, there is a more submissive role adopted bythe student in relation with any teacher. Unlike in theUnited States of America, the students defer to thehigher teacher’s authority. Students address theteachers with “Sir / Ma’am”. It is the social workprogram and the field work liaison’s plan that determinewhat the student should expect and learn at the fieldwork placement. In most cases the students’ personalityand motivation to learn, determine the amount ofknowledge and skills garnered at field work training. Arelatively shy student or one who does not really careabout making the most of the field work placement,coupled with supervisors who do not make sure thatthe student fulfills the obligations of the field work



training, would result in little learning during the fieldwork training.

Student’s Expectations of the Faculty SupervisorA faculty supervisor or liaison can be a valuable supportand resource in India. A supervisor who is particularabout structure and believes in the importance ofenabling the students to optimize the field workplacement would really make sure that the studentacquires adequate knowledge and skills. There aresome field work liaisons that offer the student someflexibility and encourage the student to help in makingthe learning goals and plans. There are still otherlaissez-faire field work liaisons who may give thestudent the whole freedom and responsibility to makesure they learn something during the field workplacement. In this case the student must have themotivation and initiative to make the most of the fieldwork placement.

The following are the general expectation a studentcan have from the faculty supervisor (Birkenmaier &Berg-Weger, 2007):

1) Serve as a link between the agency, field instructorand social work program

2) Orient the student to the field work process andsocial work program expectations

3) Inform and assist the student about the learningagreement, tasks, activities, evaluation criteria andoutcomes

4) Respond to questions regarding field work, mediateconflicts, advocate on behalf of the student

5) Serve as a consultant to field work agencies andinstructors in establishment and evaluation of fieldwork plans, structure and roles

6) Monitor the field work experience to ensure goalachievement

7) Remain available throughout the field workexperience to assess goals, interests, skills andaspirations

8) Provide a safe space to process field workexperiences and challenges.

Learning Expectations while Working withIndividuals, Families and GroupsAt this level the focus is on the systematic applicationof focused theory and development of skills, knowledgeand techniques conducted with professionalism (Dore,Epstein & Herrerias, 1992). The focus would be onproblem solving and empowerment while the practicemay be multilevel, multimethod and theoreticallyeclectic. The emphasis would be for the student to learnassessment and intervention skills.

Dore, Epstein & Herrerias, (1992) have identified eightspecific areas of skill, knowledge and value developmentthat are critical for micro-practice learning.

1) Specific micro practice skills including engagementof client system, exploration of problems andfeelings, goal setting, contracting, termination andapplication of appropriate treatment strategies(relationship building, empathy, culturalcompetence, assessment, intervention, terminationand evaluation)



2) Capability for critical thinking (conceptualunderstanding and integration of values andtheory)

3) Capacity for self directed learning (e.g. managementof dependencies and ability to seek and accept newknowledge)

4) Professional competency (flexibility, selfinitiative,and risk taking).

5) Leadership ability (e.g. Communication, advocacy,and commitment to social change)

6) Caseload management (e.g. Knowledge ofcommunity resources and time management skills)

7) Interpersonal skills (e.g. Use of self in the helpingrelationship, relational capacities and ability toengage in effective collaboration with and on behalfof the client)

8) Administrative skills (e.g. Case preparation andpresentation and self-evaluation).

In the Indian context, the student would get more thanadequate opportunity to work with individuals. Atagencies helping children, women and in those thatwork with clients with medical, psychological andsubstance abuse issues, the students are able todevelop knowledge and skills. They learn skills inbuilding relationships, identifying the problem area,assessing needs and resources, make prognosis andfinally work with the treatment plan. It may be moredifficult to work with groups and families. Ininstitutions, there may be opportunity to form groups

and acquire skills in group work. It is usually moredifficult to work with whole families. Many times thebreadwinner cannot take time off and other familymembers may be busy especially in rural areas. Whenit comes to women’s problems, very few husbands wouldsupport the wife asking for external help. They eitherdeny the problem or try to conceal it. In still other cases,the family members are expected to get help from withinthe family which comprises of the joint or extendedfamily members too. The student usually works withparts of the family at different times or just works withthe few available family members.

Group work comprises of groups differing in goals, sizes,formats and agendas. The general skills required arecommunication, mediation, negotiation, education,leadership and knowledge of members’ roles. Even ifthe primary method of intervention for some socialworkers may not be group work, many engage in groupsat some part of their practice. It is considered to becost effective and used with clients and in managementand administrative duties. According to the NASW Codeof Ethics, enhancing the wellbeing of individuals,families, social groups, organizations and communitiesis considered to be paramount to the function of socialwork.

In general Yalom (1995) suggests that the social workeris the group leader and needs to be emotionallystimulating, caring, interpreting feelings, groupprocess, and executing group rules, and limits. Thegroup leader is flexible, aware of clients’ issues, hasinsight into group process, able to confront, clarify,interpret and support. The social worker is also



expected to respond appropriately to frustration andresistance. Three models of group work are brieflydescribed followed by the roles that the social workermay be expected to take on (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger,2007).

1) Social goals model is based on problem-focusedinterests and goals. It could include neighborhoodsafety, parent-teacher, community developmenttask force, coalition of professionals advocating forimproved welfare legislation. The social worker maybe an initiator, convener, organizer, facilitator,advocate or act as a resource.

2) In the reciprocal goals model the groups are basedon mutual aid and self-help in which memberssupport one another through sharing commonexperiences. It could include 12-step programs(Alcoholics Anonymous, Overeaters Anonymous, Al-anon, and Alateen), grief support groups, caregiversupport groups, or disease specific patient supportgroups (cancer, leukemia, multiple sclerosis, renalfailure). The social worker fulfills roles of facilitator,mediator, educator or support.

3) The remedial goals model is based on thephilosophy that the group member interactionsfacilitate change. It includes psychotherapy groups,marital therapy groups, child abuse perpetratorsgroups, trauma survivors groups. The social workeris the therapist, clinician, educator or mediator.

Various group leaders draw their styles and behavioursfrom multiple areas depending on the situation at handand required response. Even though social workers

would predominantly have one of the following styles,they are expected to adopt any of the followingdepending on the response required by the groupsituation:

1) The energizer who is charismatic, energetic,supportive and attacking. They set stringent rulesand limits.

2) The provider conveys meaning and caring to groupmembers and effects positive outcomes withminimal risks.

3) The social engineer uses group process and support.

4) The impersonal leader is more distant, minimallycaring, and rigid in rules and high level ofstimulation.

5) The laissez-faire leader is minimally caring andattends to procedures.

6) The manager uses structured interventions.

Learning expectations while working withorganizations and communities

Social workers can bring about large scale changeamong many clients through systemic solutions whenworking with organizations, communities and policychange. In India, the students rarely get an opportunityto work with organizations and deal with policy change.In some cases they get the chance to work with socialactivist groups that work for women’s development,environmental issues and other social and religiouscauses. Students get adequate opportunity to work incommunities. Many schools of social work make it a



point to place students in rural communities. This is aunique opportunity for students from the urban areas.Whatever area of specialization is chosen by thestudent, there is a required placement in a rural villageor urban slum. In large cities where the rural communitywould be a great distance, the community placementmay be in a slum district which functions as a separatecommunity. This experience is very different from thatof a rural village. In the urban slum, the student mayget to work with transient workers, problems ofconstruction workers, social action with leaders workingagainst eviction of slum dwellers, enabling the dwellersto get water or electricity and such issues. The natureof this community is not permanent and therefore thestudents’ work would be directed towards helpingdwellers to get benefits and better their situation.

In the United States of America, social workers workingat this level may be social planners, programdevelopers, administrators, executive directors ororganizational developers. Breuggmann, (1996)suggests the following skills required by social workadministrators.

1) Budgeting and financial management

2) Working with boards

3) Organizational design, development, assessmentand diagnosis

4) Computer information systems and othertechnology

5) Human resource management (selection, training,supervision and staff compensation)

6) Management (including use of affirmative actionprinciples)

7) Marketing management techniques

8) Networking

9) Financial resource development

10) Media relations

Community development social workers, communityorganizers, social activists or social researchers areexpected to possess the following skills (Breuggmann,1996).

1) Program development, implementation andevaluation

2) Fundraising (grant writing)

3) Coalition formulation and maintenance

4) Planned change techniques

5) Macro-level; advocacy

6) Community analysis

7) Inter-organizational planning

8) Leadership development and citizen participation

9) Small-group decision-making techniques

10) Community organizing

11) Task force membership

12) Membership development and retention

13) Economic development techniques



14) Computer information systems and othertechnology

Social policy analysts, lobbyists or elected officials areexpected to have the following skills (Breuggmann,1996):

1) Legislative (advocacy and lobbying skills)

2) Policy analysis and management

3) Issue analysis techniques

4) Social policy research

5) Legal (e.g. ability to use the judicial system or draftlegislation)

The skills grouped under different headings share asymbiotic relationship in practice. Practitioners in onearea are often required to possess other related skillstoo. To be an effective group worker, the social workermust have knowledge of working with individuals andfamilies. The same could be said of working withcommunities too. Knowledge of one method helps inutilizing other methods of social work. The level of skillsrequired by the social worker depends entirely on thetype of agency or community and the situation at hand.It is important for the social work student to possess awide repertoire of knowledge and skills in order to meetthe field work demands.

ConclusionField work is an interesting and interactive learningprocess. There are various roles a student has to performwhile learning to practice social work. A student hascertain expectations from field work, and the field

supervisor. A learner gets several opportunities to workwith individuals, families, groups, organizations andcommunities and have certain learning expectationswhile dealing with numerous situations.

The aim of this chapter is to provide you guidelines tounderstand the various roles and expectations in socialwork practicum. We have discussed in detail thestudent’s expectations from the field work supervisor.The chapter provides you an understanding on thesystematic application of focused theory anddevelopment of skills, knowledge and techniquesassociated with professionalism. This chapter willenable you to recognize how social workers can bringabout large desired changes among their clientsthrough systematic interventions while working withindividuals, groups, families, organizations,communities and policy formulation.

References

Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger, (2007). The practicumcompanion for social work: integrating class and fieldwork. 2nd ed. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, Ma.

Breuggmann, W. G. (1996). The practice of macro socialwork. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

Dore, M. M., Epstein, B. N. & Herrerias, C. (1992).Evaluating students’ micro practice field performance:Do universal learning objectives exist? Journal of SocialWork Education, 28(3), 353-362.



Munson, C. E., (2002). Handbook of clinical social worksupervision (3rd ed.). New York: Haworth Press.

National Association of Social Workers (NASW). (1999).Code of ethics. Avialable at www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp.1996; revised.

Yalom, I. D., (1995).The theory and practice of grouppsychotherapy (4th ed.). New York: Basic Books.

7ROLES AND EXPECTATIONS OF

SOCIAL WORK TRAININGINSTITUTE

*Patricia Lager, B. Hamann, Neil Abell

IntroductionRole and expectations of the social work traininginstitute is a unique chapter in the entire social workcurriculum of IGNOU. In social work practicum thereare several persons and institutions involved whichinclude the student, staff at the school/college/department of social work, functionaries at the agency,faculty supervisor, agency supervisor and the clientsystem. Each of these units have specific role andcontributions to be made in the training a para-professional. The social work institute could be anindependent college of social work (we have several inIndia in the conventional system), college having onedepartment and universities having one departmentor a school/college of social work. For example collegeof social work is one of the colleges within the FloridaState University and School of Social Work is one of

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA & Dr. B. Hamann, USA and Prof. NeilAbell, FSU, USA


the schools established by IGNOU which has themandate to develop and launch programmes of studyin social work.

In this chapter we shall describe the minimum criteriarequired for social work training institute in identifyingsuitable agencies for field placement and in providingthe much needed guidance for supervision by agencysupervisors. Apart from diserssing the criteria set byIGNOU, This unit also examines the policies of thecollege of social work, Florida State University whichhas regular students, distance learners as well as onlineprogrammes of study in social work. Field workstandards and activities are very important in socialwork practicum. We have described the same along withemployment based practicum and guidelines for in-service placements which are relevant to several IGNOUBSW and MSW students. Students learningexpectations and responsibilities, placement contents,student education contract, university –agencypartnership contract in the case of FSU and theinternational policies regarding accreditations andstandards are other matters that will be discussed inthis unit.

This chapter will be of great help not only to you as astudent, but also to agency supervisors and facultyinvolved in extending the much needed guidance ofstudents of social work.

Minimum Criteria for Social Work TrainingInstituteIdentification of suitable agencies in the area wherefield work can be done and securing their cooperation

and consent for the same is an important function ofthe field work supervisor. Agencies are now found inmost parts of the country and the selection of suitablesites for training students is based on the followingcriteria established by IGNOU:

An agency that is registered is preferred over anagency that is not registered.

An agency that has professional social workersemployed who are available for guiding learners ispreferred over an agency that does not have trainedsocial workers.

The agency should have a well defined structureand well defined roles for its employees as opposedto a loosely structured agency with informal lines.

An agency that provides a variety of services fromsimple to complex so the learner can obtain adiverse experience.

An agency that reflects the philosophy and practiceof social work.

An agency committed to providing qualityeducational experiences to the learners and helpthem become good social workers.

College of Social Work : FSU policies

Florida State University (College of Social Work) has aset of policies which lays down certain criteria asnecessary conditions for agencies to meet in order tobe a field placement site for students. The agency mustagree to:

Roles and Expectations of Social Work Training Institute 131


Provide opportunities for students of the school inaccordance with the cooperative planning by thefaculty of the school and the agency staff. Thisshould include individual, family, and groupexperiences.

Meet the expectations of the program in theprovision of diligent supervision for students witha qualified field instructor who is an MSW with atleast two years experience in the field.

Assist in the orientation of the students to theagency policies and procedures, and provide accessto equipment and records as necessary for teachingpurposes.

Provide work space for the students to the extentfeasible through mutual planning and learningmaterials appropriate to the student’sresponsibilities during the period of placement.

Assist in the evaluation of students’ learning andperformance.

Provide students with experiences and supervisionthat meets the ethical standards of the professionand inform them of the ethical and legalrequirements regarding confidentiality ofcommunications and records with regard to theagency’s clients.

Make provision of orientation of students andfaculty members of the school to the facilities,philosophies, policies, and programs of the agency.

Provide an interdisciplinary team experience, ifpossible.

Allow the student to participate in social histories,progress notes, treatment plans, and otherappropriate documentation.

Assignments for students will be planned by thefaculty of the school in cooperation with thesupervisory staff at the agency.

Faculty, supervisory staff, and students will worktogether to maintain an environment whichprovides quality service to the client and studentlearning.

Arrange for agency field supervisors and fieldstudents to meet with representatives of the schoolat least once during the term of the placement fora joint review of the student’s progress. Theseindividuals will communicate more often as needed.

Refrain from discriminating in the assignment ofsocial work students to the internship programbecause of race, color, creed, national origin,disability, or gender.

Field Work Standards and Activities;Employment Based PracticumsWhen the social work programme contracts with atraining institute to provide a practicum site forstudents, a number of expectations are communicatedduring the process of evaluating the agency as apotential site for students to obtain a positive learningexperience.

It is an expectation of the social work programme thatfield work supervisors have the following necessary



qualifications: an earned MSW from an accreditedschool of social work; two years of post-masters workexperience in an agency setting; and an interest instudents and willingness to accept the role of fieldinstructor. If a qualified MSW is not available,undergraduate field students can be supervised by aBSW field instructor with extensive practice experience.Field instructors are expected to be competent andethical social work practitioners in one or more areasof service and to be willing to work within the program’sphilosophy of social work education and general fieldlearning objectives.

Students are expected to meet with their MSW fieldinstructor for a minimum of one hour of supervisioneach week. In agencies where there is no MSW fieldinstructor on-site, the agency is expected to provide anexternal off-site MSW to supervise masters students.The agency then agrees to identify a task supervisorqualified to provide on-site guidance regardingappropriate assignments and agency policies andprocedures. The task supervisor maintains close contactwith the field instructor and actively participates in theevaluation process.

In general, the field work supervisor’s responsibilitiesinclude coordinating with the social work program toprovide a field experience that augments andcompliments classroom learning; orienting the studentto agency policies, procedures, and population served;coordinating involvement with other staff members;scheduling weekly supervisory conferences; andassisting the student in developing professional workhabits. In order to assist the student in the developmentof professional skills, knowledge and values, the field

work supervisor maintains an ongoing evaluation of thestudent’s progress, prepares a written evaluation of thestudent’s performance at the mid-term and at the endof the field practicum; and communicates regularfeedback to the student about his/her performance.The field supervisor is also expected to keep the facultyliaison informed about the student’s progress andadvise the liaison of concerns, after having firstdiscussed them with the student. In addition, the fieldsupervisor provides feedback to the field program aboutvarious programmatic issues involving curriculum,placement content and expectations, and field policiesand procedures.

Employment Based Practicums

Traditionally, social work field placements areeducationally focused, unpaid training experiences insocial work settings that are selected on the basis ofthe student’s level and/or concentration in theirprogramme of studies. There are some situations,however, in which paid employment can meet thestandards for field placements therefore can beaccepted by the field work programme as a suitablepracticum alternative.

The guiding principle for these exceptional decisionsis that the field placement experience must constitutenew learning, appropriate supervision, and anopportunity to apply theories and knowledge from theclassroom in a practice setting. The social workprogramme organizes course requirements and fieldinstruction in a particular sequence, which is structuredin that way for educational reasons. Therefore, thisnew learning opportunity must fall at a certain point



in the program of studies and additionally must meetour established guidelines for field placements.

Problems Confronted in in-service Field Placement

There are a number of potential problems which mayarise when students attempt to combine jobs with fieldplacement. (1) The agency may emphasize productivityof the student employee, rather than the student’s ownlearning. (2) If job duties change, the position may nolonger meet the criteria for social work activities forthat student’s concentration. (3) Both the student andthe agency may be less willing to disclose problemsthat arise during the field placement, such asinadequate supervision, activities that are incongruentwith placement expectations, situations that threatentheir employment status, etc. This could lead to adelayed intervention by the field work program,sometimes resulting in “Unsatisfactory” or “Incomplete”grades for the field placement. In our experience, paidemployment can present many complicating factorswhich limit students’ full utilization of this educationalopportunity and should be weighed carefully by thestudent and the employer.

Guidelines for in-service Placements

The field work program cautions students about thepotential problems of these placement situations andreserves the right to approve paid employment sites asfield placements based on the following guidelines.These would apply to new jobs as well as to existingemployment.

1) All of the required field hours must take place underthe supervision of a new (to the student) MSW field

supervisor. This supervisor must meet theeducational standards of the social workprogramme.

2) The activities must be congruent with the student’sconcentration or level (graduate or undergraduate)in the program. Some jobs that are assigned thetitle of “Social Worker” do not meet the expectationsof the practice activities for a particular fieldexperience. Students are responsible for theunderstanding and adhering to the courseobjectives for field instruction.

3) The activities themselves must constitute newlearning for the student (i.e., a new population,utilizing new treatment methodology, and/or in anew field of practice).

4) There must be caseload control (if applicable) inthis position in order to ensure that the student’seducational goals are the primary focus, not simplythe needs of the agency.

5) The employment date or date of reassignment withinthe agency must be no more than 90 days fromthe first day of the semester in which the studentis registered to start the placement, in order toensure that the field instruction experience fallsin sequence with academic course work asstructured by our program of studies.

6) The student must have demonstrated a clearunderstanding and endorsement of the educationalprinciples involved. The Office of Field Instructionretains the right to grant this employment-basedexception only for students who demonstrate high



standards of professional and ethical behaviour anda strong academic record.

7) Students will only be given permission to completeone employment based internship during thecourse of their programme.

Based on the above principles and other basicstandards of the programme regarding acceptance ofplacements and supervisors, the field work programmewill allow an exception to our standard practice of havingemployment separate from an internship. This decisionwill incorporate faculty experience and judgment inevaluating the appropriateness of the exception request.According to the School of Social Work’s (FSU) studentpolicy, the field work programme has the authority andresponsibility to carefully select and assign fieldplacements; students should not assume that theseplacements will be automatically approved.

In order to be considered for this special placementrequest, the student is responsible for the completionof the Proposal for Employment Based Internship andmust submit it to the field work programme at leastone month (30 days) prior to the beginning of theplacement. The decision will be made by the field workdirector with feedback from faculty involved in thestudent’s placement planning. The decision will becommunicated directly to the student as soon aspossible.

Student Learning Expectations andResponsibilitiesThe field work programme encourages all students

entering field to identify their individual learning needsand assume responsibility for shaping their educationalprocess. Prior to beginning the field pacticum, studentsare required to attend an orientation meeting in whichthe expectations and responsibilities of the fieldprogramme are communicated, both verbally and inwritten handouts. The content of the planning meetingincludes field policies and procedures, the fieldapplication and interview process, deadline dates,expectations regarding supervision, the integrativeseminar, field agency requirements, the role of theliaison and the MSW field instructor, field placementobjectives, the Learning Contract, termination policies,sexual harassment and safety issues, liability insuranceinformation, and the field evaluation process.

Placement Contents

Students are also given information on preferredplacement content based on the learning objectives oftheir concentration. The following content areas arecommunicated to both students and field instructorsas minimum expectations when structuring theinternship experience:

1) Provision of a comprehensive orientation of thestudent to the agency staff, client systems, agencypolicies and procedures, safety concerns,supervision expectations and requirements,casework requirements, legal and ethicalrequirements, etc.

2) Substantial amount of client contact withapproximately 50 per cent of the time at theinternship involving direct work with clients. The



student is expected to eventually begin carrying asmall caseload of his/her own.

3) Exposure to one or more theoretical practiceframeworks (with individuals, couples, families, orgroups), either directly or through observation.

4) Experience with case management and networkingresponsibilities.

5) Experience with case recording and developingintervention plans.

6) Completion of a bio-psychosocial assessment,process recordings, and/or video or audiorecordings with feedback from the field instructor.

7) Exposure to agency administrative meetings,policies and procedures, and case staffings.

8) Exposure to inter-agency meetings or staffings.

9) Exposure to a diverse client population.

10) Exposure to advocacy experiences on a macro level,if possible.

11) Completion of a learning contract outlining specificlearning objectives and activities consistent withthe objectives of the student’s concentration.

12) Provision of open communication with the fieldinstructor and faculty liaison on the quality of fieldexperiences and learning needs, in addition to areasof concern.

13) Opportunity to participate in an agency-basedresearch project, if possible.

Student Educational Contract

The purpose of this agreement is to clarify roles andresponsibilities regarding the student’s field workexperience and to clarify how educational goals andobjectives are to be met. The student and field instructordevelop this portion of the contract together. It willspecify educational goals, student assignments andeducational learning experiences. This should besubmitted to the student’s faculty liaison and/orseminar instructor no later than the 3rd week ofplacement. It is recognized that specific content maychange in response to the developing needs of boththe student and the agency. If changes in this contractare necessary, they should be agreed to by all partiesinvolved. In order for students to meet fieldrequirements, assignments should begin immediatelyand not be deferred until the contract is completed.

University-Agency Partnership: TheContractual AgreementA well defined agency-university partnership is anintegral component of a successful field workprogramme and practicum experience for social workstudents. Agencies that have met the minimum criteriafor acceptance as a field practicum site are expected tosign a written agreement detailing the overallexpectations of the social work programme in assumingresponsibility for meeting the educational objectives ofthe programme. The agreement details what theagency’s tasks are in meeting the expectations of thestudent and programme during the course of theplacement. It also includes the duties assumed by thesocial work programme in the placement of students



at the agency and how specific expectations of thetraining institute will be met. The overall purpose ofthis agreement is to guide and direct a workingrelationship between the agency and the school inproviding learning experiences for students during theirinternship as a partial requirement for a degree in socialwork.

International Policies regardingAccreditation and StandardsIn the Global Standards for the Education and Trainingof the Social Work Profession (International Associationof Schools of Social Work, 2004), members of the IASSWprovided clear guidance on a range of issues governingthe ethical conduct of social work education in general,and field education in particular. As emphasizedelsewhere in this curriculum, the development of theStandards document was intentional and contentious,resulting in a set of guidelines to be regarded as ameaningful starting point in what would remain anongoing, dynamic dialog among member nations. AsSewpaul summarized.

The global standards document is characterised byflexibility, with an overarching and embeddedhuman rights and social justice emphasis, yet witha simultaneous emphasis on historical,sociopolitical, economic and cultural contextspecific realities. Of absolute premium is thedocument’s emphasis on dialogue within and acrossnations and regions (2005, p. 213).

In that context, a set of guidelines were proposedincluding, among other topics: field curricula; structure,

administration, governance, and resources for fieldprograms; and values and ethics for the conduct ofsocial work field education. Selected elements of theStandards are inserted below (retaining their exactwording from the complete document cited above).

Standards with Regard to Programme Curriculaincluding Field Education

With regard to standards regarding programmecurricula, schools should consistently aspire towardsthe following:

Clear plans for the organization, implementationand evaluation of the theory and field educationcomponents of the programme.

Involvement of service users in the planning anddelivery of programmes.

Recognition and development of indigenous orlocally specific social work education and practicefrom the traditions and cultures of different ethnicgroups and societies, in so far that such traditionsand cultures do not violate human rights.

Ensuring that the curricula helps social workstudents to develop skills of critical thinking andscholarly attitudes of reasoning, openness to newexperiences and paradigms, and commitment tolife-long learning.

Field education should be sufficient in durationand complexity of tasks and learning opportunitiesto ensure that students are prepared forprofessional practice.



Planned co-ordination and links between the schooland the agency/field placement settings.

Provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors orinstructors.

Appointment of field supervisors or instructors whoare qualified and experienced, as determined bythe development status of the social work professionin any given country, and provision of orientationfor fieldwork supervisors or instructors.

Provision for the inclusion and participation of fieldinstructors in curriculum development.

A partnership between the educational institutionand the agency (where applicable) and service usersin decision-making regarding field education andthe evaluation of student’s fieldwork performance.

Making available, to fieldwork instructors orsupervisors, a field instruction manual that detailsits fieldwork standards, procedures, assessmentstandards/criteria and expectations.

Ensuring that adequate and appropriate resources,to meet the needs of the fieldwork component ofthe programme, are made available.

Collectively, this section of the Standards specifies thewide range of activities to be considered in planningand sustaining social work field education. From aninstitutional point of view, the expectations are quitelarge, and require a dedicated professional staff tomanage and implement. As far-reaching as thesecomponents are, they are seldom considered “complete”.

Once a working program is in place, it requires nearlyconstant maintenance and revision as communities,service organizations, and the individuals working foror served by them change. To function successfully,all parties must know their roles and be willing andable to fulfill them. Administrators, as indicated in thenext section, must keep their attention on all theseissues while also attending to the bureaucratic andmanagement concerns necessary to support them.

Standards with Regard to Structure, Administration,Governance and Resources

With regard to structure, administration, governanceand resources, the school and/or the educationalinstitution should aspire towards the following:

Social work programmes are implemented througha distinct unit known as a Faculty, School,Department, Centre or Division, which has a clearidentity within the educational institution.

The school has a designated Head or Director whohas demonstrated administrative, scholarly andprofessional competence, preferably in theprofession of social work.

Where the school offers distance, mixed-mode,decentralized and/or internet based educationthere is provision of adequate infrastructure,including classroom space, computers, texts, audio-visual equipment, community resources forfieldwork education, and on-site instruction andsupervision to facilitate the achievement of its corepurpose or mission, programme objectives andexpected outcomes.



The school develops and maintains linkages withinthe institution, with external organizations and withservice users relevant to its core purpose or missionand its objectives.

Organizational structure can never be overlooked. Tofunction effectively, schools of social work must holdpositions of respect among their peer organizations inthe larger university environment, and be directed byleaders who are themselves respected both within andbeyond their professions and academia. Like the issuesraised in the preceding section, neither of these canbe assumed to be permanent or static. Priorities changewithin universities and the larger governmentalstructures within which they operate, and programleaders are continuously challenged to stay on top ofemerging issues, opportunities and obstacles alike, thatimpact the programs they direct. As addressed in thefollowing section, administration and governance alsodepends on anticipating resolution of problems anddisputes, and on provision of a structure within whichto assess and, when necessary, sanction violations ofethical codes.

Standards with Regard to Values and Ethical Codesof Conduct of the Social Work Profession

In view of the recognition that social work values, ethicsand principles are the core components of theprofession, schools should consistently aspire towards:

Registration of professional staff and social workstudents (insofar as social work students developworking relationships with people via fieldworkplacements) with national and/or regional regulatory

(whether statutory or non-statutory) bodies, withdefined codes of ethics. Members of such bodies aregenerally bound to the provisions of those codes.

Ensuring that every social work student involved infieldwork education, and every professional staffmember, is aware of the boundaries of professionalpractice and what might constitute unprofessionalconduct in terms of the code of ethics. Where studentsviolate the code of ethics, programme staff may takenecessary and acceptable remedial and/or initialdisciplinary measures, or counsel the student out ofthe programme.

Taking appropriate action in relation to those socialwork students and professional staff, who fail to complywith the code of ethics either through an establishedregulatory social work body, established procedures ofthe educational institution, and/or through legalmechanisms.

Ensuring that regulatory social work bodies are broadlyrepresentative of the social work profession, includingwhere applicable social workers from both the publicand private sector, and of the community that it servesincluding the direct participation of service users.

Upholding, as far as is reasonable and possible, theprinciples of restorative rather than retributive justicein disciplining either social work students orprofessional staff who violate the code of ethics.

The collective cultural wisdom reflected in codes ofethics provides a firm foundation for consideration ofproblems in professional behaviour. As detailedelsewhere in this curriculum, such text covers



considerable ground in defining what is “right” and“wrong” ins social workers’ interactions with clients,peers, supervisors and administrators, and the widercommunities where practice takes place. Still, in cannotbe taken for granted that all actors involved in a disputewill share a common view, or agree spontaneously tosolutions to their problems. In this section, advocatingthat all members of the field enterprise (students,faculty, supervisors, and administrators) be joined asmembers in professional organizations provides onebasis for establishing common ground.

When problems persist despite best efforts to findmutually agreeable resolutions, the principles ofrestorative rather than retributive justice arerecommended. Restorative justice, whose aim is toestablish or reinforce positive skills in the person foundat fault, the goal is more than retribution orpunishment. As one would hope in an educational fieldsetting, when problems have been recognized anddefined, the best choice is always to help all partieslearn from their mistakes, and follow a path towardsbetter, wiser decisions in the future.

ConclusionSocial work professionals are expected to approach aproblem from a wide variety of perspectives. The intentof social work training institute is to provide a solidbase of skills in working at the micro, mezzo and macrolevels of practice. In this chapter we have presentedthe roles and expectations of the social work traininginstitute by setting certain minimum criteria forpractical training. The discussion also covered the

policies of school of social work, IGNOU and the collegeof social work, Florida State University. We have alsoseen the field work standards and activities,employment based practicum of FSU, guidelines forin-service placements, student learning expectationsand responsibilities, placement contents, studenteducation contract, university agency partnership andthe international policies regarding accreditation andthe standards set by International Association ofSchools of Social Work, 2004. On the whole this unit isexpected to provide adequate information andknowledge to distance learners about the roles andexpectations of the social work training institute withregard to field practicum in social work.

References

Florida State University College of Social Work FieldReference Manual, Graduate Field Instruction I & II.

International Association of Schools of Social Work.(2004). Global Standards for the Education and Trainingof the Social Work Profession. Retrieved June 10, 2007,from http://www.iasswaiets.org/

Sewpaul, V. (2005). Global standards: promise andpitfalls for re-inscribing social work into civil society.International Journal of Social Welfare, 14, 210-217.


8Principles and Skills for Social

Work and Agency Practice*Gracious Thomas, Nita Kumari

IntroductionEvery profession has certain principles to be followedby the professionals.’these principles are applicable inmost practice situations, regardless of clientcharacteristics, practice settings or roles assumed bythe professional. Knowledge becomes useless if theperson is not able to communicate properly. Thereforeit is expected that a professional social worker shouldhave adequate knowledge and training incommunication skills in order to successfully practicesocial work. He should also have capability to carry outall the documentation and other similar tasks neededwhile working with any Govt./NGO or other privateorganization. In this unit we have borrowed extensivelyfrom the writings of Sheafor and Horejsi (2003), whichwill be of immense use to social work students in Openand Distance Learning System. We have alsoconsidered the local situation while developing this unit.

* Prof. Gracious Thomas, IGNOU and Ms. Nita Kumari, RTA, IGNOU

Principles for Social Work PracticePrinciples are basic rules or guidelines which enable apractitioner to be competent in his/her profession.These principles are to be applied with careful andthoughtful analysis. Sheafor and Horejsi (2003) in theirbook “Techniques and Guidelines for social workpractice” have explained 24 fundamental principles thatshould guide social work practice. They have dividedthese principles into two parts. First six principles havebeen focusing on social workers and the remainingeighteen principles are concerned with the socialworker’s interaction with a client/client group viz. anindividual, family, small group, organization,neighbourhood, community, or even a larger socialstructure. Let us briefly highlight the salient featuresof each of these principles.

Principles that Focus on the Social Worker

1) The social worker should practice social work

A student of social work is taught knowledge, skills,values, ethics and principles of social work in the theorypapers. Therefore one is not expected to behave in anunprofessional manner. For example a student maycome across a client who met with an accident. Whenhe/she went to meet the client he/she may becomeemotional and weep. In such a situation, the worker isnot expected to express his/her emotions with theclient (say by shedding tears). Remember the principleof controlled emotional involvement. As a professionalyou should do what you are sanctioned and trained todo. You should use your professional knowledge, values

Principles and Skills for Social Work and Agency Practice 151


and skills while dealing with the client in a nivensituation.

2) The social worker should engage in conscious useof self

As a para-professional, you should work within yourown abilities, capacities and limitations. Neither shouldyou make false promises to the client nor impose yourown style and beliefs, values, and attitudes on the client.As a professional the worker should develop a feelingof trust and welfare in the mind of the client.

For example, as a student placed in a community youshould not make false promises to the community thatyou will provide them job, a “pakka road” in the villageor start an income generating activity.

Worker should keep in mind their social backgroundand culture. Let us take an another example. Theworker is a vegetarian and the client is a non-vegetarian.The worker should not impose his/her life style on theclient and expect the client to follow the lifestyle of theworker. A worker must be consciously aware about one’sown beliefs, perceptions, and behaviours that may havean impact on their professional relationships, as thesepersonal attributes will surely affect the ability to behelpful to the clients.

3) The social worker should maintain professionalobjectivity

As a social worker you are expected to behave in aprofessional manner with the client by maintaining acertain distance and not getting involved personally.For example a client may request the worker to help

him/her by providing financial assistance for his/hersister’s marriage. In such situation, you need to be veryclear about your roles and limitations and maintainprofessionalism to deal with the situation tactfully.

4) The social worker should respect human diversity

As a para-professional, you should not discriminate theclient on the basis of his/her cultural background,religion, sex, physical and intellectual abilities. Forexample a worker is dealing with a client who belongsto a minority community. It is not appropriate for aprofessional social worker if he/she starts avoiding theclient by not visiting his/her family fearing negativereaction from the rest of the community. The socialworker is expected to respect every client as humanbeing without any judgemental attitude. A socialworker must appreciate the variations within any group.He should avoid making assumptions about any oneperson’s cultural identity, beliefs, or values on the basisof the person’s external characteristics or membershipin a particular population or demographic group.

5) The social worker should challenge socialinjustice

Social worker believes that every individual has certainbasic rights, such as those spelt out in the constitution,and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights issuedby the United Nations. All members have the same basicrights, protection, opportunities, obligations and socialbenefits. Therefore, a social worker must be alwaysprepared to do the needful to contribute to social justiceby fighting social injustice.



6) The social worker should seek to enhanceprofessional competence

A social worker should not sit aside by assuming thathe/she knows each and everything on any issue underthe sun. He/she should update his/her knowledge byinteracting with wide range of people, seeking ideasfrom available and updated literature and through allmeans of communication including the web. He/sheshould also keep himself/herself up-to-date with newconcepts and theories by attending workshops,conferences, refresher courses and participation insocial and academic deliberations. In fact everyprofession demand that the professionals must keepthemselves well informed. Social work professionals arenot exempted either.

Principles that Focus on Individual Clients and ClientGroups1) The social worker should do no harmAs a social worker, you should work towards bringingabout change in the lives of your clients. Therefore youshould develop programmes or activities in such amanner that they do not underestimate the client’sfeelings and positive life styles. Your main focus shouldbe the care and welfare of your clients.

2) The social worker should engage in knowledge-guided practice

A professional social worker is expected to equiphimself/herself with the latest and most professionalknowledge while dealing with the clientle group.Therefore, a worker should not deal with the clientwithout adequate study and analysis of the problem in

the present day context. He/she should carefully studysimilar conditions and intervention approaches to thatcondition. This is very essential in the Indian contextwhere we have numerous groups with social, culturaland geographic diversity.

3) The social worker should engage in value-guidedand ethical practice

Every human being has his/her own values and workon those values. A social worker must always try torecognize the client’s value system to bring aboutchange in his/her situation. He/she should not imposehis/her beliefs on his/her clients. The social workermust recognize that values are powerful forces in humanbehaviour and be guided by values of social workprofession.

4) The social worker should be concerned with thewhole person

As a social worker you should deal with the wholeperson including one’s biological. psychological, socialand spiritual aspects instead of studying onedimension of the problem. You should look at theclient’s problem from past, present and futureperspectives. For example a child is arrested in acriminal case. The worker studies past history of thechild, the family background, friendship circle etc. inaddition to some of the factors that might havecontributed to make him/her a criminal. As a workeryou should also be focusing on present situation andthe future consequences from various angles. Theworker should also focus on both the short-term andlong-term implications of the change process for the



client and other people who may be affected by theclient’s behaviour.

5) Social worker should serve the most vulnerablemembers of society

A number of programmes have been initiated and thepolicies have been formulated for the vulnerable sectionof the society both by the national government andUnited Nations. However, several vulnerable sectionsare unable to benefit from such provisions. Therefore asocial worker must do work for this section and shouldfight for their rights to bring about social change andsocial justice. The social worker must do advocacy forthe people who are poor, mentally or physicallydisabled, those from a minority race or culture, andwho otherwise are treated as devalued. They often facespecial challenges of discrimination, ostracism, andneglect by the dominant society while struggling tobring about social change.

6) The social worker should treat the client withdignity

Every individual deserves to be treated with dignity,regard and respect. A social worker should accept theclient as he/she really is, including his/her strengthsand weaknesses, his/her positive and negative feelings,attitudes and behaviour with a non-judgementalattitude. This does not mean that you should approveevery behaviour of a client. The social worker must treatthe client as a person who is valued and deserves tomaintain his/her dignity throughout the period ofhelping process. The social worker’s non-judgmentalattitude helps the clients to overcome the common fearof being judged by others. This will enable in developing

positive helping relationship rather than defensiveaction on part of the client.

7) The social worker should individualize the client

Individualization is the recognition and understandingof each client’s unique qualities and the differentialuse of principles and methods in assisting each onetowards better adjustment and participate in thechanging process. A social worker must treat his/herclient not merely as a human being but a human beingwith his/her personal differences. The social workermust individualize the client, because for every clientthe situation and problem may be unique. What workswith one client may not work with another.

8) The social worker should consider clientsexpertise on their lives

A social worker may have great extent of theoreticalknowledge of human functioning. However he/she maynot know the actual situation of the client. Thereforein a helping relationship he/she should consult theclient, who is the primary experts on his/her life. Theclient knows about himself/herself much better thanthe worker. In fact, the worker is not expected to knowall about his/her client. The client may prefer to keepcertain information to himself/herself and may notshare all facts.

For example a worker may try to motivate a client totake up a job which might involve night shift. The clientmay have limitation at his/her home includingrelationships with spouse, children, aged parents etc.In such situation rather than imposing his/her idea,



the worker must try to understand the circumstancesin which client lives.

9) The social worker should lend vision to the client

In the helping process, a worker gives positive hopeand a clear vision to deal with the present problem ofthe client. Worker may introduce the client to new andbetter ways to cope up with the situation. However theworker should not forget to let the client becomefamiliar with the limits while offering new perspectives.It is essential to note that the clients are not givenfalse hopes. The social worker must be realistic andhonest about limits and possibilities while offering newperspectives, encouragement, support, and techniquesfor social change.

10) The social worker should build on client strengths

Every individual has some weaknesses and strengths.A worker should not resort to negative way of thinking.Worker should try to understand the strengths, abilitiesand potentials of the client. For example in the case ofa disabled client, the worker must address his/herabilities instead of thinking that he/she is a disabledand can do only limited activities. You should realizethat it is the client’s abilities and potentials that aremost important in helping to bring about desiredchanges.

11) The social worker should maximize clientparticipation

A social worker must encourage the client to give his/her full participation so that a meaningful and longlasting change can take place. A meaningful change

will occur only if the client understands the need forchange and is willing and able to take action. In orderto enhance client participation, the social worker should‘do with the client’ and not “to” or “for” the client.

12) The social worker should maximize client’s self-determination

A social worker should give freedom to the client forstimulation and to think independently and rationallyon his/her own problematic situation and arrive at adecision, for himself/herself. The client is capable andlegally competent to make decisions in relation to selfand others. However, it is easier said than done. Inorder to reach this stage, a worker has to consciouslywork with the client for a considerable length of time.The job of the worker is to enable the client to explorealternatives as well as analyze the implications ofoutcomes.

13) The social worker should help the client learnself-directed problem-solving skills

To make the client independent and self-reliant, aworker must help the client learn self-directed andproblem-solving skills. By learning these skills a clientcan cope up easily with his/her day to day problemswithout having dependency on the worker. For examplethe social worker should teach their clients how toidentify and make use of resources such as familymembers, relatives, friends, employer, service clubs etc.that might be found in their immediate environment.



14) The social worker should maximize clientempowerment

In our Indian society one can easily find out the victimsof various forms of discrimination and oppression. It isnot possible for a social worker to be availableeverywhere and every time with a client to save him/her from such practices. Therefore, it is necessary toempower the client to fight against such discriminationand to manage future situations on one’s own. For thisthe social work should make efforts to help people gaincontrol over their lives and circumstances, to obtainthe much needed information and resources, to developskills needed to make the decisions, take the actionsnecessary to attain a higher level of self-reliance andmodify one’s social and political environment. In orderto empower a client, a social worker should placeemphasis on encouraging, teaching, facilitating,collaborating and sharing decision making within theprofessional relationship.

15) The social worker should protect clientconfidentiality

Confidentiality is essential to professional relationship.It is the foundation for any therapeutics relationshipwith a client. Therefore worker should keep confidentialthe information which is being shared by the client.Sharing such information unnecessarily with outsiderscan easily break worker client relationship. Only aprofessionally qualified worker can practice thisprinciple in letter and spirit. For example the socialworker must be cautions regarding what informationis placed in agency files, and care must be taken inpreparing clerical staff employed in the agency to

respect the confidential nature of any materials theymay type, file or inadvertently overhear. The socialworker must carefully plan the location of interviews toprotect confidential information and should not discussall information during professional consultations withother people and service organizations.

16) The social worker should adhere to thephilosophy of normalization

A worker should not discriminate and isolate a clientwho is mentally or physically weak. This will createbarrier for the client in gaining social acceptance.Worker should treat a differently abled client as he/she treats other clients so that he/she should not feelhimself/herself a different person.

17) The social worker should continuously evaluatethe progress of the change process

Evaluation is an appraisal or judgment of the worthand effectiveness of the process designed to meet thedesired objectives. A worker should continuouslymonitor and evaluate the progress of the changeprocess. Evaluation enables the worker to discover towhat extent objectives have been achieved. Well plannedevaluation helps the worker to formulate new objectivesand to eliminate unsuited objectives.

18) The social worker should be accountable toclients, agency, community, and the social workprofession

In social work practice a social worker should beaccountable not only to the client but also to all those



associated with the client, particularly to the agencyand the community.

Though the worker should attempt to be accountableto all the parties, the client should be given utmostpriority. Social workers are obligated to give their bestservice to all the clients at all times. They must beaccountable to those individuals, families and groupsthey directly serve. Social workers must be accountableto their employing organizations by carrying out theirwork as effectively and efficiently as possible. Theexistence of a professional monopoly demands that themembers of a profession are also accountable to thecommunity and to the profession itself.

Communication Skills for Social WorkersBasic communication skills are essential for almostevery job or relationship one pursues. Similarly in socialwork profession too, a professional will have to interactwith the clients, whether the client is an individual, afamily, a small group, an organization or a community.The professional has to communicate in such a mannerthat another person can understand it clearly.Communication is a process where one individualconveys information to another either intentionally orunintentionally. It depends on whether a personperceives a message in the words or bahviour of another.Communication can be verbal or non-verbal in nature.It is to get across what one really means to anotherperson. The lack of proper communication is a commoncause of problems within families, organizations andother social systems. Generally, communicationproblems develop under different circumstances:

Often speak for others rather than letting themspeak for themselves.

Often one does not listen to what others say.

Often one keeps things to oneself because of fearthat others will disapprove of what he/she believesand feels.

Sometimes one assumes that others know, orshould know what one thinks and how one feels.

Sometimes one allows prejudices, stereotypes, andpresumptions to modify whal others say.

Sometimes one keeps silent fearing that he/shedoes not have anything worthwhile to say.

At times one suppresses communication byordering, threatening, preaching. patronizing,judging or blaming.

It is also important to recognize that a person’sethnicity, gender, religion, and socioeconomic statuscan also have a significant impact, on communication.Let us briefly describe some of the important aspectsSheafor and Horejsi have written about basiccommunication and helping skills in their work:“Techniques and guidelines for social work practice”.For more details, you may like to read the original work(Sixth edition).

Basic Communication and Helping Skills

1) Creating an Effective Helping Relationship

Relationship is the channel through which the capacityof a client is made possible. It is also the medium



through which a client is enabled to state his/herproblem and through which attention can be focusedon problems. In a helping relationship client andworker meet with the purpose of the intervention. Insuch meetings the client is being encouraged to makethe much needed change. However, doing so is notvery easy and can prove to be stressful for the client, tosome degree. The key characteristic of a helpingrelationship include:

Empathy

It refers to the ability of entering into another person’smental state and to feel the latter’s feelings.Empathizing with a person in a predicament involvesthe imaginative viewing of the situation as he/she seesit, understanding his/her feelings and transferring tooneself those particular feelings.

Positive regard

The client must be treated by a worker, as a person ofinherent worth and capable of positive change. He/she must be given respect, regardless of appearance,behaviour, life circumstances, or reason for becominga client. To judge the rightness and wrongness of otherpeople’s behviour, positive regards are very important.Keeping a judgmental attitude is a major barrier formaintaining effective helping relationship.

Warmthness

In personal warmth, a social worker responds to clientsin such ways that make them feel safe and accepted. Itis mostly a non-verbal communication which isexpressed in the form of smile, a soft and soothing voice,

appropriate eye contact, and gestures that conveyacceptance and openness.

Genuineness

It refers to a worker being himself/herself or being real.Whatever he/she says matches what he/she does.When a professional has a negative feeling toward aclient’s behaviour, he/she may exercise self-disciplineso it does not damage the professional relationship orharm the client.

2) Verbal Communication Skills

The ability to speak clearly and concisely, and to conveyinformation or articulate an opinion is very essential.Generally a social worker makes frequent use of twobroad categories of communication skills:

Those intended to facilitate interpersonal helpingand

Those intended to facilitate the exchanges ofinformation within an agency, between agencies,and among professionals.

The foundation of good communication stated bySheafor and Horejsi, are:

A willingness to understand that every humanbeing is unique: consequently, each personexperiences and perceives events and interpersonalexchanges in a unique manner. Thus, a workershould anticipate some degree of misunderstandingand take steps to minimize the problems ofmiscommunication.



A willingness and desire to organize one’s thoughtsand present one’s message in a way that will makeit easy for others to follow and understand.

A willingness to listen carefully to other people andto lower your defenses so that you can hear andunderstand what others say.

A willingness to take responsibility for one’sstatements and behaviours.

A willingness to take the time needed tocommunicate effectively.

While listening or receiving a message, the workershould remember some points:

Stop talking. You cannot listen if you are doing allthe talking.

Demonstrate verbally and nonverbally that youwant to listen. Show your attention. Let the personknow that you care for what he/she is trying tosay.

Be gentle and make allowances for poor behaviour.Try to be calm and to use tact, even if the impairedperson is loud or abusive. Try to respond to anynegative statements with understanding commentsuntil the angry outburst ends. Sometimes theperson will say things that hurt you very much,will use language that offends you, or will speak ina way you do not like. At these times, it is importantto remember that, while these things do hurt, theyare not meant personally and exclusively to hurtyou.

Do not interrupt. Be patient with the messagesender.

Ask questions if needed, to clarify his/her message.

Put the message sender at ease. Removedistractions while getting the message.

When sending a message remember to:

Make use of clear and simple language, speakdistinctly and not too fast.

Do not overload the receiver with information.

Maintain appropriate eye contact and utilizegestures.

Ask for comments, questions or feedback to knowwhether you are being understood properly.

3) Nonverbal Communication Skills

Messages conveyed by means of facial expressions, eyemovements, gestures and voice qualities such as tone,pitch and resonance, comes in the circle of non-verbalcommunication that mainly occurs during a face-to-face exchange. Observing nonverbal behaviour may alsotell the worker what the client is saying in words trulyreflects his/her thoughts and feelings.

Eye-contacts

Eyes reveal much about our emotional state and oursensitivity to and understanding of the immediatesituation.



Gestures of Greeting

The social worker must be alert to cultural differenceswhile using gestures of greeting. For example, a firmhandshake suggests aggression for people from Asiaand Middle East. Among the people of Japan andThailand, bowing is the appropriate gesture while inIndia greeting with folded hands are common.

Body Positioning

It conveys various attitudes and intentions. Facing aclient at a 90 degree angle suggests safety and opennesswhile facing directly may communicate aggressiveness.Leaning slightly towards the client shows interests andacceptance.

Facial Expressions and other Movements

It is often facial expressions that reveal a worker’sdisapproval of a client, even when the worker is tryinghard to be nonjudgmental. Smiling, frowning, noddingand shaking the head and lip quivering convey ourthoughts and emotions. Crossed legs, arms foldedacross the chest, and body rigidity usually showsdefensiveness, while arms and hands at the body’s sideor in an outreached position suggest openness toothers.

Tone of Voice, Dress and Appearance

A loud, forceful tone suggests aggressiveness, controland strength while a monotonous or flat voice suggestslack of interest. Similarly, dressing is also one of theimportant forms of non-verbal communication. A socialworker must give careful thought to his/her choice of

clothing and hairstyle. He should wear the dressaccording to the situation. For example dress acceptableto adolescent clients may be offensive to elder clients.Sometimes, it may also be appropriate to consultsupervisors for guidance on such issues.

4) Helping Skills

Helping skill means a message conveyed by thepractitioner to the client which will have a beneficialeffect on the client’s thinking, feeling and behaviour.These basic skills have been explained by Sheafor andHorejsi, in the following points:

Getting Ready

Before a meeting with the client, the worker shouldimagine what the client might be thinking or feeling.By anticipating such thoughts a worker mentallyprepares 10 address the client’s initial feelings suchas anger, fear, confusion etc. and identify ways toinitiate the client into the helping relationship.

Getting Started

The worker must clarify the purpose of the meetingand worker’s role during the intake and engagementphase of the change process and also at the beginningof each session with the client. Each session with aclient has three time phases:

i) getting started

ii) the central work of the session, and

iii) drawing the session to a close.



Asking Questions

A social worker uses various types of questions to getinformation from the client and assist in expressinghis/her thoughts and feelings. He/she uses open andclosed ended questions. During a counseling session,a worker usually asks open- ended questions. A socialworker should remember that instead of asking why,use questions that focus on the what, where, whenand how of the client’s behaviour and situation.

Active Listening

In active listening a worker attends both the verbal aswell as non verbal communication of the client and getback to the client in order to let him/her know thathis/her message has been accurately understood.Encouragement, clarification, paraphrase, reflection,summarization, and exploring silence are some of theskills of active listening.

An encourager refers to single words, short phrasesand non-verbal gestures that encourage the client tocontinue talking. Clarification refers to asking aquestion designed to encourage a client to become moreexplicit. The skill known as paraphrase is a rephrasingof the literal meaning of the client’s statement, whereasthe skill termed reflection of feeling is an expression ofthe feeling or emotional component of the message.The skill of summarization refers to pulling togetherthe content and affective components of severalmessages while exploring the client’s silence refers toefforts to gently probe the silence. For example if theclient is in a thoughtful silence, the worker breaks thesilence by saying: “you appear to be puzzled over

something”. Can you tell me what you are thinkingabout? If the silence is a long one, the worker shouldattempt to explore the silence.

Three important skills to be remembered in this contextare:

Displaying understanding skill means verbal andnon-verbal communication intended to demonstratethat the social worker comprehends and can identifywith the client’s thoughts and feelings.

The skill of putting the client’s feelings into wordsrefers to the articulation of what the client is feelingbut has stopped just short of expressing in words.

Self-disclosure refers to a worker’s statements thatreveal some of his or her own thoughts, feelings, orlife experiences. As a general rule, a social workershould avoid the use of self-disclosure in the earlystages of relationship building and sparingly atother times.

While dealing with the client, it is very important toincrease or sustain a client’s motivation in order to makechange in the current behaviour or situation.

The skill which are helpful in a change process include:Skill of partialization: This means breaking down ainsolvable problem into smaller and manageable parts.Skill of staying on track: This refers to keeping theclient’s attention focused on a specific concern. Inaddition to this, skill of building a communication link,in which worker builds a connection between the clientand the person with whom he/she wants tocommunicate: skill of challenging the client’s avoidance



of change which points out the client’s resistance, andskill of identifying emotional blocks in the way ofprogress are some of the important ones used by aworker.

5) The I-StatementI-Statement makes it possible to send a clear, directmessage and reduce the chance that the personreceiving the message will be put on the defensive. It isvery useful in conflicting situations as it allows thesender to express disappointment, anger, or frustrationwhile minimizing the chance that the discussion willturn into a fruitless argument.Most of the time we send the messages with statementssuch as “you should wash your cloths”, “you should dohard work” or giving orders e.g. “you better forget thatidea and take my advice” and most disturbing form isthe “if-then-threat i.e.” “if you will not follow me...., thenI will...” The idea of a sender may be to bring about aneeded change in title behaviour of another person,but it usually ends up creating added resistance tochange. Instead of using your statement, worker shouldmake use of 1-statement, which does not accuse orblame. For example “this is how I feel”, I trust you, todecide what step should be taken in this case” etc.6) Understanding emotions and feelings and

responding to defensive communicationA social worker deals with different type of clients withdifferent problems. He/she should have the ability toaccurately read and tune in to human emotions andfeelings. While dealing with the client, a worker mayfind the client who is very confused, frightened, or overwhelmed by their emotions. Sometimes it may be

possible that client does not express his/her feelingsin a healthy manner. Therefore a worker must be ableto discuss the nature of emotions in ways that clientsunderstand and in ways that help clients learn how togain greater control over troublesome feelings andemotions.Sometimes, a client may use a number of defencemechanisms to keep a social worker at a distance andto avoid or minimize the interaction because he/she isangry, fearful or somehow feel threatened or may notlike worker’s behaviour or style. Some of the defencemechanisms generally used by a client include: denial,projection, blaming, labelling, avoidance, helplessness,using crisis or distraction or being fragile. A socialworker can reduce a client’s defensiveness by resortingto the following guidelines.i) The worker should try to know what might be the

client’s underlying fear: what makes him/her tofeel threatened and try to remove that cause. Bean active listener and make it as easy as possiblefor your client to verbalize feelings.

ii) A worker must be tolerant to his/her client’sdefensive behaviour as there may be a past historyassociated with present behaviour such as rejectionby parent. breakup of one’s family, separation fromloved ones or a frightening event like major personalproblem, family violence, or a life-threateningillness.

iii) A worker should use mirroring techniques withsuch clients. He/she should speak at the client’space and in a manner that matches his/hernonverbal bahviour.



iv) A worker should use the words and phrases thatmatch the client’s dominant mode of receivinginformation, which are visual, auditory and touch.For example. “Do you have a clear picture of what Iam suggesting”? (visual). “Is this plan ok for you”(auditory) or “I think the plan you have suggestedis one we can both get hold of” (touch). The clientshould be given opportunities to make choices andremain in control of what is happening in his/herlife. A worker always uses words such as we, us,together etc. with the client.

v) Never label or categorize your client. Arrange youroffice and your own sealing position in such a waythat client does not feel trapped.

vi) ln some situations where it is critically importantto engage the resistant client as in case of a childabuse, a worker need to be assertive and dealdirectly with the issue. If your client uses abusivelanguage, you need not to be aggressive, but remaincalm and do not respond in ways that mightreinforce the behaviour.

7) Elements of professional behaviour and makingethical decisions

For a social worker it is very important to continuallyexamine his/her performance to check whether theirbehviour is of a professional nature. A professional mayhave the following professional behviour:i) A social worker should be committed to his/her

professional values and actions. His/her practiceis based on a body of knowledge learned through aprocess of formal education and training anddecisions on facts, analysis, and critical thinking.

ii) He/she makes use of profession’s values, principlesand code of ethics to identify and resolve ethicalissues. He/she updates his/her knowledge andskills continually in order to improve services tothe client and keeps accurate and complete recordsof decisions and actions.

iii) His/her primary concern is the well being andneeds of the client instead of meeting his/her ownneeds within work-related relationships. He/shedevelops a purposeful and goal orientedrelationship with the client.

iv) A social worker tries to understand the root causeof client’s problem, his/her frustration and anger,but do not take his/her expressions of negativeemotion personally. He/she keeps his/heremotions under control and exercises self-discipline. In addition to this, a social workerclarifies ethical issues and makes practice choicesthat are consistent with social work’s ethicalprinciples and professional values.

8) Cross - cultural helpingAnother point which is worth mentioning here is that,a social worker must be very sensitive to the significanceof cultural differences in the helping process. He/shemust be alert to the existence of prejudice, includinghis/her own, and constantly assess, modify, andsuspend his/her prejudices so that these beliefs donot lead to discrimination or in any way, cause them toharm their clients. He/she must be alert to theexistence of institutional discrimination and beprepared to address and combat it, lest it affects theirclients negatively.



Guidelines for Agency PracticeA student of social work has to do field work usually inan agency/organizational set up. After completion ofthe programme of study, most of the students opt forworking in organizations where they struggle with twointerrelated sets of tasks i.e. managing the time andmanaging the required office related work. In anyagency setting a worker may be expected to carry outdocumentation (including paper work or related clericalassignment, recording etc.), communicate eitherdirectly or indirectly with the client, send letters to theconcerned persons, do report writing and other similartasks.

During the period of education and training in socialwork, a student is expected to do substantial amountof writings which are aimed at helping him/her to bean efficient report writer. Apart from his/her regularresponse to the assignments and exercises under“check your progress” questions, he/she is alsoexpected to write his/her field diary and field workjournal regularly. A social worker will also be engagedin writing reports and preparing other documents bothin the agency and as part of his/her learning activities.Therefore a social worker will be getting extensiveexposure for engaging in several activities which willhelp him/her to master skills that are required forworking with an agency. In the following pages, let usbriefly discuss some of the essential guidelines foragency practice described by Sheafor and Horejsi.

1) Report Writing

It is mandatory for a social worker to write reports. A

report can be anything from the two-line hand writtenmemo to a bound volume with hundreds of closely typedpages. It may deal with the client system, interventions,survey report, case study, or fate of the nationaleconomy and be read by government officials or it maybe read by other agency officials, media personnel, aswell as social work professionals. The key principle ofreport writing could hardly be simpler. It is a questionof identifying the key facts of a particular matter, andthen presenting them in the right order as simply anddirectly as possible. Writing a report may involvelaborious research, narration of facts and figures topresent the gathered information in an effective andmeaningful way. But it is almost always worth the effort.A report that is inaccurate, incomplete or unclear,creates misunderstanding. The quality of report canbe improved by following the guidelines explained bySheafor and Horejsi:

i) Before doing any writing, you must analyze whothe readers will be and what information they needand expect. Always think how the readers willinterpret your words or perhaps misinterpret whatyou have written.

ii) Determine the type of format and writing style thatare appropriate for the report. For example, is aformal and highly organized report needed, or is amore informal, memorandum-type formatappropriate? As a general rule, a more formal typeof report writing is required for interagencycommunication whereas memos are acceptable forcommunication within an agency or organization.



iii) Organize the information to be presented into alogical structure, before you begin to write.Construct an outline that include the main topicand the various subtopics. Present your ideas inan orderly way to make the reader understand yourmessage.

iv) Use the number of words which are necessary. Usesimple, clear and direct language. Avoid words thathave different meanings in different contexts. Alsoavoid using slang phrases that might offend thereader.

v) Keep your sentences short, usually 15-20 wordsor less. Use the active voice whenever possible andgive special attention to paragraph construction.Each paragraph should focus on a single idea.

vi) Do not use weak and evasive language such as “Itseems as though” and “there is some reason forbelieving”. Such phrases give the impression thatwhether the writer is not sure of what to say ordoes not want to take responsibility for what isbeing said. Another point to remember is that thewriter should avoid wishy-washy language. Forexample, instead of saying. “I feel placement isnecessary” the writer must say “I believe placementis necessary” or simply “I recommend placementfor this person”. This reflects the professionalcompetence and confidence of ten writer.

vii) Be sure of what you are trying to say beforeproducing the final version. Also read the draftaloud: if it does not sound right, revise it. Youshould be committed to your ideas and not to your

words. The more you revise, the better would bethe final report.

viii) Take help of dictionary if you are not confident aboutthe meaning of a word. correct spelling, whether aword should be capitalized, how the word shouldhe divid ed at the end of a line. correct punctuationi.e. hyphens, accents, and whether a hyphen shouldbe used in a compound word.

ix) With the advancement of technology and its useacross the board, it is very important for a socialworker to be familiar with computer as computerprograms now include a thesaurus, spelling checks,and grammar checks which are needed in writing.

2) Letter Writing

Letter writing is very essential. A well constructed lettercan help you to improve and develop your relationshipwith the client. Sheafor and Horejsi, have suggestedsome points for good letter writing.

i) Plan carefully before writing a letter. Your imageas a professional is shaped by the appearance andquality of your letters.

ii) A professional letter should contain the parts suchas: letterhead, date, inside address, reference lineor subject line, salutation, body, typed signature(name), and written signature.

iii) Proper titles such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms., Dr., Prof.,Your Excellency, Your Eminance, Your Lordship,etc. should be properly used.



iv) Do not include material that would violateconfidentiality if read by persons other than theintended recipient of the letter. In India it isacceptable to mention on top of the letterhead/over the envelop “confidential”.

v) You should be alert to the fact that an agency’sname and address on an envelope may reveal theclient’s involvement with an agency.

vi) The person who receives your letter should feel thathe/she is dealing with a real person and not animpersonal representative of an organization.Therefore you should humanize and personalizeyour letter, especially to clients.

vii) Revise and polish all drafts of letters and proofreadthe final version.

viii) Complaint letter should be written with directness,clarity and authority. While you are angry orfrustrated while writing such letter, do not send iton the same day. After one or two days, reconsiderwhat and how you have said, and how it is likely tobe perceived by the recipient. This may prevent youfrom saying something that will cause regret later.

ix) You should remember to keep a copy of all lettersfor agency files. Use certified or registered mailwhen necessary to document that a letter wasdelivered.

x) It is possible that several replies could be in theform of e-mails. Always keep a print out of the samein the appropriate files.

3) Talking on the telephone

When quick response is needed, telephone is a goodsource and your voice is your sole means ofcommunicating over the telephone. Even so, watch yourbody language and facial expression – they affect theway you sound. For improving telephonecommunication, follow the underlying guidelines:

i) Use the normal speaking voice because the personat the receiving end is not able to observe yourbody language. The entire communication will beby your voice. If you slump, for example, you oftenwill sound tired or breathless. To keep a bright tonein your voice, smile when talking on the phone.

ii) Do not answer phone in a rush. Pause a moment,take a deep breath, and then breathe out slowly asyou pick up the receiver. You will sound morerelaxed. If you recognize the other person’s voice,use his/her name in your greeting. Use it gainduring the conversation and when parting. Withthe advancement in communication network, youare also able to identify the caller ID both onlandline as well as on a mobile.

iii) Identity yourself by name. organization anddepartment while receiving or making calls. Jotdown the major points you wish to cover beforeplacing the call. Take notes while on the phoneand summarize the information you intended toconvey and the information you received beforeputting down the phone.

iv) Whenever talking to a person, interject brief



comments at intervals like ‘OK’. ‘Yes’. ‘I see’ or ‘Iunderstand’. This will make the caller realize thatyou are listening. Steer your caller to the main pointif he/she gets sidetracked.

v) Master the skills of using your agency’s phonesystem such as transferring calls, using voice mail,and similar tasks. When transferring calls to otherlines, let callers know what you are doing: Tell themthe name and title of the person lo whom they willbe speaking and why you are transferring their call.When you may like to leave the phone for a while,explain why: “please hold on for a few seconds whileI get that file”. Unless you are sure you will be awayfor only a few moments, tell your caller that youwill call back. If you have left the phone, alert yourcaller to your return call before resuming theconversation: “Hello” or “Thanks for waiting” or “Ihave that file now”.

vi) Do not receive the phone, if you are busy, talkingto another caller.

vii) Whenever leaving a message, keep it short by tellingyour name, phone number, reason for calling andsuggest them to return your call on a specific time.If you want to save your time rather than waitingfor the call it is better to call him/her again.

viii) It is unethical to answer or call people whileconsuming food/drinks. You can politely tell thecaller “excuse me for a while” and get back to thecaller once you are comfortable.

4) Using information technology and maintainingcase notes for narrative recording

A social worker must have knowledge of Informationtechnology. He/she should be skilled in the use of wordprocessing, spreadsheets, database programs,computerized assessment instruments, researchrelated software online resources and internetresources. Now a days most of the organizations/institutions embrace new technology to get the workdone fast. It is easy for a social worker to get latestinformation on various topics through internet. Onecan find related articles and books on line. On linelibrary facility can also be accessed by a social worker.Besides potential benefits, a social worker must beaware about the dangers associated with thistechnology. Sometimes it can be misused such as therisk to confidential information when transmittedelectronically. Therefore, a social worker must knowhow to use it in an appropriate and responsible manner.Another issue to discuss is narrative recording whichis used by certain organizations because of theirflexibility. A worker writes into records, the things whichare important. For example:

i) The worker creates many handwritten notes andthen, after weeks or even months reviews thosenotes and prepare a summary of his/her works withthe client.

ii) The handwritten notes record the day-to-dayactions and activities related to a specific case (e.g.“Mr. A, B’s teacher, called to say...”) and help theworker keep track of what has happened. Some



notes are merely reminders (e.g. “Contact Mr. Cand request”.)

After taking all the information, the worker does theentry into the agency record. Though this method isvery time consuming and many organizations havemoved towards using brief progress notes, computerassisted systems and other structured and conciseformats are in use.

5) Process Recording

Process recording is a detailed form of recording oftenused to assist students and new workers in learningpractice skills. It is also used when a worker is havingunusual problems with a client and wants to create arecord that can be examined by his/her peers,supervisors, or consultants as basis for makingsuggestions on how the worker might overcome theproblems.

Some of the components that can be included in processrecording include:

i) Name of those in attendance at interview or meeting

ii) Date, location, length and purpose of the session.

iii) Students plan for session.

iv) Description of interaction and content – such as:

a) How session began and what were thesignificant exchanges during the session by theclient and by the student as well.

b) Specific topics discussed, decisions reached andplans made.

c) New facts and information obtained by thestudent: mood and feeling tone of session; andhow session or meeting ended.

v) Student’s role and activities during session andtechniques and skills used by the student.

vi) Student’s assessment of client’s concern, situation,or problem and client’s current response andreactions to student social worker and to thehelping process.

vii) Student’s assessment of his/her own performanceduring the session e.g. problems encountered,strengths and limitations.

viii) Student’s plan for the next meeting or interviewwith the client.

Though process recording is a time consuming activity,it is one of the best teaching tools. Audio or videotaperecordings are, in many respects superior to processrecording as a teaching tool but it is not possible formany organizations to have video equipment: even ifthey do, it requires that an interview should take placein a studio atmosphere to escape background noise.

6) Managing Time at WorkMost social workers are engaged in too much of workto complete within a time frame. Therefore, timemanagement is of utmost importance. Some of theguidelines are:

i) Organize yourself. Understand your agency’smission and your job description. If you are notclear about your assignments and responsibilities,



discuss with your supervisor. Set priority for yourtasks and assignments.

ii) Recognize that in order to be effective and efficient,your job must be consistent with your personal andprofessional values, goals and style. You and yourcolleagues can be frustrated if there is mismatchbetween what your agency expects from you andwhat you can do.

iii) Prepare a list of things-to-do and give estimatedtime to complete each task on the list. Anticipatedeadlines, and tackle lengthy tasks before thosethat can he completed in a short time. Work on themost difficult task when your energy level is high(e.g. morning time) and reserve some time at theend of each day for clearing your desk.

iv) Plan your work and set priorities. You can alsodevelop daily and weekly plans. You can also planyour tasks into different categories such as tasksthat must be completed today: tasks that shouldbe started today; and tasks that can wait for a fewdays. You can also change your prioritiesaccordingly.

v) Do not delay the things. Do not leave work fortomorrow. Plan for the unexpected. Allow time inyour schedule for emergencies. Make decisions ina timely manner. If you are afraid of makingmistakes, you are likely to delay making decisions.When you make a mistake, learn from it instead ofrepeating the same.

vi) Keep, up to date, your agency’s policy andprocedures. Insert the new information on time and

discard the old. You must develop a system for thestorage and fast retrieval of frequently usedinformation (e.g e-mail address, telephonenumbers. mailing address of professionals andagencies you contact frequently).

vii) Limit the time spent in meetings by properlydefining the purpose; attend only for the timeneeded to make your contribution; start on timeand end on time: Evaluate the success of themeeting and agree on necessary changes in futuremeetings.

viii) You can save your time by scheduling all meetingsin a given locality for the same day.

ix) Keep the things, you are working on in front ofyou and clear your desk of other materials. Avoidjumping from one task to another. Focus on onething at a lime until you either finish the task orreach a preset time limit for that activity.

x) Do not let papers pile up on your desk. If you pickup a paper/report/request, take action or discardit if no action is to be taken. Learn to use officemachines and communications systems, such asword processor, email, fax, computer etc. It willincrease your efficiency.

xi) If you find some kind of training will be useful foryou to increase your knowledge and skills, approachyour employer for a specific training you need. Youcan also take their suggestions for how to reducethe time spent writing agency records and routinereports. Try to communicate with accuracy and haveclarity in your writing and your speech.



xii) Do not try to compensate for someone else’sincompetence. Avoid being drawn into doing otherpeople’s work. Remember to keep track of how youspend each day and week and analyze how muchtime you save.

7) Controlling WorkloadYou as a social worker can be placed in the organizationwhere you will be assigned a number of tasks.Sometime due to shortage of staff or incompetence ofother staff vou may have to do additional work. To controlan ever-growing workload, say no to additional workassignments or ask other staff for their assistance.Sometimes you do not say no to your boss in order toavoid conflict or feeling guilty and say yes to anadditional work. Nevertheless, you must takeresponsibility for managing your workload and thisrequires saying no to some requests. Some of theguidelines are:

i) Decide if the proposed assignment or request foryour time is reasonable, given your jobdescription and current workload. Ask yourself: Isthis is a matter of high priority? Am I responsiblefor this matter or is someone else? If I say ‘yes’, will1 soon regret it and feel angry and put upon? Am Itempted to say ‘yes’ mainly because I want to avoida conflict or the appearance of selfishness?

ii) When unsure, if the request is reasonable, obtainmore information before saying yes or no. If still indoubt, ask for time to think about the request andset a deadline for making the decision (e.g. “I’ll letyou know in half an hour”).

iii) If you must refuse, say firmly and calmly. It may beappropriate for you to give a straight forwardexplanation of why you said no, but do so withoutsaying “I’m sorry” or offering excuse andrationalizations. If you have a good reason forrefusing. there is no need to apologize.

If you want to take assistance of others, explain whyyou are taking his/her help. However, if your requestis rejected, accept the answer graciously and respondby saying “I understand”. “I know you have to do yourwork also” etc. You can also ask the person, if you cantake his/her help at a later time or date.

ConclusionThe decisions and actions of social workers influence alarge number of populations either directly or indirectly.Social workers are delivering a wide variety of servicesdirectly to clients while working in hospitals, civiccourts, schools, private practice, businesses and amyriad of social agencies. They are working towardspositive community and social changes. The wholesociety benefits from social workers activities becauseimproving the quality of life for an individual, a family,or the people of community will ultimately have animpact on the general society. It elevate the health,happiness, safety, standard of life, and productivity ofall its members.

The purpose of a social interaction with the clientdetermine the types of relationship a worker attemptsto develop. He/she provides direct services, develops aprofessional relationship, and help them out from thedifficult circumstances, keeping the basic principles,



knowledge and skill in mind. In this chapter we havepresented some of the most important guidingprinciples, communication skills and skills essentiallor agency practice.

References

Sheafor. Bradford W. and Horejsi, Charles R. (2003),Techniques and Guidelines for Social Work Practice.Allyn and Bacon.Publishers, New York.

Hepworth, Dean H.. Rooney, Ronald H., and Larsen JoAnn (2002). Direct Social Work Practice: Theory andSkills, Wadsworth Publication.

Kirst - Ashman and Jr. Grafteon H. Hull. (2001),Generalist Practice with Oganizations & Communities.Wadsworth Publication.

Brend Dubois and Karia Krogsrud Milay (1991), SocialWork – An Empowering Profession. Allyn and BaconPublishers, New York.

9Models and Modes of Social Work

Supervision*Patricia Lager

IntroductionThe field work experience provides an opportunity forstudents to integrate the basic knowledge acquiredthrough coursework into the real world of practicethrough a supervision process. Although theacquisition of basic knowledge about human behaviour,social policies and programmes, social work interventionstrategies, etc. is certainly prerequisite to successfulpractice, it is not completely sufficient. The guidancethat supervision provides in regards to how to applythis knowledge to the field of practice is an importantcomponent of a student’s learning. This chapterdiscusses the functions of supervision in this overallprocess, in addition to the supervision models andmodes that are generally used in the social workpracticum to assist in this regard. Also reviewed arethe administrative and cultural contexts of supervisionin an educational practicum.

* Prof. Patricia Lager, FSU, USA


Definition and General Functions ofSupervisionSupervision in an educational practicum is generallydefined as the relationship between a student, orsubordinate, and supervisor who oversees thedevelopment of the student throughout the practicumexperience. Within the context of this relationship,the supervisor monitors and evaluates the student’sdevelopment of responsibility, skills, knowledge,attitudes, and ethical standards in the practice of socialwork. During this process the supervisor providesconsistent feedback to the student as he or she workstoward achieving a maximum level of performance inall these areas. In addition, the supervision processconsists of the face-to-face contact between thesupervisor and the student during which the studentapprises the supervisor of important case material andevery aspect of his or her involvement with clients.

In social work, supervision is considered an integralpart of professional practice. It primarily relates toagency-based professional practice and forms part ofthe ethical standards of assuring competent andaccountable practice with clients. The various functionsof supervision are as follows:

Assessing the student’s level of knowledge and skill.

Assuming responsibility for working out a plan thatwill provide the student with an array of appropriateand challenging learning opportunities during thepracticum.

Assisting the student in understanding andadapting to the community or environment wherethe practicum takes place.

Assessing the “fit” between the student’s andclient’s backgrounds and experiences (i.e. urban/rural, middle/lower class) and their implicationsfor interactions.

Monitoring the student’s practicum experience andassisting in evaluating the student’s performance.

Assisting the student in identifying his or herlearning needs, formulating learning objectives, andpreparing a learning agreement.

Facilitating the student’s learning by providingguidance and serving as a source of information.

Assisting the student in integrating social worktheory and the specific experiences of the practicum.

Educating the student by modeling appropriatepractice behaviours and techniques, providingrelevant feedback and encouragement, clarifyingand interpreting various behaviours exhibited bythe student, and sharing experiences that enhancethe student’s development.

Encouraging self-acceptance and enhancing selfesteem.

Encouraging interpersonal regard.

Managing interpersonal and organizationaltensions.

Fostering interdependence of the student.

Models and Modes of Social Work Supervision 193


Advocating for the student.

Evaluating the student’s progress and development.

Supervision occurs within an agency setting in whichthe supervisor serves as the primary teacher in the fieldwhose aim is to teach the core skills of social workpractices, such as interviewing, listening, observation,recording, assessing and prioritizing client problems,developing interventions, etc. Other administrativetasks are also taught, which include planning,budgeting, drafting, etc. Other important componentsof supervision also include the development ofprofessional attitudes and behaviours, such asaccountability, assuming responsibility, good timemanagement skills, and a general commitment tocompleting the work assigned in a professional manner.The supervisor will generally use a number oftechniques to assist in facilitating a student’s learning,such as:

Engaging in a discussion of case material andasking why a certain intervention was used.

Didactic teaching, such as providing informationdirectly.

Experiential teaching, such as role playing in whichthe supervisor demonstrates a particular skill ortechnique.

In general, the supervision process is based on thedevelopment of a positive supervisory relationship thatwill be discussed later in this block. Undoubtedlywithout this relationship, the functions of supervisionwill not achieve the primary purpose of helping a

student attain the level of knowledge and skillsnecessary to enter the field of social work practice.

Development and Task Models ofSupervisionJust as social workers follow models of practice inworking with clients, supervisors also generally followmodels of supervision that are typically associated withsupervision in social work. In this section we willdiscuss two primary models of supervision that aregenerally used in preparing new practitioners to workin various human service professions – thedevelopmental and task models of supervision.

The developmental model of supervision is more of aprocess-oriented model that follows the various stagesof learning that a new social worker generallyexperiences during his or her development ofprofessional knowledge and skills for practice. Theprimary focus of a developmental model of supervisionin field work is on how students change as they gainmore training and experience in the field of practice,based on a shift in identity (from student to practitioner)and the skills that develop with the experiences gained.In the developmental model of supervision, supervisorsprimarily attempt to match their behaviour and teachingtechniques to the developmental needs of the student.In other words, the supervisor assesses where thestudent is in terms of his or her level of skill andknowledge, then the supervisor must structure learningexperiences and teaching techniques that areconsistent with this level of skill and knowledge.



The developmental model generally consists of fourstages of development that students or new practitionersfollow as they gain experience in the field of social work.At each stage the student’s development is stronglyinfluenced by three general themes, all of which havean enormous effect on the other themes. Those themesare:

The development of the student’s professional selfand identity.

The relationship between the supervisor and thestudent.

The relationship between the supervisor and theadministrative structure (or practice context) withinwhich he or she works.

The stages of development are as follows:

Stage One: During this stage the student is verydependent on the supervisor and lacks the competenceneeded for independent work. Students also generallylack self-awareness and have little experience inworking with clients. Learning takes place byshadowing the supervisor and observing his or her styleof practice.

Stage Two: This stage is generally characterized by adependency-autonomy conflict. As the student’sawareness increases, he or she strives for independencebut is not ready for complete autonomy. At this stagethe student needs more independence and lessrestrictiveness than the first stage.

Stage Three: This is the stage of conditional

dependency in which the student is generally moredifferentiated, motivated, insightful and empathic. Heor she is more comfortable with a perception ofprofessional self and is able to function with a greatdeal of autonomy. The student at this stage is alsoable to formulate assessments well and developappropriate interventions for clients with minimal inputfrom the supervisor.

Stage Four: At this stage the student has developed ahigh level of competence and is able to independentlyformulate accurate assessments with appropriateinterventions. Students at this stage are able to takeresponsibility for their own learning.

In general, the developmental approach to supervisionis very appealing as it follows the predominant view ofmost social work practitioners – that social workersbecome better practitioners with more experience andtraining.

The task model of supervision is very similar to thedevelopmental model, however it relies heavily on theassignment of tasks that help students develop to amore advanced level of practice. This model includes afocus on both functions and tasks within supervisionwhich are, respectively, the how and what ofsupervision. For example, some of the tasks that areincluded in the model are: monitoring-evaluating;instructing-advising; modeling; consulting; supporting-sharing. Likewise, some of the functions are:counseling skill; case conceptualization; professionalrole; emotional awareness; self-evaluation. Theconsequence is a 5 (task) by 5 (function) matrix, with25 resulting task-function combinations (See Fig. ).



Fig. : Functions and Tasks in Supervision

A supervisor might, for example, engage in monitoring-evaluating (the how) of the student’s counseling skill(the what), or might engage in consulting concerningthe student’s emotional awareness, and so on.Hypothetically, a supervisor might engage in any taskwith any function, but realistically there are probablysome task and function matches that are more likelyto occur in supervision.

Models of SupervisionDirect observation of the student: Regardless of theparticular model of supervision used, there is nosubstitute for directly observing a student’s work witha client. Several arrangements can be used forconducting these observations. One way is for thesupervisor to be physically present in the room withthe student or accompanying him or her on home visits.Another possibility involves the use of special

Functions (How)

CounselingSkill

Case Conceptual-ization

ProfessionalRole

EmotionalAwareness

Self-Evaluation

Monitoring-Evaluating

Instructing-Advising

Modeling

Consulting

Tasks

(What)

Supporting-

Sharing

observation rooms equipped with one way mirrors. Byobserving sessions as they occur, supervisors get abetter sense of the social work process of assessingand counseling a client. They can listen to what issaid, watch the nonverbal behaviours of the studentand client, note key moments of the session, and get adeeper awareness of the overall “feel” of theinterventions. In some arrangements, supervisors canalso instruct the student during the interaction. Usinga technique known as a “bug in the ear,” supervisorsobserve the sessions from behind a mirror and canspeak to the student through a microphone connectedto tiny earplug-type speakers.

Although direct observation can be one of the best waysfor students to learn counseling techniques, a drawbackis the fact that they can be intimidated by thesupervisor’s presence – even if he or she is behind amirror – and therefore their already existing anxietycan be elevated. In such instances, it is helpful forsupervisors and students to establish an agreementabout how directly observed sessions will proceed, whatthe goals and objectives of the session are, and perhapsengage in a role play before the actual client sessionbegins.

Didactic supervision: One approach to supervision issimilar to what instructors and students do in theiracademic classes. Didactic or teaching supervision isbest chosen when an intern wants to learn, or asupervisor wants to teach, specific information about atheory, technique, or some topic relevant to the intern’sactivities. The goal of a didactic approach is to getinformation across as efficiently as possible so the



student can learn and apply the information directlyto his or her work. Didactic approaches tend to beparticularly appealing to beginning learners becausethey feel a need for concrete, practical information tohelp them cope with the anxiety and ambiguity ofstarting something new. Perhaps the main drawbackto didactic methods is if they are relied upon too heavily,supervision can become merely another venue forlecture-based instruction.

Case discussions: Although students are most familiarwith didactic approaches, the most common activity ofclinical supervision is typically case discussion. As thename implies, case discussion means the studentdescribes a case to the supervisor and the two discusswhat is going on. Case discussions can take a varietyof formats depending on the goals and preferences ofthe student and supervisor. Perhaps the most commonapproach involves students describing what ishappening in a case, explaining their actions andoffering interpretations for what is happening. Thesupervisor typically listens, asks questions, and mayoffer alternative interpretations or suggestions.

Tapes and role plays: Video or audio recordings ofsessions with clients enable the supervisor and studentto observe the actual interview process with a client.This is an extremely valuable method for clinicaltraining, although some time limitations prohibitreviews of the entire session. This mode of supervisionpresents an interesting paradox. Most students wantto present a positive impression of their skills and work,there is also the temptation to choose only those pointsin the session where one feels particularly confident

in their work. As an alternative, students should choosea few sections where they feel they work and a fewother sections where they felt lost, confused,overwhelmed, etc.

An alternative to working with recorded sessions is toenact a client session with the supervisor. Role playsinvolve students taking the roles of clients, trainees orother staff members and acting these roles as theyportray a situation or interaction of interest. They canbe particularly helpful in developing basic helping skillsand in learning to deal with difficult clients or staff.Role plays can also help students to become aware oftheir counseling style and, in some instances, aboutsignificant issues in their own lives. Supervisors canalso use role plays to learn about issues and techniquesin supervision.

Direct observation of the supervisor: The majority ofstudents prefer this mode of supervision above mostothers. While they recognize that discussion abouttheir own work can only take them so far, they alsofeel they can learn a great deal when they can watchtheir supervisor in group or individual sessions, readreports written by the supervisor, and observe him orher in other actions such as staff meetings, conferences,etc. One way to accomplish this is for the supervisorand intern to work jointly in counseling clients. Thisis most commonly practiced in group or couplescounseling, but it can also be used with individualclients. Although most supervisors are open to thisprocess if it is consistent with the needs of clients, manyare not aware that students would like such anopportunity. As a result, students may need to take



the initiative of asking if they can observe thesupervisors in different setting.

Cultural and Administrative Context ofSupervisionHelping students gain cultural competence within anadministrative structure that facilitates this process isan important component of the practicum experience.Not all agencies provide an opportunity for students towork with diverse client populations, therefore thesupervisor and student together will need to developcreative strategies to meet this expectation, as being aculturally competent social work practitioner is at thecore of the social work value system. Therefore thesupervisor can look at ways in which the student canbe exposed to others who are different from them anddevelop ways of exploring their awareness of culturaldiversity. Most agencies have client populations thatrepresent different areas of diversity such as race,ethnicity, culture, age, gender, sexual orientation,religion, spirituality, political philosophy,socioeconomic class, education, family background, andlife experiences.

The administrative structure of an agency can providean opportunity for students to apply in the practicumsetting the cultural competent knowledge, skills, andvalues that they have gained in their coursework.However, how can a single agency or supervisor haveadequate knowledge about the varied and diverse clientsystems with which a new social worker will work withduring his or her career? Generally it is helpful tonote that there are five essential elements of culturalcompetence that can apply to an individual or larger

system, such as an agency: (1) value diversity;(2) capacity for cultural self-assessment; (3) awarenessof the dynamics inherent when cultures interact;(4) institutionalized cultural knowledge; and(5) programs and services that reflect an understandingof diversity between and within cultures. Although truecultural competence is a lifelong challenge andopportunity, students can proactively seek outopportunities in their practica to interact with otherswhose life experiences differ from theirs so they canbetter understand ways in which they can be helpfulto those individuals or groups. While they may beintimidated upon leaving the “comfort zone” of workingwith those client systems that are most like them, theyare encouraged to broaden their understanding of thoseindividuals or groups with whom they have lilttle or noexperience.

Some specific questions students can ask themselvesand discuss with their supervisors in the process ofworking with diverse clients can include the following:

How are issues of diversity handled in the agency?

Are these issues included in the agency’sassessment process?

Is it permissible to include these issues in theassessment and interventions conducted by thesocial workers in the agency?

If the practicum agency supports the inclusion ofissues relating to diversity and cultural competenceinto social work practice, are you clear about theappropriate way to acknowledge and discuss theissues?



Does the potential for a value and/or ethical conflictexist if the client’s values or beliefs are differentfrom your own?

In addition to working with diverse client populations,students may also be working under supervisors whorepresent different racial, cultural or ethnicbackgrounds. Just as it is important for students tounderstand these differences as they relate to the clientsystem, it is also important to understand similardifferences as they relate to the supervision experience.For example, cultural norms may dictate a differentstyle of supervision in which communication barriersmight exist. Recognizing and understanding thesedifferences when communicating problems or concernsis important to the development of a positive supervisoryexperience and should be clarified in the beginning ofthe practicum.

ConclusionAppropriate supervision is an important component ofthe field work experience as it provides an opportunityfor students to apply the knowledge gained from theircoursework to the field of social work practice. Specificfunctions of supervision include the structuring ofactivities that are in accordance with the student’s levelof knowledge and skill that they bring to the practicum,in addition to the evaluation of the student’s progressthroughout. Two key models of supervision that arecommonly used in social work to prepare students arethe developmental and task models. Both are similarin many ways as they are designed to help studentsachieve a level of proficiency in practice that is gainedthrough experience and the accomplishment of certain

tasks assigned by the supervisor. The varying modesof supervision (live and didactic supervision, role plays,video and audio tapes, etc.) are conducted within thecontext of these models. Another integral componentof supervision is the provision of opportunities thatexpose students to issues involving diversity and thatallow them to develop a significant level of culturalcompetence appropriate for entry into the social workprofession.

Refernces

Baird, B.N. (1996). The Internship, Practicum, and FieldPlacement Handbook. Saddle River, NJ: Simon &Schuster.Benshoff, J.M. (1993). Peer supervision in counselortraining. Clinical Supervisor, 11(2), 89-102.Bernard, J.M. & Goodyear, R.K. (1998). Fundamentalsof Clinical Supervision (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn andBacon.Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1989). Supervision in theHelping Professions. Philadelphia: Open UniversityPress.Kadushin, A. (1992). Supervision in Social Work (3rd

ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.


10Administrative and Environmental

Aspects in Social WorkSupervision

*Patricia Lager

IntroductionSupervision within the social work field experience isconsidered an educationally focused teachingrelationship that is authority based and has periods ofcloseness and distance. The supervisor-studentrelationship is typically implemented through anindividualized, one-on-one teaching arrangement basedin a community/agency.

In order to fully understand practicum supervision andhow to make good use of it, it is first necessary toexamine the essential components of supervision withinan organizational structure. Practicum supervision inan agency setting places less emphasis on thesupervisor being an overseer of a student’s workalthough that is an integral component of the role. Moreemphasis is on being a skilled master of the work to bedone, in addition to being a teacher and a leader.Within this context, it is the supervisor’s responsibility


to model good social work skills and behaviors toadequately prepare students for the real world ofpractice. A positive supervisory relationship based ona style of supervision that facilitates learning is animportant component of the practicum experience. Inaddition, a thorough orientation to the expectations ofsupervision helps to set the stage for a positivesupervisory experience that will serve as a frame ofreference for the student in future social work jobs.This chapter will discuss the beginning phase ofpracticum supervision, which includes the orientationto the roles and expectations of supervision and a focuson the supervisory relationship. Also discussed will bethe styles of supervision that are most conducive to thefacilitation of a positive supervisory relationship in whichboundaries can sometimes be blurred and the authorityrole challenged.

Orientation to Field Work Supervision:Roles and ExpectationsWhile all agencies vary in regards to their structure,levels of authority, etc., there is a need for supervisionat all levels within an organization – the individual level,the team level, and the department and organizationallevel. Each level is generally supervised as a wholeentity, e.g., the department is supervised with regardto how it functions as a department. This supervisionis essential if each level, whether it be in a social workdepartment, health service or school, is going to providea measure of containment and understanding of whathappens within it. It is important for students tounderstand this organizational structure whenbeginning a practicum, in addition to their role within

Administrative and Environmental Aspects inSocial Work Supervision 207


that structure. The agency providing field practicumsmust have a well defined structure with well definedroles for its employees, rather than informal lines ofauthority and a loose organizational structure.

Every practicum begins with a thorough orientation tothe expectations required by the educational programprior to beginning the experience. However, differentexpectations are generally required by the onsitesupervisor and agency that might differ from those inanother practicum setting. The first orientation topicto cover is the structure of the agency and the role ofthe practicum supervisor within that structure. Somesupervisors only assume administrative responsibilitieswhile others carry caseloads in addition to theiradministrative role. Having a thorough understandingof the practicum supervisor’s role is an important partof the learning, particularly in regards to the varyingresponsibilities that social workers assume within anorganization.

Another important aspect of orientation is the role ofthe field work supervisor and how that might vary fromthe role of the practicum supervisor within the agency.The field work supervisor is given administrative tasksby the educational program that include the functionsof identifying suitable agencies in the area where fieldwork can be done and securing their cooperation andconsent for the same. These selections are made basedon specific criteria established by the program. Thepracticum supervisor has the role of orienting thestudent to the objectives of the agency, the existingprograms within it and how they function, the resourcesavailable to the agency, and the needs of the clients/communities that are served (Hawkins & Shohet, 1997).

A thorough orientation to the role of the student in theagency is important in helping students to understandthe expectations of their duties and the limitations thatare inherent in being a student learner within anorganization. For example, the student is not expectedto be given clerical work or fundraising tasks but insteadshould be given tasks that are consistent with theircontract and that facilitate their learning. They canalso be included as the member of a team assigned tomobilize resources for a particular activity. Similarly,they may help the agency occasionally by doing officerelated work that provides them with a learningexperience.

An important component of the orientation alsoincludes the communication of expectations by thesupervisor during the course of supervision. Thestudent should have an understanding of the followinginformation (Baird, 1996): When supervisory sessions are scheduled What the expectations are with regard to the review

of written material by the supervisor and due dates The protocol for reporting absences or scheduled

appointments outside the agency Agency policies and procedures Protocols regarding confidentiality and dealing with

potentially harmful...? Safety issues or concerns and a strategy for dealing

with them Other important information that is deemed

necessary by the agency, supervisor, and theeducational program.



To assist in clarifying expectations, it is helpful for thestudent and supervisor to independently develop a listof expectations and assessment criteria for thesupervisory relationship from both perspectives.Specifically, the student can develop a list ofexpectations for him/herself and the field supervisorcan do the same. They can then compare the lists anddevelop a mutually agreed upon set of expectations ofeach other regarding supervision. Examples of areasto consider in developing the lists include the following(Bogo, 1993):

Expectations of Self

(List specific expectations

of yourself)

Assessment Criteria

(List measurable outcomes used to

determine whether expectations are

achieved)

Use of supervision

Preparedness for supervision

Follow-up to supervisory recommendation

Demonstration of adult learning

Demonstration of assertiveness

Demonstration of appropriate professional

feedback

The Supervisory Relationship: Styles ofSupervisionAnother important aspect of the orientation is thestudent-agency supervisory relationship. The qualitiesof a good supervisory/student relationship usuallyparallel the qualities of a good practitioner/clientrelationship. Just as in work with clients, thesupervisory relationship must be built on trust andopenness, thus allowing the exchange of honestcommunication and critical feedback. The studentshould be able to feel safe in sharing concerns aboutthe practicum in addition to his or her style of learning,so the supervisor is able to structure the supervisionaccordingly and make necessary changes in thepracticum experiences.

The establishment of a positive relationship begins withan open discussion by the supervisor regarding his orher style of supervision. Supervisory style can best bedefined as the way the field work supervisor shares hisor her theoretical orientation, practice and supervisoryphilosophies. Supervisory style consists of a series ofbehavior patterns used by the supervisor to establish aworking relationship with the student. It can generallybe categorized as (1) active, which is problem oriented,directive, and interpretive, or (2) reactive, which isprocess oriented, indirect, and non-interpretive(Munson, 2002).

There are varying styles and techniques that are usedwhich generally reflect a particular style of practice thatincorporates a supervisor’s personality style. Under thecategories of active and reactive, typical styles of



supervision are as follows (Munson, 2002):

Philosopher-philosophical style: Sometimessupervisors launch into philosophical abstractions thathave little or no application from the student’s point ofview. They often use either lengthy explanations orbrief global statements, which frequently make the newlearner extremely frustrated as important case materialis not dealt with directly.

Theoretician-theoretical style: The supervisor oftenuses theory as the primary focus and believes that themastery of theory leads to good practice. According tothis style, once the theory has been mastered, thestudent can deal with future case material on theirown. The theoretician tends to be logical and orderlyin their approach to supervision and are frequentlyviewed as “taskmasters” when it comes to dealing withclinical material. The only time they are viewednegatively is when they talk about theory in theabstract, thus not relating it directly to case materialand learning.

Technician-technical style: This style is very differentfrom the other two styles. Instead of being philosophicalor theoretical in orientation, the supervisor deals almostexclusively with details of case problems and relatesthem to technical skills. It is a problem focused andinteractionally oriented style of supervision in whichquestions are asked in highly specific and empathicways. Without confrontation or threat, the student canbe pressured into dealing with difficult material. Thetechnician has patience with new learners and respondsin ways that encourage them to find their own answers.They are also respected by those they supervise and

are often viewed as demanding, having a no-nonsenseapproach to supervision. This is generally the preferredstyle for students just entering the social work field,although a combination of the three styles at theappropriate time can also be effective.

It is important for the student to have a completeunderstanding of the style of supervision used by thesupervisor during the orientation phase of theinternship. As adult learners, it is also important forstudents to be responsible for identifying their particularlearning style along with the teaching style of the directsupervisor. Routinely engaging in discussion abouteach other’s style will enable the student and supervisorto continue to understand how of the other processesand utilizes information. The insights gained fromidentifying a supervisory style will serve as a guide forthe supervisor in assigning tasks and activities,teaching knowledge and skills, and evaluating thestudent’s performance and progress. Within the forumof an open discussion, the student should also havethe opportunity to provide feedback on how his or herlearning style matches the supervisory style, and howareas that differ might be dealt with.

It is important for students to remember thatsupervision is an interactional process that parallels inmany ways the social worker-client relationship andthe helping process in general (Baird, 1996). In orderfor them to benefit from the supervisory experience, itis important for the practicum instructor to employmany of the helping skills and techniques that socialworkers use in working with clients.



Appropriate Use of SuppervisionLearning how to use supervision appropriately is ofcentral importance to the practicum student. Becausesocial work is challenging and stressful, and alsobecause students work directly with clients’ lives, theyrequire skillful guidance, direction, support, andfeedback from the practicum supervisor. The practicumsupervisor must not only help students acquire specificskills, they must also help them manage the emotionaland intellectual challenges and the personal issues thatemerge in their training. This responsibility may placesupervisors in a role that is very much like that oftherapist for the trainee. However this should beavoided as much as possible. Supervisors should alwaysrefrain from entering a treatment relationship with thestudent intern.

Students should strive to use supervision in apurposeful and responsible manner. Regularsupervisory meetings held at a specific meeting timeeach week are recommended, since this will help themavoid the difficulties of having to constantly arrange asuitable meeting time. Students should prepare forthese meetings in advance and not expect thesupervisor to do all of the talking. Questions shouldbe brought to the meeting, in addition to observationsand requests for feedback. The student should usethis time to examine his or her performance and explorenew ideas. Expectations of the student are generallyreinforced in these meetings and will primarily relateto the following:

Dependability and follow-through on assigned work

Attention to detail and proper procedures

Initiative in work-related assignments

A cooperative attitude toward the practicuminstructor and other staff

Willingness to learn from whatever tasks areassigned

Openness to supervision, including asking for, andlearning from, constructive criticism

Willingness to seek help when needed

Appropriate use of authority

Decision making issues.

When students initially begin a practicum, it is commonfor them to experience a high degree of anxiety andfear. They are often afraid of making a serious mistakeor in some way hurting their clients. Even the mostconfident student will often feel a lack of confidencewhen initially placed in their first professional socialwork setting. Therefore the student needs to be madeto feel comfortable in communicating these concernsto the supervisor. When this occurs, the supervisorshould attempt to normalize the student’s feelings inthis regard and assist them in gaining a level ofconfidence through consistent and ongoing positivefeedback, when warranted.

Dealing with Conflict in SupervisionAlthough most students have positive supervisoryexperience, conflicts that interfere with learning are



not uncommon. The three areas of conflict mostidentified by students are: theoretical orientation andpractice approach, styles of supervision (particularlythose that conflict with styles of learning), andpersonality issues. Because conflicts in supervisionare not uncommon, several guiding principles may helpstudents and supervisors deal with conflict moreeffectively. The first principle is to approach conflictsas opportunities for learning rather than situations thatinterfere with learning. In the process of managing asupervisory conflict, the student may be able to discoversuch things as how to react to conflict, what kinds ofissues or interactions tend to promote conflict, and howthe student can more effectively cope with the simplisticaphorisms that “everything is a learning experience”or “conflict builds character.” One of the largest blocksto resolving conflicts is the underlying idea that“conflicts should not happen and I should not have todeal with them”. If students take an attitude of learningfrom a conflict, rather than an attitude of anger, fear,or avoidance, they are more likely to deal more effectivelywith the situation (Baird, 1996).

A second guiding principle is to identify what a conflictis really about before raising it with the supervisor. Isthe student at odds over issues of theory or technique?Does he or she feel that the supervisor is not givinghim/her sufficient support? Are logistics such as timingof supervision a problem? In thinking about the keysubject of a conflict, it should be recognized that oftenthe surface content of a conflict does not necessarilyreflect the “real” nature of the difficulty. For example,people who work together might get into a conflict overwho should have the bigger office. In reality, the conflict

is probably not about the office size but, in reality, aboutwho wants or deserves more rewards or prestige andwhy. In addition, asking oneself the difficult questionof what role you might be playing in the conflict isextremely important for a satisfactory resolution. Thismight involve getting an outside perspective,particularly if the student has difficulty with self-exploration of fault or limited self-insight. For example,a student might go into a discussion convinced that asupervisor places too many demands on his or her time.In discussing this situation with someone else, it mightappear that the supervisor is actually paying thestudent a compliment by relying on him or her. It isalso possible that the student might have a role in theconflict because he/she does not tell the supervisorwhen he/she is overwhelmed. The purpose of gettinganother opinion is to understand what is happening –not to prove that one is right (Baird, 1996).

Trying to see the situation from the supervisor’sperspective is another valuable step toward resolving aconflict. Is the supervisor doing or saying things forreasons that might not be immediately evident but,rather, might make perfect sense from his or herposition. Is the supervisor aware that a conflict exists?If so, would she or he define the conflict differently?Asking oneself these questions would help resolve aconflict with speaking directly to the supervisor aboutit.

One more important element of dealing with a conflictis to ask oneself what it is that one might want to bedifferent, and what it is that one would like to seehappen to be satisfied. This might be a change in the



way one interacts with the supervisor, or it might be amodification of some arrangement, such as a changein work hours, the assigned caseload, or a similar matter.By thinking about what one’s desires are, it willenhance one’s ability to more clearly articulate boththe present situation and suggestions for change. Thiscan undoubtedly help both the student and supervisoridentify specific steps for dealing with and resolvingthe conflict.

Finally, although the ideal may be that conflicts canbe resolved to the mutual satisfaction of everyone, thereare times when this is not the case. Under suchcircumstances the best solution may be to negotiate achange in supervision or placements. This does nothave to be a negative experience for the people involved.Sometimes after efforts have been made to resolve asituation, it becomes apparent that people just do notmatch well and the most constructive way of dealingwith the situation is to arrange for an alternative. Insuch situations it is a good idea to enlist the involvementof a central third party, such as another supervisor oran instructor who can help mediate and find alternativesthat are mutually satisfying.

ConclusionAn integral component of practicum supervision is thedevelopment of a mutually satisfying relationshipbetween supervisor and student. This relationship isdeveloped much like the relationship between socialworker and client in which the core foundations includetrust and openness. Various styles of supervision areused by supervisors and are largely based on techniqueas well as personality styles. All supervision

arrangements must include the communication ofexpectations by the supervisor, which sets the stagefor a learning experience in which the student hasdirection and understanding of his or her role withinthe agency and placement. This will assist the studentin learning the appropriate use of supervisionthroughout. Additionally, the appropriate means ofdealing with conflict in supervision are essential tostudent learning from the beginning in order topreserve the placement while, at the same time,developing skills to deal with other similar situationsin the real world of practice.

References

Baird, B.N. (1996). The Internship, Practicum, and FieldPlacement Handbook. New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Bogo, M. (1993). The student/field instructorrelationship: The critical factor in field education. TheClinical Supervisor, 11(2), 23-36.

Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1997). Supervision in theHelping Professions. Philadelphia: Open UniversityPress.

Munson, C.E. (2002). Clinical Social Work Supervision(3rd ed.). New York: Haworth Press.


11Supportive Functions in

Supervision*Patricia Lager

IntroductionThe practicum supervisor assumes an important rolein the professional development of a new practitioner,a major component of which is the modeling ofappropriate skills in dealing with the various stressorsthat arise during the course of the practicum.Therefore, it is necessary for supervisors to communicateto students and prepare them in advance for the typesof stressors they are likely to face and the need todevelop good coping skills at the beginning of theirprofessional career for dealing with these stressors.Students need to have a clear idea about ways in whichthey can deal with the many challenges of their trainingand work in ways that will enhance their growth, bothas individuals and as professionals.

In order for students to identify ways of dealing withstress, they need to have a general understanding ofthe common sources of stress that practitionerscommonly experience in social work and the ways in


which those stresses are likely to affect their lives andwork. In addition, they need to develop ways in whichthey can manage the demands of internships, school,family, friends, etc., in ways that provide a sense ofbalance in their lives. A sample of the typical questionsthat students generally ask themselves – andsupervisors need to address – are as follows:

How do helping professionals balance theirprofessional roles with their personal lives awayfrom work?

How can they manage the conflicting demands ofan internship?

How does the internship influence their ideas aboutthe clients they work with?

How does the internship affect close personal orsocial relationships?

What personal qualities does a student have thatwill help them in dealing with the stress of thework?

How will they be able to recognize if they are beingadversely affected by their work?

How might they cope with a situation in which theyrecognize that they are under excessive stress andtheir professional effectiveness or personal wellnessis being harmed?

The supportive role the supervisor plays in helpingstudents deal with stress in the practicum can presenta number of challenges, one of which is the issue of

Supportive Functions in Supervision 221


maintaining boundaries in the supervisory relationship.Another issue presented is that of how to deal withconflict that might occur within the relationship. Thegoal of adequately preparing the student at thebeginning of the practicum, and setting specificguidelines to be followed, are extremely important inorder to prevent potential negative outcomes.

Common Stressors Leading to Burnout andCompassion FatigueConsidering the typical demands social workersencounter in a normal day, it should not be surprisingto learn that at one time or another most helpingprofessionals will find themselves working undersignificant stress that can have a negative impact ontheir clients. Research suggests that on some occasionsmore than half of the population of helpingprofessionals have worked when their own distressmight have impaired their effectiveness (Tomlinson,Rogers, Collins, and Grinnell, 1996). For most studentinterns who are new to the field and full of energy anddedication, the stress of practice may not be animmediate concern. However, such stresses should notbe ignored and could ultimately lead to severe problemsand/or impairment.

Many studies that have sought to identify the sourcesof stress revealed that helping professionals mustcontend both with stresses directly related to their work,in addition to stresses in their personal lives. The majorsources of stress that have been highlighted in researchfindings are job stress, illness or death in a family,marital and/or financial problems, a developmental

crisis, or personal illness. Studies that have focusedmore on student interns and stress have identified thefollowing factors that have primarily contributed toproblems in this area: client behaviours, practitionerexperiences, and therapeutic beliefs that were ratedas stressful by practicum students and interns.

The various behaviours exhibited by clients that tendto cause the greatest degree of stress for practitionersare physical assault on the social worker, suicideattempts, and suicidal statements or threats.Compared to more experienced professionals,practicum students are more likely to rate as stressfulsuch client behaviours as blatantly psychotic speech,homosexual and heterosexual flirting on the part ofclients, stress from premature termination with a client,and clients’ lack of motivation or progress. Thosebehaviours exhibited by clients that are likely to makea student angry, frustrated or irritated are: clientresistance; impositions on the social worker; verbalattacks; the social worker becoming over involved inclient dynamics; and a more general category of otherincidents (e.g., client failing to show up forappointments, clients continually blaming others orrefusing to work on their own issues, clients asking forspecial privileges, or unnecessarily calling the socialworker at home).

Exposure to cumulative stress, crisis, and even traumaticevents in our professional or personal lives can causephysical and/or emotional exhaustion that leads toprofessional burnout or compassion fatigue. Burnoutis defined as too much work or frequent frustration atwork that leads to physical and emotional exhaustion



(Greenberg, 1999). Compassion fatigue, or secondarytraumatic stress, is defined as the natural consequentbehaviours and emotions resulting from knowing abouta traumatizing event experienced by a significant other(Figley, 1995).

Radey and Figley (2007) have recently extended thisnotion, recognizing compassion as an essential elementin effective social work practice. Built on feelings ofsympathy and empathy, compassion expresses an“unselfish concern for the welfare of others” (Marriam-Webster, in Radey & Figley, 2007: 207). When socialworkers are repeatedly exposed to the suffering of theirclients, for instance, they may find themselvesincreasingly unable to rebound or offer the quality ofservice they know would be best. Failing to take goodcare of themselves, dealing with lingering distress fromtroubling events in their own lives, inability or refusalto control stresses at work, and the lack of satisfactionin work all deplete the social worker’s ability to do hisor her best (Figley, 1995).

Occupational stressors, when unchecked, can resultin worker burnout. Role ambiguity, role conflict, androle overload play a large role in the onset of burnoutwithin the work place. Stress related problems oftenresult from a combination of: 1) individual perceptionsof the problems, 2) environmental demands placed onthe individual that have a direct effect on his or herability to deal with the problems, and 3) one’sphysiological responses when confronted with stress.When stressors are social or psychological rather thanphysical, the stress response builds up tension that isnot released. As a result, it utilizes energy that is not

restored and can ultimately lead to exhaustion. Over aperiod of time, prolonged exposure to the stress andthe resulting exhaustion can cause significant problemsto one’s physical and psychological well-being.

Signs and Symptoms of Burnout and CompassionFatigue Change in behaviour and/or job performance

Increased physical complaints of fatigue, irritability,muscle tension, stomach upset, and susceptibilityto illness

Social withdrawal; pulling away from coworkers,peers, family members

Emotional exhaustion, loss of self-esteem,depression, frustration, loss of commitment andmoral purpose in one’s work

Loss of curiosity and desire to learn, oftenaccompanied by a negative attitude

Spiritual change, decline in spiritual beliefs,questioning of the meaning of life (oftenaccompanied by cynicism).

Impact of Stress on ProfessionalFunctioningIt should be evident from the discussion thus far thatthere are numerous possible sources of work-relatedand personal stress in the lives of student interns andhelping professionals. This raises question about howsuch stressors may affect us as individuals and howstress impacts our work with clients. As professionalsocial workers, we frequently become overwhelmed with



the problems our clients face and often try to find ourway towards professional renewal after exposure tocumulative stress. However, we often fail to developthe necessary strategies for dealing with stress andpreventing burnout until it begins to have a seriousimpact on our professional functioning. The followingchart indicates the effect of prolonged stress on jobperformance, interpersonal relationships, morale, andbehavioural functioning (Greenberg, 1999).

In addition to the mental and emotional toll caused bystress, there are also numerous physical effects thatcan be just as costly and thus impair one’s professionalfunctioning. The physical inactivity created by extremestress can lead to physical problems which often developfrom patterns of storing stress through muscle tension.

Effect on Job Performance

Effect on Interpersonal Relationships

Effect on Morale

Effect on Behavioural Functioning

Decrease in quality of work

Withdrawal from colleagues

Decreased confidence

Absenteeism

Decrease in quantity of work

Impatience Loss of interest Exhaustion

Decline in motivation

Decrease in quality of relationships

General dissatisfaction

Faulty judgment

Avoidance of job tasks

Poor communication

Negative attitude

Irritability

Increase in mistakes

Subsumed by own needs

Apathy Frequent tardiness

Establishment of perfectionist standards

Staff conflicts

Demoralization & feelings of incompleteness

Irresponsibility

Avoidance of job tasks

Lack of appreciation

Overworked; frequent job changes

Obsession with details

Detachment; reduced self-esteem

Substance abuse

This can lead to shoulder and neck pain, headaches,etc. It is not uncommon for students to report severestomach pains and other signs of physical reactions toextreme tension, which can also serve as warningsignals for one’s capacity to deal with job related stressand prevent future burnout.

When social workers begin to experience theunpleasant symptoms of burnout or compassion fatigue,they often seek ways to loosen these symptoms. Ifappropriate methods are not available or fail, physical,emotional or mental withdrawal provides ways ofdistancing themselves from clients or work and therebyreducing the stress. This is a perfectly understandableresponse, however it can adversely affect the individualand their clients as well. Withdrawal can also lead tofurther frustration and negative feelings as socialworkers recognize their lessened effectiveness and theirinability to find more creative or constructive solutions.

Radey & Figley (2007) offer suggestions for rebalancingthese tensions, and introduce the alternative ofachieving compassion satisfaction. As illustrated inFigure 3.1, they emphasize the potential of increasingone’s sense of positivity by paying close attention tothree factors: our degree of positive affect or attitude ininteractions with clients (remembering that there arealways reasons to maintain hope for improvement), ouraccess to supportive resources (including contacts withcolleagues and supervisors), and practicing self-carethrough maintaining activities that add pleasure andenjoyment to daily life.



Fig.: from Radey & Figley, 2007

Using Supervision to Deal with Stress:Maintaining Professional BoundariesThe individual personality characteristics of a studentand social work practitioner have much to do with theways in which they deal with stress and potentialburnout. Among those characteristics often mentionedin the literature are: (1) a lack of clear boundariesbetween self and work, (2) extreme degrees of empathy,(3) exceptional levels of commitment, and (4) a fragileself-concept (Baird, 1996). In addition, a student’s poortraining during the course of an internship can also bea contributing factor. For example, one’s inadequatetraining for a job can often leave one feeling unprepared,vulnerable, insecure, and fearing failure – commonfeelings of students as they enter the unfamiliarlearning environment of the field practicum. Preparingstudents to deal with the stresses of their job is of equalimportance as training them to deal with the technicalaspects of a social work position. Therefore it becomescritically important for the supervisor to model

appropriate skills in coping with stress while performingthe necessary tasks of his or her professional position.Modeling good coping skills for students is of equalimportance to modeling good practice skills, both ofwhich are integral components of a practicumexperience.

During the orientation component of the practicum, asupervisor generally assesses the student’s level oflearning and capacity to adapt to the complexities ofthe various problems that often accompany any socialwork position. At the same time, the supervisor shouldalso be assessing the student’s coping skills and howthey typically deal with stressful situations, both withinand outside their professional environment. Withinthe supervisory relationship, it’s important to have openand frank discussions with the student about the skillsthat typically are helpful in alleviating their stress, andthose that are not. Helping the student learn new moreeffective skills for coping are an important part of theirlearning as they prepare to enter the field of practice.By offering suggestions for new ways of coping withthe stressors that the student encounters as they workindependently with clients, and following up on waysin which they implement these suggestions, can be ofenormous benefit to them. In order for this learningprocess to effectively occur, it is important for thestudent and supervisor to have a positive relationshipin which there is an environment of trust and freedomto express adverse feelings openly, without fear ofreprisal. Students need to feel comfortable indiscussing their feelings of fear and inadequacy indealing with client problems within the supervisory



relationship, where these feelings can be normalizedby the supervisor and suggestions can be made for waysof dealing with them effectively.

A positive supervisory relationship can pose difficultchallenges, such as in the case of a dual relationshipin which the boundaries between student andsupervisor become somewhat blurred. This can easilyoccur in situations where a student might beexperiencing role conflict, personal problems, orsignificant anxieties about his or her work with aparticular client. Due to the personality characteristicsof the supervisor, he or she might have a need to providetherapeutic services to the student and assist him orher in dealing with the conflict on a level that is outsidethe professional supervisory role. This should beavoided, as the supervisor who also performs the roleof therapist with a student can create a serious ethicaldilemma and cause harm to the student/supervisorrelationship.

Dual relationships between supervisors and studentshave proven to be difficult issues to resolve and havebeen the topic of much debate in the professionalliterature. Problematic dual relationships with studentsinclude intimate relationships, therapeuticrelationships, and social relationships. What makes adual relationship unethical is (1) the likelihood that itwill impair the supervisor’s judgment, particularly ifthey are evaluating the student and therefore have someinput into their practicum grade, and (2) the risk tothe student of exploitation (Bernard and Goodyear,1998). Therefore, any form of dual relationship shouldbe strictly avoided. Practicum students should be given

a significant amount of information on boundary issuesin a professional setting and what procedures theyshould follow in reporting incidents in which they arebeing sexually harassed.

Undoubtedly, unlike therapy relationships, persons whowork together will share other experiences. Supervisorsand students often become close through formal andinformal contacts. In an agency or school, it sometimeshappens that someone under supervision is someonewith a personal style that allows the supervisor to bemore candid than he or she is with other professionalpeers. Some of these relationships are very gratifyingand provide much support for both the student andsupervisor, particularly in times of stress. Therefore,efforts should be made to differentiate between dualrelationships that abuse power or exploit or harmstudents and those that occur within the positivecontext of a maturing professional relationship.

Dealing with Conflict in SupervisionAn important point to remember is the fact that in anyrelationship, whether personal or professional, conflictinevitably will occur between or among the parties.Conflict can stem from opposing goals the two partiesmight entertain or extreme differences in personalitycharacteristics. Often, however, it stems from a“mistake” that one party has made. The manner inwhich the parties resolve or fail to resolve the conflictwill dictate whether the relationship continues to growand develop, or to stagnate and possibly terminate. Therelationship between a supervisor and studentsupervisee is not unique in this regard. Supervisor-



supervisee conflicts can arise from many sources, somemore problematic than others. Normative conflictgenerally arises from the processes of any two peoplewho interact over time. Inevitably there will be timesin any relationship when the parties will feel angry,hurt, surprised, and/or disappointed with one another.To resolve those conflicts and impasses is healthy andstrengthens the relationship.

Another normative factor in supervisor-student orsupervisee conflict concerns the student’sdevelopmental level. In particular, tension anddissatisfaction with supervision may be at its greatestwith the more advanced student. Like any adolescent,supervisees/students at this level vascillate betweenfeelings of confidence and insecurity, as the studentmay have actively assimilated information from manysources but still has not had enough time toaccommodate and find his or her own way of behavingprofessionally. This is not, in itself, a matter forconcern, particularly if the supervisor is able tounderstand and anticipate this particulardevelopmental phenomenon. But conflicts can alsoarise for more problematic reasons. For example, theconflict may arise from a student/superviseetransference, or from a supervisor transference. Orconflict might also arise from a personality conflictbetween student and supervisor that might be difficultto resolve. Role ambiguity might occur when thestudent is uncertain about role expectations thesupervisor and/or agency has for him or her.Oftentimes more advanced students are placed in moreadvanced roles within agencies in which they are

expected to perform as seasoned practitioners ratherthan students. This places the student in an unfairposition in which their learning needs are consideredsecondary to the personnel needs of the agency.

When conflict occurs in supervision, it is important forthe supervisor to take the initiative to establish aprocedure for resolving the conflict as soon as possible.Appropriate problem solving skills should be utilizedwithin the framework of a positive supervisor-studentrelationship based on open communication and trust.The student should be willing to openly discuss his orher concerns with the supervisor and both should worktogether to reach a satisfactory, mutually agreed uponsolution. Therefore, a positive problem solving processwill help the student to learn an appropriate methodof dealing with conflict that can be applied to otherprofessional settings.

Should conflicts occur as a result of a power differentialin which the supervisor exercises inappropriate powerover the student, this can be very destructive to thesupervisory relationship by violating mutual trust andrespect. In such instances, it might be necessary for athird party to intervene and assess the situation, withthe ultimate goal of preserving the relationship andplacement, if possible.

ConclusionProlonged job related stress can ultimately lead toprofessional burnout and/or compassion fatigue inmany helping professions. It is important for socialworkers to recognize the symptoms of extreme stress



and develop strategies for dealing with themimmediately. In the social work practicum, studentshave an opportunity to learn effective copingmechanisms for dealing with stressors in the workplaceby observing the modeling of positive coping skills bytheir supervisor.

The positive supervisory relationship also provides anopportunity to discuss other problematic issues relatingto the practicum. However significant boundaryviolations can also occur, particularly in relation tointimate, therapeutic, and social relationships thatmight develop between supervisor and student.Conflict inevitably occurs in all relationships, andnormative conflict is to be expected in the supervisor-supervisee/student relationship as well. Understandingthe basis for the conflict, and taking immediate stepsto resolve it, are important tasks for both the supervisorand student as they make efforts to engage in effectiveproblem solving skills that focus on preserving boththe supervisory relationship and practicum placementas well.

References

Baird, B.N. (1996). The Internship, Practicum, and FieldPlacement Handbook. Saddle River, NJ: Simon &Schuster.

Bernard, J.M. & Goodyear, R.K. (1998). Fundamentalsof Clinical Supervision (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Figley, C. R. (Ed.) (1995). Compassion Fatigue:Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorders from Treating theTraumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Greenberg, J.S. (1999). Comprehensive StressManagement (6TH ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Kadushin, A. (1985). Supervision in Social Work. (2nd

ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.

Radey, M., & Figley, C.R. (2007). The social psychologyof compassion, Clinical Social Work Journal, 35: 207-214.


12Field Practicum Supervision in

Distance Learning Mode*Manju Kumar

IntroductionYou are by now aware that social workers deal withsome of the most vulnerable people in our society andat times of greatest stress. There can be of tragicconsequences if things go wrong. Social workers needto be properly equipped for such challenging tasks. Bythe very nature of social work education systemestablished over time and acknowledged globally,students will have to undertake much of their learningin practice settings and demonstrate their competencein practice. It is one of the few courses which arecompleted primarily within a workplace or ‘field’ setting.Field instruction therefore can be a very complex anddemanding endeavor.

Field education for the social work programs providesexperiential educational opportunities directed towardthe development of professional identity, self-understanding and competent practice. (Field

* Manju Kumar, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi.

Education Dalhousie University, Canada 2005). One ofthe primary functions of social work education is tohelp students get professionally socialized in socialwork values, ethics and skills while integrating withthese a multitude of concepts drawn from multipledisciplines and learnt through course work.

One serious reservation about offering social workeducation through distance / open learning has beenthe perceived need for ‘face-to-face’ interaction withteachers to acquire professional socialization. Whileknowledge content is imparted through print andelectronic media supplemented by direct contact withtutors at the study centres, the major burden ofensuring professional socialization of students in socialwork course through the distance learning mode fallson supervised field – based instruction. Field educationor the practicum experience is at the core of SocialWork Education. It is viewed as the most significantcontributor to the development of professional expertise.It engages the student in supervised social work practiceand provides opportunities to apply theoretical learningin the field setting.

Supervision in the ODL Mode: By Facultyand / or Professional Social Worker at thePlacementTraditionally, students are placed in the field settingsby the educational institutions and faculty performsthe twin role of teaching academic courses andsupervising field work. The professional social workersemployed at the placement agency provide additionalsupervisory inputs at the field level. Sometimes, in open

Field Practicum Supervision in Distance Learning Mode 237


community settings, faculty member is the solesupervisor and guide.

Under the field practicum design in social workeducation through distance learning, the students doget field instruction by a person professionally qualified.However, this person may or may not be their courseteacher. The nature, content and strategies of field worksupervision, therefore, vary from the traditional model.The field instructor, the student’s primary field learningresource, is sometimes also the placement agency’srepresentative to the educational program. Besides, thefield instructor may not be the course teacher but onewho is a teacher in conventional system of social workeducation. This situation requires a high degree ofconceptual clarity in the performance of the supervisoryfunctions in Field Instruction in the DL mode.

You have become familiar with various functionsperformed by field instructors. The field instructorsunder the DL mode perform all those functions butrequiring higher sensitivity to the levels andbackgrounds of students. The medium of field worksupervision is not only the traditionally used individualand / or group conference but also electronic medialike emails, teleconferencing, telephonic consultationetc.

Course teacher as supervisor of field practicum

In many instances, the person entrusted with theresponsibility of teaching one or more subject of thesyllabus also takes up the task of providing fieldinstruction. The supervisor guides the studentsallocated to her / him for a designated period, generally

for one year. Supervisory tasks start from selectingplacements for respective students, keeping in mindthe educational objectives of field work, students’ leveland background; and mission, goals and programmesof potential placement agencies. Supervisors prepareand orient the students about what is expected of them,and what situations they are likely to encounter duringfield work. The field practicum supervisor then assignstasks, holds individual and group conferences to discussand review students’ performance and field experiences.S/he provides feedback and necessary guidance to helpstudents acquire professional learning. The supervisormaintains liaison with the social work professional atthe agency. The supervisor is responsible formaintaining discipline among the supervisees andfinally undertakes appraisal of students’ learning. Theevaluation is generally a mix of appraisal by internal(the field instructor) and external experts. Givingdetailed orientation to the agency set up, assignmentof daily tasks and on site guidance and supervision arethe responsibilities of the professional social workeremployed in the placement agency.

Even in case of the supervisor being other than thecourse teacher (someone teaching in the conventionalsystem, or a social work graduate working in a socialsector / human service organisation) the tasks outlinedabove hold good. In the case of one working in a socialsector / human service organisation, the supervisor hasan added responsibility of clearly spelling out theeducational goals of field learning, and helping studentsintegrate their theoretical learning with field practiceby highlighting application of theoretical concepts inactual practice.



Placement – based supervision

This is a situation where the professionally qualifiedsocial worker employed in the placement agency aloneis responsible for students’ field instruction. The fieldpracticum instructor has to perform both the roles –represent the placement agency, help studentsintegrate theory with practice, and help achieveeducational objectives of field practicum.

Examination of the workplace as a learning environmentreveals it is far from ideal and poses unique challengesto the practicum supervisor, especially when that roleis assumed by a workplace supervisor. Specific interestsof student and employee may not coincide, and theinterests of both diverge from those of organizations.(Chris Hughes, 1998)

Another challenge faced by the field practicumsupervisor based at the placement is in the context ofa student who may be working in the same agency butin a role not strictly that of a professional social worker.In fact that may be the very reason why that studenthas joined the course. The supervisor has to differentiatethe assignments expected as part of field practicumfrom the tasks currently performed by the student sothat the latter is able to acquire professional learningand identity.

Many of the professionals taking up the responsibilityof supervising field practicum have had long experiencein the field. While supervising field practicum of buddingprofessionals, they need to demonstrate to the studentsa balanced view of the importance of academicgrounding and practice wisdom.

Strategies of supervision

Supervision, an integrated part of social work education,is a complex process. Numerous models, theories andapproaches have been formulated to ensure effectivesupervisory inputs. Supervision of students is generallya mix of more than one style, approach, model orstrategy. Keeping in mind the diversity of any one groupof students enrolled in the course through DL mode, itis even more important to apply a mix of approaches tosuit the needs and levels of the students. Given beloware some of the strategies which supervisors employ toachieve their goal of providing professional learning tostudents of social work:

Managing early stages of field practicum and settingthe tone of open dialogue and purposeful action.

According to developmental models of supervision,the supervisee proceeds through a series ofdevelopmental stages and tasks. The goal ofsupervision is for the supervisor to guide thesupervisee through these stages. It attends to thedevelopmental shifts occurring in the supervisoryprocess and provides input as a function of the skilllevel, developmental level and maturational level ofthe supervisee.

While supervisory strategy based on developmentalmodel is best suited at the beginning of the fieldpracticum or during the first year of the course,reflective approach is favoured more for a relativelymore advanced student.

Three different orientations are important forsupervision. Supervisor can focus on the client, the



methods or the process of the work. Often thesupervisor changes between these focuses withinone meeting. There is also a development fromclient- to method- and later on to more process-oriented supervision. This is reflected in the IGNOUModel for BSW course in the context of three years’field practicum design.

Supervision, though a process, occurs within astructure. Specific individual and group sessionsfor providing supervisory inputs are formallyprescribed. For these sessions, the students areexpected to come prepared with their observationsand queries. Supervisors are expected to providestudents meaningful feedback-both oral and writtenabout students’ learning and performance.

Supervision goes on continuously and is organizedwith regular meetings over a period of time.

As mentioned above, supervisor can be internal(course teacher) or external (Professional socialworker employed at the placement agency). Manytimes the two different kinds of supervision are co-existing.

Professional social work supervision is a processwhich facilitates critical reflection upon actions,processes, persons, and the context of social workpractice. This process takes place within aprofessional relationship between a social worksupervisor and supervisee(s). The strategy ofsupervision is to nurture this relationship.

Individual Supervision, Peer Supervision, GroupSupervision – all the three styles are utilized inthe supervision of students.

Supervision refers to a range of strategies,including: preceptorship, mentorship, andcoaching. Placement decision-making, orienting,motivating, encouraging task performance,addressing problems are some other strategieswhich supervisors use to fulfill their responsibilitieseffectively.

Cyber supervision is an upcoming strategy,especially in the case of distance learning. Chattingonline with the supervisor in real time not onlyhelps getting guidance, the student also is able toretain record of the supervisory inputs.

Supervision involves use of both informative andproblem-solving approaches.

Supervision can be reactive or pro-active or both.Reactive supervision is triggered by a significantevent, problem or concern.

Proactive strategy seeks to avoid major supervisorychallenges through planning, communicating andbeing involved.

Students’ response to supervision passes throughfour stages, namely dependence; pseudo-dependence; interdependence; independence(Jake J. Protivnak, 2003). Supervisors have to adapttheir styles and strategies accordingly.

As mentioned above, supervisors need to adapt theirapproach and interventions according to the need, leveland background of the students; educational objectivesof field instruction; and goals of the placement agencies.



Tools of SupervisionSupervisors make use of a number of tools in thesupervisory process. While most of these are also utilizedby the supervisors in the traditional system of socialwork education, some hold higher primacy for those inthe Distance Learning system.

Structure of field practicum and supervision defineclearly the objectives, nature, role, and expectationsof field learning and supervision.

In this context, Field Practicum Journal for studentsand Guide for supervisors prove major supervisorytools.

Supervisor-supervisee relationship is a most vitaltool in the hands of the supervisor. As studentslearn theoretical contents primarily through self-study materials, this tool is most critical to students’acquiring professional socialization.

Feedback –both formal and informal – is animportant tool for the supervisor. Written commentson students’ field records in the Field Journal ofthe students are a constant source of guidance.

Other forms of feedback, such as self-assessmentby the students and / or peer review are also usedby supervisors.

Educational assessment is an important tool forsupervision. It is an on-going process and helpsstudents understand whether or not his/hersupervisor is happy with his her performance. Thismonitoring and reviewing of the work and learningoccur periodically so that both supervisor and

supervisee are clear as to the students’ strengthsand areas that need improvement.

Summative evaluation at mid term and at the endof the term is the culmination of the ongoingassessment process. Term-end appraisal places thestudents’ learning within the parameters ofachievement of minimum standards of fieldlearning; allowing the student to move upward onthe ladder of the course.

Communication is basic to the entire process ofsupervision. Active listening and open channels ofcommunication are basic tools of supervision.

Observation of the students at the placement andin the supervisory conferences act as additionalresource for the supervisor’s assessment of thestudents.

Structured individual and group conferences areacknowledged as the most important tools ofsupervision. On account of this, the IGNOU modelensures a minimum number of these conferences.

Process records of students’ work at the placementare one of the most valuable tools of supervision.These records provide focus and direction forsupervisory inputs. Case records or case studiesare very useful tools for generating reflectivediscussions in individual and group conferences.

Review is a powerful self evaluation tool. Self-Reports, however, are only as good as theobservational and conceptual abilities of thesupervisee. It is the seasoned insightfulness of the



supervisor that offers many opportunities forutilizing these as supervision tool.

Video, Audiotape and live observation are tools oftenutilized by the supervisors. There are, however,ethical dimensions to recording student’s work withthe clients.

Reflective questioning in the supervisoryconferences act as a supervisory tool, especially inthe case of more mature and advanced student.

Demonstration, role playing and role modeling aresome other tools in the hands of a creativesupervisor. Role Playing is ideal for practicing skills.Role Modeling is learning by watching an expertperform the task to be learned. Demonstration isa presentation by an expert that displays andexplains a procedure, followed by opportunities todiscuss and practice the skills.

Supervisors employed in the placement agency canuse ‘shadowing’ in the early phases of learning orin case of continued difficulty in student’sperformance.

Effective and constructive criticism can be used asa tool to promote growth. It is preferable that thefocus of the criticism is on the work and not on theindividual involved.

Praise for the achievements is an important toolfor nurturing the relationship an building student’sself-confidence.

Student-initiated e-mails act as a supplementalmodality for supervision. Videoconferencing can be

a tool both in individual and group supervision,though the issue of confidentiality has to be keptin mind.

The supervisor draws upon his /her ownprofessionally disciplined self, i.e. an integratedwhole of professional knowledge, skills and theattitudes acquired overtime. Supervision is aprocess parallel to that of social work practice. Theonly difference is that the students are not treatedas clients requiring therapeutic interventions.

Self-disclosure by the supervisor.

Functions of the Supervisor: Educational,Administrative, HelpingYou are already familiar with the three categories offunctions performed by field instructors or field worksupervisors, namely, educational, administrative andhelping / supportive functions. Design of FieldPracticum in Social Work Courses offered by IGNOUthrough distance learning provides for elaborate processof Field Instruction – both structured and informal.Following is a brief exposition of various functionsexpected of supervisors under this model.

You will do well to refer to the illustration of fieldpracticum organized for BSW course students given inthe previous block of this book.

a) Educational Functions

1) Designing and planning of learning activitiesand/or programmes of study.



2) Giving theoretical content, whenever theclassroom teaching is not in tune with fieldwork needs – Whether or not the field instructoris a course teacher, the supervisor is frequentlyrequired to give theoretical information or giveappropriate reference for locating necessaryinformation. It is particularly crucial in the DLmode because acquiring the knowledgecomponent of the course is based on self-studyby the students.

3) Identifying professional skills in daily field workassignments.

4) Professional socialization – teaching studentsto apply values and principles while using socialwork methods.

5) Giving knowledge of micro-macro linkages, legalprovisions, govt. schemes, information aboutcommunity resources. As the students growconfident and more settled to meet fieldpracticum demands, the supervisor refers themto relevant sources to procure informationinstead of giving it.

6) Teaching the use of tools and techniques ofsocial work practice.

7) Demonstrating use of methods and skills –through lab work or at the placement itself.

8) Teaching record-writing , documentation work

9) Provide frequent and accurate feedback.

10) Facilitate reflection and critical thinkingthrough well planned and structuredsupervisory sessions.

11) Dealing with ethical dilemmas in field workdecision-making.

12) Working with co-workers and utilizingsupervision, accepting and utilizing feedback.

13) Teaching NGO / GO management includingmaintaining records, working on committees,budgeting, project proposal formulation, inter-agency coordination etc.

14) Guidance on research exercise – catchingstudents to take up any research-basedassignment – teaching students about researchmethodology, i.e. data collection, data analysisand reporting.

15) Innovative projects to help individuals / groups/ families / communities - introducing by directinstruction or encouraging students to takeinitiative themselves.

b) Administrative Functions

Besides the above-mentioned responsibilities,supervisors are expected to perform certainadministrative or managerial tasks which are veryimportant for smooth and efficientoperationalisation of the design of field practicum,which in turn makes students’ professionallearning possible. Following are some of theadministrative tasks of field practicum supervisors:



1) Selection of agencies for field placements

2) Placements of students- different phases inplacement: screening, minimum orientation,goal setting, actual placement, and evaluationand closure. (St. John David, 1975).

3) Giving orientation about field practicum andexpectations from students, explaining the useof the Field Journal. Rather than ‘fix’ themistakes, better to tell the do’s and don’tsbefore hand. Preparing students for their firstprofessional roles is no small task. It requiresgiving detailed attention to innumerablecontingencies.

4) Keeping attendance of students, ensuringsubmission of records and maintaining log ofstudents’ work.

5) Maintaining students’ discipline in placements.

6) Planning and holding of supervisoryconferences, giving prior intimation to thesupervisees so that they can make necessaryarrangements for attending the same. This isall the more relevant in distance learningprogrammes.

7) As different from an on-going educationalassessment, supervisors have to formallyevaluate students’ performance and level oflearning in terms of professional skills,knowledge and attitudes.

8) Maintaining liaison with placement agencies /

agency supervisors. Maintaining good publicrelations with agencies and network of humanservice agencies, agencies in the social andcorporate sector is very important. This taskrequires placement-based supervisor to makeextra efforts to rise above agency boundloyalties and perceive PR exercise a part ofsupervisory work.

9) Visiting field placements, coordination withcourse tutors.

10) Arranging of orientation / observation visits ofdifferent organizations as directed by fieldpracticum objectives.

11) Resolution of Field work related problems.

12) Achieving alignment of field –based learningobjectives with placement agency’s goals, andpractice modalities.

13) Serving on Governing Boards of relevantorganizations.

14) Supervisors have to be vicariously responsiblefor what their students are doing in the field.Irrespective of the educative value of allowingstudents to learn ‘by doing’, often by trial anderror, supervisors have to ensure that thismanner of learning does not aggravate theproblems of the client groups. Supervisors have,therefore, to be cautious and to critically assessstudents’ work.



c) Helping Functions

During field practice, the student will be facing realsocial problems and will discover both the impact ofthese experiences and the requirements of interactionwith the people with whom they have to co-operate.Field practice awakens a range of feelings in thestudent, including insecurity in the role. Studentsstruggle with confusion and self-doubt as they attemptto develop self-efficacy as a professional. The learningprocess in social work involves a reappraisal of ownattitudes and values. In this process, the student needsthe support of a supervisor.

It is not enough to oversee students’ work and teachthem the use of social work methods. The students areexpected to develop the ‘professional self’ which meansthat their ‘self’ is the main tool for offering professionalinterventions. Social Work education aims at bridgingthe gap between the ‘personal self’ and the ‘professionalself’ of the students. Reassurance of worth and socialintegration support from supervisors go a long waytowards providing students an anchor which they canhold onto in times of emotional turmoil, anxiety, stressand self-doubt. Supervisory activities with this focusare designated as ‘helping’ functions. Following aresome of the helping functions of field practicumsupervisors:

1) Creating an open supervisory environment,

2) Providing encouragement,

3) Attending to students’ personal growth,

4) Building confidence,

5) Helping students develop self-awareness;understanding of personal vs. professional self,

6) Settling down in placements, with agency staff, co-workers,

7) Accepting demands of social work course,

8) Dealing with personal / family problems havingimpact on field practicum performance,

9) Keeping track of field assignments triggeringpersonal unfinished agenda, and similarity inproblems of clients and self or family,

11) Referral to counselors for in-depth personalcounseling and to other agencies for addressingfamily and personal problems,

11) Career counseling,

12) Help students get balance between coursedemands and life outside it – job (for those working),family, friends, other interests or courses etc.,

13) Helping students with their struggle with confusionand self-doubt as they attempt to develop self-efficacy as a professional. Supervisors help studentsidentify their strengths and trace professionaldimensions of the assignments which may seemroutine or unimportant.

14) Supervision should certainly become more relaxedand more supportive as time goes on.

15) Creating a bond and communicating beforeapplying supervisory controls is very essential.



16) Professional learning is carried out within thecontext of the student/field instructor relationship.The field instructor/student relationship is theprimary mechanism through which studentsdevelops a professionally reflective and self-evaluative practice stance. Helping dimension offield instructor’s function helps nurture andstrengthens this relationship.

17) A non-threatening environment of the relationshipwill help students accept constructing criticism andencourage them to change.

18) We have mentioned earlier that mentoring is oneof the most highly recommended supervisorystrategies. The word mentor infers caring, settingwise example, coaching and identifying mistakeswithout causing resentment.

Roles of the SupervisorRoles are a set of behaviours that the field practicumsupervisors engage in to fulfill their various obligations.Some of the supervisory roles conceptualized by theexperts are that of a (a) teacher, (b) enabler, (c)facilitator, (d) guide, (e) consultant, (f) counsellor (butthe student is not a client), (g) co-coordinator, (h) anadvocate to act on behalf of students’ needs andproblems, (i) mediator between agency supervisor andthe student, or students and other staff members, (j)confidante. Besides the roles of a mentor and coach(with an emphasis or role modeling), an advisor,appraiser and referral agent are getting increasingmention in social work education literature.

Qualities of a SupervisorThe discussion of various functions and roles that afield instructor performs leads one to perceive a personwith a certain set of qualities and traits of personality.Skills of professional social work practice are alsorelevant. Supervision, as mentioned earlier, is a processparallel to that of social work practice. Professionalvalues and principles are equally relevant. Ethicalconcerns are as much crucial in supervision as theyare in the practice with clients. All these expectationsget in clearer relief in the context of field practicum forstudents enrolled in distance learning course of socialwork. The supervisor has to adapt and respond tohighly diverse student population. As stated elsewhere,the students may belong to those social groups whothemselves face discrimination, biases and stereotypingin society. Socio-economic and cultural differencesbetween the supervisors and students require concertedeffort on the part of the former. Supervisors’ ownperceptions with regard to gender, region, caste andclass may need to be understood and dealt with.Despite the fact that supervisory process has a parallelin professional practice, every good social workpractitioner may not prove to be a good field practicumsupervisor. Ability to apply all the skills, values andknowledge of the profession and still managing to viewthe students not as clients but budding autonomousprofessionals requires unique set of capabilities andsensitivity.

Various research studies on which kind of supervisorsare rated highly by the students state that thesupervisors with the following qualities are considered



by the students as being supportive of their professionallearning: empathetic, caring, open-minded, fair andjust, unbiased, tolerant of differences and accepting ofthe pace of learning of respective students (startingwhere the person is and moving at the pace of theindividual), firm but flexible; knowledgeable of the fieldand having strong interpersonal and communicationskills, rational and critically reflective, is secure in his/ her position as a supervisor, believes in lifelonglearning and professional development, is culturallysensitive and has a strong sense of professional identity.The supervisor is expected to have leadership qualitieswhich reflect judicious use of power inherent in thesupervisory process.

Supervising Field Practicum: SomeImportant IssuesAfter having discussed the functions and qualities of agood supervisor, we are now looking up the issues whichare relevant for fully comprehending the phenomenonof supervision of field practicum in the DL mode. Someof the issues we have already touched upon and someare self-explanatory like, cultural gap between thesupervisor and students, especially in DL mode, issuesof gender – supervising students of the opposite sex,disparity in age – (student may be much more maturein age than the supervisor) and use of technology.There are interpersonal dimensions of first three ofthese issues and in others, i.e. use of technology, thereis a concern for confidentiality. Also tools of onlinesupervision presume access and proficiency in relevanttechnology that may or may not be the case. In some ofthe remote areas, which are marked by very limited

educational facilities, access to advanced technology isstill a distant dream.

Some other issues are being discussed further:

Training of supervisors: We have alreadymentioned that being a good social work practitioneris not sufficient to becoming a good field instructor.Keeping in mind the need of training and orientingthe supervisors, the IGNOU Model provides forOrientation (beginning of the term), face-to-faceinteraction with the Director at the University level,teleconferencing arranged periodically and Guidefor Supervisors.

Field practitioner vs. academician: Supervisorswith academic or with practice orientation are likelyto have different impact on students’ professionallearning. Those who are employed in human serviceagencies and take up field instructor’s responsibilityhave to make an extra effort to refresh theirtheoretical base. On the other hand, courseteachers taking up supervisors’ role have to updatetheir practice orientation. Students have to facefield realities, which are far from ideal. Supervisorshave to be tuned both to academics and practicerealities.

Students are placed under different supervisor insuccessive years of their course. They may find itdifficult to adapt to different styles and orientationof respective supervisors. The subjective elementin the supervisory process may appear lessacceptable to the students who are not familiar withthis trend in social work education. Supervisors



have to make special effort to allow students to getused to the idea and learn to benefit from thissystem. Professional learning in social work, afterall, involves interacting and relating to differentpersons. In case a particular student respondsnegatively to the style of a successive supervisor,the onus is on the supervisor to help student getthe maximum benefit from his approach and style.

Role conflict: This is by far the most crucial aspectof supervision related dilemmas—how to maintaina healthy balance among administrative, helpingand educational functions. Most social worksupervisors …….. experience some form of roleconflict in which they have to balance their differingresponsibilities, multiple accountabilities and arange of relationships, when practicing in thesupervisory role (O’Donoghue, 2000).

Some authors offer mentoring as the most effectivesupervision strategy. They suggest that this approachto supervision overcomes some of the problematic,hierarchical aspects embedded in supervision.(Manathunga, 2007). The play of power embedded inthe supervisor-supervisee relationship is in sharpcontrasts with the pre-requisites of a helping role.

The appraisal function places supervisors in a positionof authority which has implications for the verymovement of students on the ladder of educationalachievement.

Vicarious liability of supervisors for what students doin the field may lead to restricted autonomy accordedto the students.

Sequential nature of educational objectives of fieldpracticum makes a certain pace of learning mandatory.Despite the flexibility of distance learning mode,practical considerations of agency functioning placecertain pressure on students to comply with thedemands of practicum schedule.

Achieving role clarity is very important so as to minimizefrustration among supervisors and bewildermentamong students. Spelling out expectations fromstudents and different roles of the supervisors, at thevery beginning of the relationship and then periodicallythroughout the process may help in reducing adverseeffect of this conflict in roles.

ConclusionWe have traced, in this chapter, different facets ofsupervision of field practicum as it relates to social workeducation offered through distance learning.Supervision is a process which parallels that of socialwork practice. As such, it requires supervisor toestablish a positive relationship with the student, adoptstrategies, styles and approaches appropriate to thestudents’ levels, learning styles, needs and educationalgoals of field practicum. No single strategy or approachis likely to suit all learning needs and all students. Ajudicious mix of different strategies will be more useful.A number of tools are available to supervisors so thatthey can perform their responsibilities effectively.Structured supervision, individual and groupconferences, process records, case records, on-siteobservations and regular and constructive feedback arethe primary tools which are used within the context of



supervisor-supervisee relationship. Supervisors performthree-pronged functions, namely administrative, i.e.operational and discipline related functions;educational, i.e. related to professional learningconstituted of knowledge, skills and values; and thehelping functions that deal with student as a personand are concerned with his personal growth.

You have also considered as to what kind of person asupervisor has to be – to be able to perform suchdiverse and demanding tasks. And finally, we reflectedon certain issues which are inherent in the supervisoryprocess – cultural and perceptual disparity betweenstudent and supervisor; getting training to performsupervisory role and to deal with role conflict that isagain inevitable component of the complex process ofsupervision. Field learning gives students opportunityto integrate theory with practice. Supervisors also haveto maintain a balance between theoretical groundingand practice orientation.

References

Knight, Carolyn, The Process of Field Instruction: BSWand MSW Students’ Views of Effective Field Supervision,Journal of Social Work Education, v37 n2 p357-79 Spr-Sum 2001

Worthen, Vaughn E. & Dougher M. Kirk, EvaluatingEffective Supervision, Paper presented at the AnnualConference of the American Psychological Association,Aug.4-8, 2000, Washington DC (ERIC), www.eric.ed.gov

Smith, Marshall L., Toward a Guide to DistanceEducation in Social Work, The New Social WorkerOnline December, 2007, 13:31, http://www.socialworker.com

Stofle, Gary S. & Hamilton, Shavone, OnlineSupervision for Social Workers, The New Social Worker,Fall 1998, Vol. 5, No. 4

Coursol, Diane, Cybersupervision: Conductingsupervision on the Information Highway, in CyberBytes:Highlighting Compelling Use of Technology inCounselling, Education Resource Information Centre,USA Department of Education (ERIC) 2004www.eric.ed.gov

Field, Harriet, Developmentally Appropriate PracticumSupervision: Perceptions of students and Supervisors ,Paper presented at Annual meeting of the Associationof Childhood Education International, San Diego, CAApril 3-6, 2002 (ERIC) www.eric.ed.gov

Manathunga, Catherine, Supervision as Mentoring: TheRole of Power and Boundary Crossing, Studies inContinuing Education, v29 n2 p207-221 Jul 2007

Hughes, Chris, Practicum Learning: Perils of theAuthentic Workplace, Higher Education Research andDevelopment, v17 n2 p207-27 Jun 1998

Field Education, Dalhousie University Canada, 2005

Protivnak, Jake J., Supervision ModalitiesDevelopmentally Appropriate for School Counselors2003 (Abstract Cited by ERIC) www.eric.ed.gov



David, St. John, Goal-Directed Supervision of SocialWork Students in Field Placement, Journal of Educationfor Social Work, 11, 3, 89-94, F 75

O’Donoghue, Kieran, The Future of Social WorkSupervision within Aotearoa / New Zealand, A paperpresented At the National Supervision ConferenceSupervision: From Rhetoric to Reality, July 7, 2000,Auckland. http://pages.prodigy.net/lizmitchell/volksware/supervisionfuture.htm

Dowling, Susann, Supervision: Strategies for SuccessfulOutcomes and Productivity, (Abstarct) Allyn & Bacon,2001, http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0205315070,00.html

Supervision Strategies (Flinders University, Australia)

http://www.flinders.edu.au/teach/t4l/research/postgrad/strategies.php?printview=1

Teaching Role and Effective Supervision: TrainingModule, Department of Social Work MSW Online FieldSupervisor Training, University of Minnesota, http://www.d.umn.edu/sw/field/onlinefieldsuptrain/Field.htm

13Individuals, Family and

Community*K. Hemlata, Sushma Murthy

IntroductionFieldwork Practicum forms an important component ofsocial work course as it provides an opportunity for thestudent to practice social work skills. The student getsan exposure to the problems and needs prevailing ineach setting and the training equips him/her to handlethose problems with necessary skills. Here we presentthe guidelines for fieldwork in different settings.

Fieldwork Practive with IndividualsProfessional education depends upon the applicabilityof its skills, methods and strategies in the field. Theconcurrent fieldwork component of social workeducation provides an opportunity to all students topractice their learning in the classroom. The studentsdevelop the capacities and abilities to work withIndividuals, groups and communities usually under thesupervision of their faculty members. Through firsthand observation and participation the students are

* Dr. Hemlata, Christ College, Bangalore and Sushma Murthy, ChristCollege, Bangalore


able to imbibe the nuances of actual practice. Thisfacilitates students to perceive the relationship betweentheoretical parts of social work with the practice in thefield settings.

Objectives of Fieldwork To offer purposeful learning experience to students

through interaction with life situation undersupervisory guidance for professional growth interms of knowledge, skills and attitudes.

To foster attitudes in the student towardsprofessional self-development and increasing self-awareness.

To help students develop skills in the practice allthe methods of social work

To integrate the class room learning with fieldpractice

To develop skills in problem solving.

Fieldwork should provide effective learning experienceto the students. The fieldwork objectives are realizedwhen the field placement fulfills certain criteria ofexperiential learning, such as:

The learning experience during fieldwork must givethe student the opportunity to perform the kind ofbehaviour implied by the fieldwork objectives.

Students should have opportunities to deal withthe kind of content implied by the objectives.

The field experience should be within the capacitiesof the students whether in dealing with individual

clients or while working with the communities.

The learnings from the field should be built on thepast experience of the students. Each semesterthe students should have incremental exposure interms of the techniques and skills used.

Field experience should help students to have abetter perception of himself and his career.

Field experience helps the students to perceive allthe necessary aspects of accomplishing the learningtask and to bring the parts into a satisfactory whole.

Through our field placement the students learningmust be monitored and regular feedback makeslearning effective.

Fieldwork with Individuals

Social casework is understood as an approach to helpindividual in a systematic manner based on knowledgeof human behaviour and various tested approaches.Helen Harris Perlman (1957) tries to understand thisprocess of working with individuals in terms of a ‘person’with a ‘problem’, who comes to an agency where thehelp he seeks is rendered. She was thus able todelineate the four basic components of social casework,viz., person, problem, place and process.

Field experience related to helping individuals wouldprimarily involve placing the student in the ‘place’which is an agency where he learns the entire processof working with the individual.

The problem that is presented by the person is tackledthrough a process, which is a progressive transaction

Individuals, Family and Community 265


between the professional and the client. This consistsof the problem solving activities carried out within therelationship that is forged between the social workerand the client.

Students undergoing training in casework have to beprovided this experiential learning so that the studentwhile interacting with real person/client imbibes theprocess of problem solving.

Bowers (1949) defines casework as an “ art in whichknowledge of the science of human relations and theskills in relationship are used to mobilize capacities inthe individual and the resources in the communityappropriate for better adjustment between the clientand all or part of his environment”. This view clearlyestablishes the requirement in terms of fieldexperiences for students learning casework practice. Itbecomes a basic necessity to prepare the student withsound theoretical inputs before placing him in the field.This can enable the students to be prepared to carryout casework with clients in actual problem situations.

Learning goals for field practice with individuals

1) To provide the student with experiences in usingcase work concepts, components, principles andtechniques

2) To enable the student to develop his concept of‘professional self’ and its differential use

3) To facilitate the experience of going through theentire process of social case work viz Intake process,Diagnosis of the problem, treatment plan,

implementation and evaluation and follow up.

4) To help the student to acquaint himself with themethod of reporting and record the process followedby the student. This involves the development ofthe proper format to record Intake summaries withpersonal details, family details, issues related toreferral and the presenting problem. The studentlearns the appropriate use of the features such asthe Genogram and Ecomap. The student has todevelop formats to record the sessions as well assummary recordings.

Students should learn the scope and the variations incasework practice in different settings.

Before beginning field practice the students needadequate grounding in the theory of casework practice.The concerned faculty has to reorient the students withthe concepts, process and techniques before intake ofclients. Individual and group conferences help in theminute planning of each session by the student.

Choice of Cases/Clients

It is usually the practice that the agency personnelthemselves allot cases to students if the student isrequired to select the cases themselves; the guidanceof the faculty supervisor becomes essential.

Preliminary Session

This session is generally used to finish the IntakeProcess. Most schools provide comprehensive formatsto gather all the information required. The student atthis stage learns to build professional relationship with



client. Rapport building skills should be used effectivelyduring the stage. The student is exposed to theformalities of conducting interviews. The studentscollect all the information and review it with the agencystaff for a proper interpretation of the client’s situation.

The student has to understand the socio-economicmilieu of the client. The cultural background of theclient will help the student to comprehend theactualities of the case. Many times a psychologicalassessment of the client may be required for thecompletion of the first phase of casework practice.

Students have to learn to diagrammatically present thefacts of the case. The genogram as well as the Ecomapform part of the intake summary to help the student tounderstand the situational concomitants of the case.

Besides interviewing the client the Initial sessionsshould involve collateral interviews with members ofthe immediate family, neighbors and other significantmembers relevant to the case. A few sessions could beplanned to interview them and solicit their observationsand suggestions about the case.

Diagnosis

The student has to discuss the details of the case withagency personnel as well as the faculty supervisor tounderstand all the facts of the case. The subtlety andsensitivity of assessing the case has to be developed bythe student. Proper diagnosis is at the heart of thecasework practice. Fieldwork should help inunderstanding the variations in seemingly similarsituations and learn not to view situations asstereotypes.

Fieldwork practice should facilitate the students tomake an etiological diagnosis. This provides the studentthe opportunity to focus completely on the ‘problem’.The students understand the features of the problemsuch as the duration, consistency and its strength, theimpact of these features on the ‘person’ and his presentsocial functioning and the resulting inappropriatebehaviours and relationship patterns should beassessed by the student.

Further the student has to be taught to make thedynamic diagnosis. This provides a cross sectional viewof the forces currently operating in the client’sproblems. This process helps in establishing what thetrouble is. The role-played by the psychological, social,environmental and in certain cases biological factorsin the development of the problem is to be understood.

This should help the student to interpret the facts. Heshould be in a position to judge the validity andfeasibility of various solutions and make predictionsabout operationalising the intervention planned. Thestudent should understand the flexibility that initialdiagnosis gives as this tentative diagnosis could besubject to modification and the treatment process couldget crystallized with the progress of case work practice.

Treatment Phase

Students go to the field with the knowledge thattreatments goals generally fall in four categories –curative, rehabilitative, preventive and promotional. Thestudents generally are advised to administer concreteservices. He may have to modify the environment, bothsocial and physical, which are precipitating the client’s



situation. The student has to strengthen the client’scapacities, work towards modifying existing attitudes,beliefs and values. The focus can also be the emotionalwell being of the client also.

The student has to discuss the issues with the expertsand supervisors before finalizing the treatment plan.Student has to facilitate the process of helping theclients to reach decisions.

During the conferences with the student the facultymember has to help him to sharpen some of the skillsto be used. Cognitive skill, interactive skill andassessment skill play an important role in the initialphases. Problem solving, decision making and climatesetting skills will be employed in the latter stages ofpractice. Like wise the various techniques, which couldbe used – Adaptive behaviour, advocacy or mobilizationtechniques have to be understood fully before practice.

Evaluation

After the intervention phase, the students have toterminate the case. Client follow up is essential toevaluate the casework intervention. This stage willprove very beneficial for the learner. Assessing thevarious skills, techniques and principles can helpstudents to rectify their misconceptions

Skills Requirements of Social Case Work

Students have to learn certain specific skills duringfield placement. Different phases of the caseworkpractise require different skills to complete the activitiesrequired.

Skill in building relationships; this skill is vital as theentire process of case work is carried out through theprofessional relationship. This skill is developedthrough the practices of showing respect andexpressing genuine interest in the client and hisproblem. The student also should be prepared toexhibit the correct professional attitude while buildingthe professional relationship.

Skill in exploring problems; this skill is related to‘probing’ for the correct details which help students tounderstand the problem in all its complexities

As well as understanding development pattern of theproblem. The student’s analytical skills have to bedeveloped so that he is capable to make the rightjudgment to formulate the treatment phase. The roleof the supervisor becomes vital here.

Skills in locating and accessing resources; this requiresthe student to access the material as well as non-material resources. These could belong to the agencyas well as the client’s family or from the environment.

Skill in establishing the treatment alternatives; this isthe skill in envisaging different approaches to solve theproblem of the client. The student has to developdifferent courses of action with associated advantagesand disadvantages and limitations. The students shouldhave the appropriate communication skills to help theclient to comprehend the different courses of action.

Field Work Practice with FamiliesModern family social work is rooted in the early friendlyvisitor concept. Apart from working with individuals and



groups, the social workers also have to work with thefamilies in problem. This is gaining a lot of importanceas the families are going through a stage of transitionwhile meeting the changing demands of the presentday society. This in turn is leading to a lot of problemsin raising children, relationship of married couple,balancing multiple roles and so on. The importantobjective of family social work is to help families learnto function more efficiently while meeting thedevelopmental and emotional needs of all the members.

Hence, as a part of field work practicum a social worktrainee is exposed to families as one of the major areasof field work.

A student social worker has to deal with the families –in –problem under the effective guidance of thesupervisor.

Following are the guidelines for a student to do hisfield work practicum with families.

Collecting and identifying information:This is the beginning phase where the traineeshould collect the personal details of the client.

Assessing the client’s needs:The trainee should understand the problems andneeds of the client. This can be begun by obtainingas much information as possible on the client andhis family. The trainee can achieve this by readingmaterial about the specific problems from files, ifavailable.

Understanding the stages of family life cycle:

It provides an opportunity to the student tounderstand the stage a family is going through andits related problems. This would help the studentlearn the strategies used to cope with theseproblems.

Home visit:

The trainee needs to visit the client’s house in orderto understand the environmental factorscontributing to the problem. This may be done inaddition to holding the session in office. It ishowever advised to conduct the session in theclient’s house. This would also help to assess therelationships and communication pattern presentamong the members.

Learn to draw a Genogram and Ecomap:The student can gradually engage in activities suchas drawing a genogram or an eco map as theseactivities will help the trainee to understand theproblem from the perspective of family’s interactionwith its environment.

Building a relationship with the client:The trainee needs to use his skills of building arapport and empathic understanding. The traineeneeds to be nonjudgmental and possess positiveregard for the client and all his family members.This can be done under the close supervision ofhis guide.



Protecting confidentiality:

Another skill to be used by the trainee is tomaintain confidentiality by avoiding discussingabout the client with others who are not related tothe problem. The reports that are written shouldbe kept highly confidential.

Developing attending skills:

1) Non-verbal attending skills like eye-contact andappropriate facial expressions should bemaintained

2) Verbal attending skills include listening closelyto what others are stating verbally and Para-verbally and non-verbally.

Developing interviewing skills:

As the trainee gets to witness the superior doingthe interview for the client and his family members,he/she needs to closely observe the process in orderto develop skills in;

1) Listening.

2) Being sensitive about verbal and non- verbalcommunication about desires and goals fromeach family members.

3) Recognizing family difficulties related to effectiveproblem solving.

4) Promoting skills, knowledge, attitudes andenvironmental conditions that contribute toeffective family coping.

Focusing on important issues in assessmentinterview:

When the interview is being carried out by thetherapist, the trainee has to focus on the followingaspects.

1) Problem:

This mainly includes aspects like why theintervention is needed, what is the extent ofthe problem and what is the history of theproblem.

2) Internal functioning of the family:A fieldwork trainee needs to understand thestrengths of the family in terms of internalresources, and internal support.

Problem identification:The trainee should develop the skills to identifythe problem based on the information gatheredabout the family and its environment.

The task of goal setting:

The trainee should learn the art of assisting familiesin goal setting. This again depends on self –determination and desires of the family. The traineeshould observe the therapist in facilitating the familyto arrive at the desired destination.

Working through the problem:

This is again learnt by observing the therapist asto how the techniques like relaxation techniques,assertive training are used on the family members.



Here, the field work trainee will be learning theapplication of theory he has studied into practice.

The trainee should learn the skills to bringbehavioural change through basic life skills.

Termination:

The trainee should learn about terminating theprocess. It is done when the family is able to functionon its own after developing effective copingmechanism to work through the problem.

Follow up:The student has to continue to follow up the caseto ensure that the intervention has proved to beeffective and the problem has not repeated.

Reporting:The fieldwork trainee should write the reports ondaily basis where he has to record every detail ofthe session. He needs to evaluate the day’s work atthe end of the report before adding his plan of actionfor the next session.

Field Work Practice with CommunitiesWorking with communities refers to the various methodsof intervention whereby a professional change agenthelps a community system composed of individuals,groups or organizations to engage in planned collectiveaction in order to deal with social problems within ademocratic system of values.

Community organization is the method of social workpractice, which focuses on community intervention.

This method follows a process which includes theunderstanding of needs of a community, facilitatinginteraction between the different parts of the ‘whole’community namely the institutions, leadership –informal and formal as well as the geographicalsubdivisions. This process facilitates the maximum useof its internal and external resources, which at the sametime strengthening its potential ability to undertakethe solution of different complex and difficult problems.

Learning goals of field work Practice withcommunities

To provide opportunities for the students tounderstand the features of communities – Urban,rural, tribal.

To imbibe the skills required for practice in opencommunities such as skills in interacting withpeople, conflict management, resource mobilizationetc.

Understanding the Unique needs of the differentcommunities. Prioritizing the needs and assessingpeoples’ strength.

Understanding the importance of peopleparticipation in implementing the interventionplanned.

Many schools of social work strongly adhere to thepractice that all students have to be placed in opencommunities during the first year of studies before theymove on to the various specializations. It becomesessential to first find out the feasibility of carrying outfieldwork in certain open settings. Physical



accessibility, availability of basic amenities to students,compatibility with reference to languages spoken, andfamiliarity with the local issues are necessary. Schoolsof social work usually undertake pilot visits beforechoosing a community for fieldwork placement.

Induction into the community

It is normal practice to encourage students to visit thelocal municipal office or the Panchayat office to collectinformation about the community. The informationrelating to population, households, occupation etc. areavailable in these offices. Besides these, a survey ofthe community is undertaken to collect informationabout the sex ratio, distribution of the population bycaste and religion, family income, educational statusetc.

Needs assessment

Community organization practice is based entirely onthe assessment of the community vis-à-vis its felt needs.Student social workers have to develop the skills ofinteracting with people both at the formal and informallevel and comprehend the outstanding felt needs of acommunity. Students have to be taught to formulate asimple baseline survey format to access all the vitalinformation of the community. Meeting with localleaders, community heads, government officials andother functionaries to understand the needs of thecommunity.

Intervention

Before planning intervention strategies, the studenthas to understand the extent of politicization of

development processes in the community, anomaliesthat exist in the community. The student is likely toencounter apathy from certain section of thecommunity. The basic tenet of community organizationpractice is to facilitate community integration andadvocate self-help to the community. Broad crosssection of people has to be involved in the determinationand solving their own problems.

Planning interventions therefore involves developingcommunication networks between different interestgroups in the community. The student has to involvethe members of the power structure as collaborators inthe interventions/initiatives undertaken. Students haveto be helped in every way to develop organizationalskills. Problem solving and interactional skills help inarriving at solutions for reconciliable differences ofdifferent members.

People participation in the implementation of allinterventions planned is expected. The student had todepend on his interactional skills besides organizationalskills to successfully negotiate this phase of communitypractice.

The success of fieldwork practice depends largely onthe fieldwork content that the school of social workprovides to its students. Effective community practicefor example depends on the students’ understandingof the legal framework besides administrative principlesto effectively participate in the learning process. Asound knowledge of the resources available with in thecommunity becomes essential. Enlisting theparticipation of different stakeholders and ensuringtheir support is always a challenge to students as well



as practitioners. Fieldwork therefore has to providethe opportunities to develop and practice these skills.

The knowledge base for the student trainee will includea proper understanding of the concept of communityand the nature of community problems. The problemsolving concepts of study-diagnosis-plan of action hasto be understood clearly. Relevant social scienceconcepts including social status, social stratification,power structure and the manifest and the latentfunctions of organizations.

The training should include methods of communityanalysis techniques such as community surveys,priority studies, need assessment, resourceidentifications etc.

The student has to understand the professional rolesthat community workers would have to play. Specialemphasis has to be given to imbibe skills to facilitatecommunity participation. Students have to understandthe distinctive norms that professionals social workeradvocates regarding the worker’s relations to variouscommunity groups. Students need to be trained tolocate and use the formal and informal networks ofcommunication in the community.

Beyond the knowledge base, the students have todevelop pertinent skills and attitude relevant to theirwork.

He needs to be able to carry himself with ease in thefield, in an appropriate fashion in speech, dress andmanner while at the same time expressing hisindividuality.

He needs to view the participants with whom he worksas partners with himself in a common enterprise ofserving the community and see himself as enablinghis partners to serve their communities via hisparticular expert competence.

He needs to learn to exercise a professional vision ofthe what, when, where, why and how community tasksshould be performed.

The student trainee needs to understand that theservices and work of the community agency cannot beviewed as ends in themselves but as parts of a largerentity such as the communities’ themselves. Viewingpeople’s needs as those of unique individuals and notamorphous masses can forge this. Community workneed not also always be viewed as being restricted todisadvantaged groups alone. Communities need to beunderstood as heterogeneous entities, with each grouppresenting distinct need profiles.

The student also should be able to impart to thecommunity a philosophy grounded in a basiccommitment and the importance of a democraticapproach in carrying our work.

Some of the skills identified, which are relevant tocommunity-based practice are:

Engagement skills; those that relate to establishingrelationship with staff, local residents and communityleaders, being able to function in unstructured andsometimes chaotic situations, use of self in differentaction situations.



Organizational skills; those relating to a grasp ofmechanics of building organizations, working withcommittees and organizing public events.

Planning and policy skills; those relating to analysis ofissues and problems, ability to generalize from thespecific and relating individual grievances toorganizational responses.

Action skills; those relating to the ability to work towardsspecific objectives, ability to make decision in situationwhere all the relevant information is never available,strategize and tactical options and their possibleimplication for action initiatives.

Communication skills; those relating to communicationwith others by written and spoken words, ability toadjust style and manner of communication accordingto different situational contexts.

Political skills; those relating to the ability to view localinitiative with a broader socio economic frame work, aknowledge of the sociology of political decision makingand a grasp of different varieties of political ideologiesand their implication for change centered action, abilityto work within a political framework.

Evaluation of the students

The faculty member has to look at several parameterswhile evaluating student’s professional growth duringfieldwork conferences and seminars.

These observations will aid teachers to intensify effortsto build the capacity of students to integrate theoryand practice. Students have to imbibe professional

ethics and values and express their utility in practiceand record these in their reports.

Role of the faculty supervisor guiding fieldworkstudents

Orienting students to the agency, help themidentify with the agency and its objectives and clientgroups.

Make student realize the opportunities availablefor the students to learn practice skills.

Holding regular conferences – individual as well asgroup enabling student to share their learningexperiences.

Helping students to acquire good work habitsbesides punctuality in all their field activities.

Continuous appraisal of students throughout thefield placement and working towards augmentingtheir professional growth in a structured manner.

The supervisor can use different methods whilefacilitating student’s development such as individualand group conferences, seminars and regular fieldvisits.

Individual conferences are exclusively used for a face-to-face interaction between students and facultymembers. This allows for individual attention given toall students and in developing supervisor- studentrelationship. These play a role in ironing out individualproblems faced by each student. Student assessmentcan be effectively made during these conferences.



Group conference help students learning from oneanother, mutual support among students are facilitated,which acts as a reinforcement to student’s experiences.

Seminars help in building case studies and developingliterature related to different agencies and theirphilosophies.

Field visits by supervisor are considered essential foreffective supervision of students.

A three-way conference between student teacher andagency personnel is possible to discuss various learningissues.

ConclusionIt is important to learn the basic skills like interviewing,attending, listening while working with individuals andfamilies. However they are important in all social worksettings including community. Specific skills used infamily settings are assessing relationships, applicationof therapies and goal setting. This would equip astudent to undertake family counseling while handlinga joint as well as an individual session depending onthe situation. It is however advised that the studentsneed to gain a certain amount of maturity before theyattempt to apply their skills in the family settings asfamily problems are complex in nature.

However the community setting gives you a wideopportunity to test your skills. It is also important toremember that the student should be sensitive to thevalue system of the community as it may differ fromhis/her own value system.

References

Biestek Felix P.(1957), The Casework Relationship,Allen and Unwin Ltd.,

Perlman H.H (1957) Social Case Work: A ProblemSolving Process, the university of Chicago

Ross, Murray G, (1967) , Community Organization;Theory, Principles and Practice, Harper and RowPublishers, New York

Hamilton, Gordon (1951) Theory and Practice of SocialCase Work, New York, Columbia University Press

Collins Donald, Jordan Cathleen, (1999). AnIntroduction to Family Social Work


14Medical, Psychiatry and Child Care

*Manju Gupta

IntroductionSocial work is a profession for those with a strong desireto help in improving people’s lives. Social workers helppeople function better in their environment, deal withtheir relationships, and solve personal and familyproblems. The constant growth, demands, and changesin health care have had a serious impact on the viabilityand need for social workers in all areas includingsettings of health care and child welfare anddevelopment. Access to timely, comprehensive, andequitable health care for individuals variesconsiderably, with significant percentages of manysegments of population having only limited access tohealth care. Ensuring rights to survival, development,protection and participation to children form the scopeof social work profession.

Currently, health care social workers provide servicesacross the continuum of care in various settings. Socialworkers are present in public health, acute and chronic

* Manju Gupta, Delhi University, Delhi.

care settings providing a range of services includinghealth education, crisis intervention, supportivecounseling, and case management. Professional socialworkers are well equipped to practice in the health carefield, because of their broad perspective on the rangeof physical, emotional, and environmental factors thathave an effect on the well-being of individuals andcommunities.

Child welfare covers the entire spectrum of needs ofchildren who by reason of handicap – social, economic,physical and mental – are unable to avail of servicesprovided by the community. Child welfare programmesthus seek to provide supportive services to the familiesof these children because one of the importantresponsibilities of the society and state is to assist thefamily in its natural obligations for the welfare of thechildren. Child welfare services in their various facetsare preventive, promotive, developmental andrehabilitative in nature.

Social Work Practice in a Health CareSettingThe social work profession’s earliest concerns were withmaking health care services available to the poor andwith improving social conditions that bred infectiousdiseases such as tuberculosis. As the social work roleexpanded, social workers joined other healthprofessions in the delivery of high quality services.Today, social workers can be found in every componentof the health care system

The basic values of social work, from promoting anindividual’s right to self determination to having an

Medical, Psychiatry and Child Care 287


attitude of empathy for the individual, are thefoundation of social work practice. When confrontingdilemmas or needs in health care, social workers canuse the principle of client’s self determination inmatters where client’s faced with such issues. Socialworkers have skills in cultural awareness and culturalcompetence, in which social work practice respectfullyresponds to, and affirms, the worth and dignity ofpeople of all cultures, languages, classes, ethnicbackgrounds, abilities, religions, sexual orientation, andother diverse features found in individuals. Socialworkers look at the person-in-environment, includingall the factors that influence the total health careexperience. Social workers practice at the macro andmicro level of health care and thus have the ability toinfluence policy change and development at local, state,and central levels and within systems of care. Socialwork research in health care benefits not onlyindividuals and families, but also the very existence,effectiveness, and validation of the profession.

Role and Responsibilities of Social Workersin Health Care SettingsIn the public health arena, social workers are a valuableresource for the development of treatment plans forpatients, for locating supportive resources, and infacilitating referrals. Under the auspices of governmentand non-government public health organizations andinstitutions, social workers often provide behaviouraland social assessments along with mental healthassessment, treatment, and short-term or ongoing casemanagement. Social workers may also work in thecommunity as planners or community organizers

capable of engaging groups of people, neighborhoods,or entire communities to address social problems suchas drug abuse or teen pregnancy.

Social workers working in health care settings shouldintegrate theory and practice

The social worker uses knowledge about, andpsychosocial implications of, illness, injury, and healthconditions to provide social work services to clients andfamilies to help them manage and cope with the impactof such health matters. Social workers have expertisein communication; navigating systems of care,resources, client and family coping skills; and thecomprehensive impact of health conditions on theclient. With the person-in-environment perspective,social workers look at all of the influences and aspectsof a person’s life to complete a thorough assessmentand treatment plan with the client, family, and otherhealth care professionals. Essential areas of knowledgeand understanding about health care include:

the roles and functions of social work in healthcare

the psycho-social needs of clients and families

the physiological elements of illness and theirimpact on psychosocial functioning

the psychological and spiritual needs of clients andfamilies and how to ensure that they can beaddressed

community resources to assist clients and families



laws, regulations, and policies affecting clients,families, and social work practice

evidence-based practices and social work researchin health care

the needs of special populations.

Assessment and, intervention strategies

Assessment is a fundamental process of social workpractice. Treatment and intervention strategies/plansrequire that social workers both assess and reassessclient needs and modify plans accordingly. Social workassessments in health care settings include consideringrelevant factors and the needs of the individual clientand the family. The health status of populations and ofindividuals is assessed for many reasons. Acomprehensive, culturally competent assessmentincludes:

past and current health status including genetichistory of family health

the impact of health conditions or treatments oncognitive, emotional, social, psychological, orphysical functioning

social history, including current living arrangementand household environment

work, school, or vocational history

stage in the life cycle and related and relevantdevelopmental issues

cultural values and beliefs, including views onillness, disability, and death

family structure and the client’s role within thefamily

social supports, including formal and informalsupport systems

behavioural and mental health status and currentlevel of functioning, including history, suicide risk,and coping styles

financial resources.

Comprehensive assessments shall address uniqueneeds relevant to special populations, includingchildren, people with severe and persistent mentalillness, people with substance use disorders, victims ofviolence or trauma, homeless people, and people withphysical or psychiatric disabilities.

Intervention through interdisciplinary input

Intervention plans are steps identified by the healthsocial worker, in collaboration with the client and withother members of the team, to achieve objectivesidentified during assessment. Social workers shouldbe able to adapt practice techniques to best meet clientneeds within their health care setting to work effectivelywith individuals across the life-span, with differentethnicities, cultures, religions, socioeconomic andeducational backgrounds, and across the range ofmental health and disability conditions. Interventionplans may include:

strategies to address needs identified in theassessment



information, referral, and education

individual, family, or group counseling

vocational, educational, and supportive counseling

psycho-educational support groups

financial counseling

case management

discharge planning

interdisciplinary care planning and

collaboration

client and systems advocacy.

Addressing client’s multiple needs

In Social work case dealing requires the professionalsocial worker to develop and maintain a therapeuticrelationship with the client, which includes linking theclient with resources that provide a range of services,resources, and opportunities to enhance successfulquality outcomes for the client. Culturally competentcase dealing is both micro and macro in nature andrequires interdisciplinary care planning andcollaboration with other professionals to maintain ateam-oriented approach. Case dealing may includehaving regular meetings with the client and family andassisting the client to navigate systems. The scope ofservices would include the following:

psychosocial assessment, including diagnosis,interventions, and treatment plans

financial assessment, planning, and intervention

case facilitation

client and family counseling

crisis intervention

quality improvement

resource mobilization

outcome evaluation

teamwork

client/family education.

Social workers act as educators

Social workers have a formal role as educators. Socialworkers gain knowledge and expertise in the healthpractice setting from other professionals and fromformal education, work, or teaching experience. Theyhave the knowledge and skill to implement theprinciples of learning theories in education programs,activities, and resources. They communicate andcollaborate with departments and other staff to fosterclient education. They serve with other members of thehealth care team for program and resourcedevelopment, planning, implementation, andevaluation. Social workers use a variety of methods todefine and identify learning needs of individuals andfamilies. Assessment identifies the educational needsbased on the expressed needs of individuals, familymembers, and significant others. The social workeridentifies deficiencies in the knowledge base of theclient and works with the client to obtain the neededinformation and resources. Social workers collaboratewith the health care team to design educational



activities to meet the client’s needs, to deliver theactivities in a method that facilitates the learningneeded, and to evaluate the process in an integral,ongoing, and systematic manner.

Social workers should engage in Health education

Health education is concerned with change in theknowledge, feelings, and behaviour of people. In its mostusual form it concentrates on developing such healthpractices as are believed to bring about the best possiblestate of well being. Health education helps individuals,families, and communities to promote their health bytheir own actions and efforts. The health educator isthere to help them to achieve their health goals throughthe educational process- a process based on the faiththat every human-being has the inherent potential todevelop, to rise higher and higher when suitableenvironment is created and opportunities are given. Itrecognizes the human worth and dignity. Healtheducation involves health promotion and diseaseprevention (HP/DP) programming, a process by whicha variety of interventions are planned, implemented,and evaluated for the purpose of improving ormaintaining the health of a community or population.

Social workers should maintain records ordocumentation of social work services

The importance of clear, concise, and organizeddocumentation reflects the features of quality socialwork services and often serves as the mode ofcommunication between a social worker and otherprofessionals and clients. There are core elements thatneed to be included and responsibilities to follow in

record keeping. The elements and responsibilities ofthorough and comprehensive documentation includethe following:

comprehensive assessment and services deliveredto the client and client systems, including thedevelopment of a plan of care

ongoing assessments, interventions, and treatmentplanning

referral sources and collaborations

dates, times, and descriptions of client and clientsystem contacts

documentation of outcomes

reason for case closure or transfer

written permission to release and obtaininformation, whereever appropriate

documentation of compliance with confidentialityrights and responsibilities

documentation of receipts and disbursements.

Health care social workers should actively participatein research activities

Social workers have a responsibility to be familiar withthe literature crucial to their area of practice. Asprofessionals, social workers in all settings have amandate to improve the knowledge of the field and thiscan best be accomplished through participation inresearch activities. Venues where health care socialworkers might help to develop, implement, or evaluate



research include in-client and out-client hospital-basedsettings, community or home health agencies. Rich datasources that permit opportunities for quantitative andqualitative research exist within these entities. Socialworkers may help physicians, nurses, pharmacists, andothers recruit individuals and encourage studyparticipation and adherence to medication regimens;they can also help clients manage problems that mayhinder adherence and retention, such as challenginglife circumstances and demands from family members.

Social worker as a supervisorThe purpose of supervision is to enhance the clinicalsocial worker’s professional skills and knowledge, toenhance competence in providing quality client care.Supervision aids in professional growth anddevelopment and improves clinical outcomes.Experienced social workers shall offer guidance andconsultation to students, interns, and less experiencedpeers. Consultation and guidance are separate fromsupervision, and may be offered in mentoringopportunities.

Areas for Practice in Health Care SocialWorkToday, apart from the general hospitals and medicalcolleges, Social workers are placed in psychiatrichospitals, child guidance centres, cancer hospitals,family planning clinics, Drug de addiction centres, bloodbanks, etc. Social workers are also working with thecommunity outreach programmes of hospitals and NonGovernmental Organizations.

Social Workers in the General or Specialty HospitalSocial workers being an integral part of the health setup, their role bears special significance. Purpose ofmedical social work is to help each individual sick personin matters of personal and social adjustment includingrehabilitation in the society through the use of patient’scapabilities as well as community resources. MedicalSocial Work Services are organized in various OPDs,Wards, Clinics and Casualty by professionally qualifiedsocial workers designated as Medical Social workers.They provide the following services to the indigent,needy and deserving clients: The Medical social worker acts as the doctor’s

mouthpiece and furnishes information to the clientabout the following: his or her illness, how it occurs,how it spreads, and how it can be controlled. She/he helps to remove the patient’s doubt andmisconceptions about the diseases and itstreatment. S/he ensures the patient cooperatesfully with the doctor and accepts the treatmentwholeheartedly.

For patients needing hospitalization, the Medicalsocial worker helps in the smooth transition fromhome to hospital, and after discharge, back fromhospital to home.

S/he collects information about the patient’sfamily, occupation and socio- cultural backgroundand prepares his medico- socio history. S/heprovides the social history to the doctor. S/he helpsthe doctor to see the correlation between themedical and the social data. She/he assists thedoctor decide the social recommendation for solvingthe patient’s medical problems.



The Medical social worker works with the client andfamily and provides them emotional support andhelps them with stress management. S/he explainsto them the changes that have to be made in thehome conditions, in cooking etc., for the benefit ofthe client.

She conducts group sessions for the in- patientsand their attendants.

She participates in all the field activities of thehospital and medical college. S/he obtains people’scooperation in multidisciplinary camps, cataractcamps, sterilization camps, blood donation camps,HIV/AIDS Awareness Camps.

She arranges for financial assistance to the patientfor treatment, hospitalization, transportation, etc.from welfare agencies in the community. If clientrequires legal help, s/he arranges for it. If clienthas come from a long distant place, s/he arrangesfor low cost lodging for his family members.

If there is fear of the patient losing his job becauseof illness and myths associated with it, S/he meetsthe employer, dispel the myths and convince theemployer not to terminate the services of thepatient.

The Medical social worker participates in theteaching and training activities of the departmentof preventive and social medicine. S/he takesclasses for medical, nursing, dental and pharmacystudents.

S/he actively takes part in the research activitiesof the medical colleges or hospitals.

S/he provides recreational services to the inpatientby organizing film shows, video presentations. etc.,and by providing toys and playthings for children’s.

Social Workers in the Area of Psychiatric Health

Social workers in the area of psychiatric health andsubstance abuse assess and treat individuals withmental illness or substance abuse problems, includingabuse of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs. Such servicesinclude individual and group therapy, outreach, crisisintervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skillsof everyday living. They also may help plan forsupportive services to ease clients’ return to thecommunity. Mental health and substance abuse socialworkers are likely to work in hospitals, substance abusetreatment centers, or individual and family servicesagencies. These social workers may be known as clinicalor Psychiatric social workers. They have a vital role toplay in patients’ wellbeing:

The psychiatric social worker makes thorough studyof the environment of the client covering suchaspects as home, work and social life and bringsout significant facts which have some bearing onhis maladjustments. This study enables her toprepare a systematic case history of the clientwhich throws light on the tension and difficultiesin the client’s life and also help him to assess thepositive and negative aspects of the environment.

The psychiatric social worker very often explainsthe client or relatives what the problem is and what



is involved in psychiatric treatment, so that theiranxiety is allayed and they can cooperate in thetreatment. The social worker has to help therelatives of the mentally ill, to accept the diagnosisand the psychiatric recommendations. The socialworker aids the psychiatric treatment by socialtreatment, i.e. treatment of environment problems.The social worker works with the clients, his relativeand others, directly connected with him inmodifying their attitudes. The social worker alsotries to bring about a better adjustment betweenthe client and his family. Social treatment is alsogeared towards after care. The social worker has tofollow up a discharged case carefully. And also theclient’s ability to support himself and his ability tosupport his family must be restored.

To enlist the cooperation of other social agenciesfor better discharge of functions of one’s own agencyand for stimulating interest in dealing with commonproblems effectively. By working cooperatively withvarious agencies, the psychiatric social worker isable to interpret her agency and its functions tothe community so that the community can seek itsaid in time and also give its timely assistance tothe agency. A psychiatric social worker needs tobear in mind that she should not get so deeplyinvolved in intensive treatment of the maladjustedindividual that s/he fails to recognize theimportance of general social problems and,therefore may not take interest in programmes forsocial change. She needs to study social conditions,develop resources in the community and participatein community planning.

Students of psychiatric social work, nursingstudents, medical students and staff of the agencywhere the psychiatric social worker is employed asa mental hygiene supervisor or consultant mayparticipate in the training programme.

In prenatal and postnatal clinics and nurseryschools the psychiatric social worker apart fromdirect casework service into the clients, whennecessary, imparts mental health education toparents. Sometimes her services are required topromote mental health education in thecommunity. Her work may involve communityorganization, publicity, assisting in communitysurveys, studying mental hygiene needs ofcommunities, development of facilities for moreadequate hygiene needs of communities,development of facilities for more adequate provisionfor prevention and treatment of mental disease andso on.

Psychiatric social worker participates in thedetermination and formation of agency policies witha view to socializing the agency set up to meet theneeds of clients better.

Psychiatric social worker maintains social recordsfor the purpose of social statistics. A full reportenables a worker to diagnose the social problemsbetter and check up her social treatment plan. Thiswill also enable her to know whether s/he is goingin the right direction or not. Recording also helpsher in acquiring the habit of observing and writingdescription carefully.



The psychiatric social worker can be of immenseassistance in the field of research. S/he enablesthe patients to accept psychiatric recommendationand encourages the patient to continue thetreatment. Thus Psychiatrists are in a position toobserve the result of any particular treatment inwhich they are interested. The psychiatric socialworker can render help in promoting social researchtoo. She observes the social component of illness,behaviour disorders, etc. and finds out that theCommunity resources are inadequate and canthrow much light on the deficiencies. Case recordsof the agency provide ample data for social actionfor promoting the cause of welfare of patients andtheir families.

This psychiatric social worker attached to hospitalshas to respond to the problem of home sickness aswell as the boredom of long treatment. S/he mayorganize a recreation club with the help of themembers of the staff and the patients andencourage the latter to develop hobbies. Suchactivities contribute much to the patient’s recovery.Through organized recreational programmes thepatients learn group participation, take upresponsibility for their behaviour, learn disciplinein a congenial atmosphere and also overcome theirpersonality defects like shyness, withdrawnbehaviour, negativism etc.

The psychiatric social worker is gaining wideracceptance in community planning. A large part ofthe Mental Health needs in many communities isfor communitywide preventive services. It is natural

that the psychiatric social worker be invited tocontribute to the task of educating the generalpublic in strengthening mental health. It requiresthat psychiatric social workers take part in variouslocal and state programmes devoted to his end.

Role in the programmes for elderly

Psychiatric social workers are being employedincreasingly in programmes for older persons. Therapidly growing elderly population will create greaterdemand for health and social services, resulting inparticularly rapid job growth among gerontology socialworkers.

Role in the child guidance clinics

Most of the child guidance clinics are either part of theDepartment of Psychiatry of General Hospitals or runby a Social Welfare Agency. With regard to the staffingof the child guidance clinics, most clinics followed theteam- approach and are staffed with psychiatrist,pediatricians, psychologists, social workers, playtherapists, speech therapists …etc. The individualproblems in the children who attend the clinics are:antisocial behaviour, habit disorder, personalitydisorders, psycho-somatic disorders, epilepsy, mentalretardation, neurosis and others. The child guidanceclinics operate on the premise that if sound foundationsof mental health are laid in childhood and adolescence,the same will continue into adulthood. The routine dailyactivities at the clinics consist of:

Registration of new cases

Review of old cases



Psychometric evaluation

Individual psychotherapy for the child or hisparents

Group psychotherapy for the child or his parents

Play therapy

Speech therapy

Group therapy for teachers

Case conferences

Research projects

Teaching programmes for undergraduate medicalstudents, postgraduate psychiatric students, postgraduate pediatric students and nurses, social workstudents.

Other individual programmes in association withthe W.H.O., U.N.I.C.E.F. …etc.

Social Workers and Community Health

The term “community health” refers to the health statusof a defined group of people, or community, and theactions and conditions that protect and improve thehealth of the community. Those individuals who makeup a community live in a somewhat localized area underthe same general regulations, norms, values, andorganizations. For example, the health status of thepeople living in a particular town, and the actions takento protect and improve the health of these residents,would constitute community health. The actions and

conditions that protect and improve community can beorganized into three areas: health promotion, healthprotection and health services.

Health promotion may be defined as any combinationof educational and social efforts designed to help peopletake greater control of and improve their health. Healthprotection and health services differ from healthpromotion in the nature or timing of the actions taken.Health protection and services include theimplementing of laws, rules, or policies approved in acommunity as a result of health promotion.

Factors that affect community health

There are four categories of factors that affect the healthof a community or population. Because these factorswill vary in separate communities, the health status ofindividual communities will be different. The factorsthat are included in each category, and an example ofeach factor, are noted here.

1) Physical factors—geography (parasitic diseases),environment (availability of natural resources),community size (overcrowding), and industrialdevelopment (pollution).

2) Social and cultural factors—beliefs, traditions, andprejudices (smoking in public places, availabilityof ethnic foods, racial disparities), economy(employee health care benefits), politics(government participation), religion (beliefs aboutmedical treatment), social norms (drinking on acollege campus), and socioeconomic status (numberof people below poverty level).



3) Community organization—available healthagencies (local health department, voluntary healthagencies), and the ability to organize to solveproblem (lobby city council).

4) Individual behaviour—personal behaviour (health-enhancing behaviours like exercising, gettingimmunized, and recycling wastes).

The social worker has to have a proper knowledge onthe area in which s/he works. S/he would be welloriented with the traditions, practices of the communityand should be able to identify the gaps in their healthseeking behaviour. The Social Workers in the HealthCare Settings has to focus on the followings:

Health Promotion

Health Protection

Health promotion

Health promotion includes educational, social, andenvironmental supports for individual, organizational,and community action. It seeks to activate localorganizations and groups or individuals to makechanges in behaviour (lifestyle, selfcare, mutual aid,participation in community or political action) or inrules or policies that influence health.

Two areas in which communities employ healthpromotion strategies are mental and social health, andrecreation and fitness. Action to deal with theseconcerns begins with a community assessment, whichshould identify the factors that influence the health ofthe subpopulations and the needs of these populations.In the case of mental and social health, the need will

surface at the three levels of prevention: primaryprevention, secondary prevention, and tertiaryprevention.

Primary prevention activities for mental and socialhealth could include helping the community membersfor personal stress management strategies such asexercise and meditation, or school and workplaceeducational classes to enhance the mental health ofstudents and workers. A secondary prevention strategycould include the staffing of a crisis help line by localorganizations such a health department or mentalhealth center. Tertiary prevention might take the formof the local medical and mental health specialists andhealth care facilities providing individual and groupcounseling, or inpatient psychiatric treatment andrehabilitation. All of these prevention strategies cancontribute to a communitywide effort to improve themental and social health of the community orpopulation. During and after the implementation of thestrategies, appropriate evaluation will indicate whichstrategies work and which need to be discontinued orreworked.

Health protection

Community health protection revolves aroundenvironmental health and safety. Community healthpersonnel work to identify environmental risks andproblems so they can take the necessary actions toprotect the community or population. Such protectivemeasures include the control of unintentional andintentional injuries; the control of vectors; theassurance that the air, water, and food are safe to



consume; the proper disposal of wastes; and the safetyof residential, occupational, and other environments.

The social worker can initiate a movement throughadvocacy group intervention for the provision of healthprotection in the community as these protectivemeasures are often the result of educational programs,including self-defense classes; policy development, suchas the Safe Drinking Water Act or the Clean Air Act;environmental changes, such as restricting access todangerous areas; and community planning, as in thecase of preparing for natural disasters or upgradingwater purification systems etc.

Role in Mother and Child Health

Maternal, infant, and child (MIC) health encompassesthe health of women of childbearing age from pre-pregnancy through pregnancy, labour, delivery, andthe postpartum period, and the health of a child priorto birth through adolescence. MIC health statistical dataare regarded as important indicators of the status ofcommunity and population health. Unplannedpregnancies, lack of prenatal care, maternal drug use,low immunization rates, high rates of infectiousdiseases, and lack of access to health care for thispopulation indicate a poor community healthinfrastructure. Early intervention with educationalprograms and preventive medical services for women,infants, and children can enhance health in later yearsand reduce the necessity to provide more costly medicaland/or social assistance later in their life. Infant andchild health is the result of parent health behaviourduring pregnancy, prenatal care, and the care providedafter birth. Critical concerns of infant and childhood

morbidity and mortality include proper immunization,unintentional injuries, and child abuse and neglect.In a community setup all these areas often requiresthe support and services of a social worker in the formof individual and couples’ counseling, guidance etc. andthe social worker needs to work in association with theavailable local healthcare agencies like PHCs,anganwadies etc. The social worker can help the peopleto avail various government supports through advocacyand networking with the concerned agencies.

Adolescents’ Health

The health of the adolescent and young adultpopulation sets the stage for the rest of adult life. It is atime in life in which many beliefs, attitudes, andbehaviours are adopted and consolidated. Health issuesthat are particularly associated with this populationare unintended injuries; use and abuse of alcohol,tobacco, and drugs; and sexual risk taking. There areno easy, simple, or immediate solutions to reducing oreliminating these problems.

A social worker needs to be aware on the vulnerabletendencies among the adolescents. Formation of peergroups, developing group dynamism, risk assessmentsand group and individual counseling sessions with aspecial focus on drug abuse, HIV – AIDS etc. are someof the major areas where social workers’ interventionis required.

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (T.B.) should be considered as a publichealth problem of major importance. Persons sufferingfrom pulmonary tuberculosis and exerting the germs



of T.B. are the sources of infection for the healthymembers of the family as also the community. Thischain of transmission has to be broken effectively ifT.B. is to be brought under control. Some of the stepscould be taken by social workers are as follows:

Helping to distribute anti TB drugs to clients caredfor at home and to supervise the administration ofthese drugs.

Ensuring that domiciliary clients regularly attendfor check ups at the treatment centre.

Persuading persons with suspicious symptoms toattend the diagnostic and treatment centres forexamination in necessary action.

Encouraging persons who live in contact with clientsfrom open tuberculosis to attend diagnostic andtreatment centres for examinations.

Helping to assemble children and young adults fortuberculin tests and B.C.G. vaccination duringorganized campaigns.

Undertaking health education campaign in closeliaison with government measures.

Leprosy

Leprosy is not merely a medical problem but a socialproblem and can never be tackled in the same way asother diseases. Considering the fate of an unfortunateleprosy client with his horried deformities,disfigurement, the attitude of his kith and kin and publictowards him, the problem has become more a socialproblem. This special nature of this disease can onlybe tackled by specially trained social workers. Intensive

education of the public in rural and urban areas bytrained social workers is most needed, other actionsneeded include:

Prevention of deformity by suitable education ofthe clients and provision of physiotherapeutic andsurgical services. Even when they can notthemselves provide the services they shouldconstantly ask that these services should beprovided.

The setting up of sheltered industries.

The care of the crippled clients in special homes.

The care of vagrant clients in homes like theChamber Home in Bombay or Daya Sadan inMadras.

The prevention of destitution by a sympathetic helpoffered to those clients who are about to facedestitution.

The provision of vocational training, vocationalguidance in placement services.

Training of rehabilitation workers oriented inleprosy.

The creation of favourable atmosphere for therehabilitation of leprosy clients through channelsof employment.

Probably the area in which the voluntary agencycan make itself increasingly useful is rehabilitation.

Health education of the public leading to publicparticipation can get full results out of our leprosycontrol campaigns.



Camps for volunteers should be held in order toget them informed and interested so that they maybecome efficient evangelists of the message thatleprosy is just another disease, that the leprosyclient is just a client like others he can look forwardto cure and normal life.

The health care social workers are increasinglyemployed at Hospitals, Tuberculosis clinics, SexuallyTransmitted Infections (STI) clinics, Leprosy clinics,Family Planning clinics, Cancer control clinics, Mentalhealth institutions, Pediatrics departments,rehabilitation department of spinal injury centres,Cardiac care clinics, Diabetes control clinics, Motherand infant health centres, School health services, Drugde addiction centers, HIV/AIDS education, Preventionand control centres, Integrated Counseling and TestingCentres (I.C.T.C.), Blood banks, Organ donation centres,Health related community outreach programmes, etc…

Social Work Practice in Child Care SettingIn this section, an overview of role of social workprofessionals in childcare setting would be presented.India is the home of 16% of the world’s children. Socialwork profession responds to many developmental needsand problems of the children — ranging from femalefoeticide, high mortality rate, child malnutrition,immunization, accessibility and availability of qualityeducation, child labour, destitution and beggary amongchildren, discrimination against girl child, child abuse,juvenile delinquency, street children, child trafficking,drug addiction, suicide and homicide — to mention afew. Social work intervention may be categorized asfollows:

Services for the Children in Need of Care and Protection

Statutory services: These services come under thelegislative purview, especially implementation ofJuvenile Justice Act (2006). Social workers play pivotalrole, both in institutional as well as non-institutionalservices meant for restoration and rehabilitation ofchildren in need of care and protection as well as thosecoming in conflict with law. In Institutional services,social workers, as superintendents, Juvenile or childwelfare officers, counsellors, as members of ChildWelfare Committees and Juvenile Welfare Boards, takeup numerable tasks in restoration and rehabilitationof children at institutional setting like at JuvenileHomes, Observation Homes, Special Homes, After careHomes, functioning under the juvenile justice system.Non-institutional services include adoption,sponsorship, foster care, probation, repatriation andthe like. Social workers, in this, perform vital role inrestoration and rehabilitation plan. Added to this, asNGO functionaries too, social workers are runningprogrammes under Juvenile Justice Act likemanagement of children’s homes, short stay homes,

Statutory

Institutional Non-institutional

Non-statutory

Institutional Non-institutional



night shelters for street and working children,innovative programmes including educational andvocational training, skill upgradation, counselling,health services, etc.

Non-statutory services, with no legal root, areproportionately more extensive and widespread.Institutional services, in this case, includeorphanages, children’s homes, short stay homes,institutions to prevent vagrancy among children likeBal Sahyog and such others. Non-institutional servicescover an array of activities directed at the optimumdevelopment of children that may be preventive orrehabilitative, promotive or ameliorative, curative ordevelopmental in nature. It would include services tomeet the survival, developmental, health, andeducational and recreational needs of children.Integrated Child Development Services is one of theAsia’s most extensive services for overall growth anddevelopment of children. Social work professionals workas Child Development Project Officers, in this scheme,as part of government functionaries and others atvarious positions in civil society bodies and state systemsubstantiate through research, training, communitymobilization and such other inputs.

Let us take a look at strategies social workers generallyadopt to ensure child care. These range from researchwork to explore magnitude and extent of problems,interplay of various causative and contingent factors,gaining insight for planning at various levels,management of schemes and programmes, training ofstakeholders in service delivery, awareness generation,and advocacy and social action. With Rights’

perspective (see United Nations Convention of theRights of the Child: Right to Survival; Right toDevelopment; Right to Protection and Right toParticipation) many social workers are involved inadvocacy to ameliorate conditions of exploitation andabuse that hamper realization of the said rights. Someof the salient advocacy campaigns where social workershave made their presence felt have been NGO Fora forStreet and Working Children, Campaign Against ChildLabour (CACL), Udaan: Forum of Street and Workingchildren and Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA).

Right to Survival includes Right to Life and Right toHealth. Social workers have been involved at variouslevels — legislation formulation, Pre-natal DiagnosticTechniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act,1994, advocacy and awareness generation, enforcementof Act and bringing necessary change in the patriarchalsocial structure that in many ways perpetuate genderdiscrimination.

Looking at the settings where social workers work forthe welfare and development of children may bebeneficial. Since Independence, government has heavilyrelied on voluntary organizations to deliver services forthe welfare and development of children. These VOshave taken up innumerable field projects to addressproblems related to nutrition, education, health anddevelopment of children. Research work, advocacy,networking, mobilization have been other tasks carriedout by social workers through these VOs. School socialwork, though still in its nascent stage, has addressedmany issues related to children in schools, families andcommunity. Currently, there is vast state machinery



in response to children under difficult circumstancesthat offer huge scope of intervention for social workers.The social work professionals, through these settings,have addressed many areas of child welfare anddevelopment, some of the salient ones are delineatedbelow:

Health: Ensuring conditions that would lead toreduction in child mortality, eliminating hunger,nutritional deficiency and malnutrition, immunizationand preventive health care services, are major areas ofconcern for social workers. As part of service deliverysystem, NGOs as well as government, social workershave been involved in planning, implementation,monitoring, improving and evaluation of manyprogrammes like ICDS, Balwadi, Mid-day Meals, PulsePolio (Eradication) programme, Universal ImmunizationProgramme, National Rural Health Mission, RCH andeffective functioning of Primary, secondary and tertiaryHealth Care system.

Education: Although there has been a steady increasein enrolment over the years, about 40% boys and 50%girls still remain unenrolled in the primary stage itself.Social work professionals are involved at various frontsin increasing accessibility, adequacy andappropriateness of the education system. Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan, District Primary Education Programme, Non-formal education, involving community to shareresponsibility of child education, scholarships of needy,counselling and casework services for those facingproblems in formal education, through school socialwork, are a few of the interventions, social workers areinvolved with. The 93rd Constitutional Amendment

making free and compulsory education as a matter ofright to all the children below the age of 14 years hasfurther widened the scope of social work interventionin both advocacy and programmatic approaches.

Differently Abled Children: Further, integrated andinclusive education that aims to include both ‘normal’and ‘differently abled’ children in the same classroomsetting has been a strong domain of social workprofessionals, where they work with a team of inter-disciplinary professionals. Special schools, communityrehabilitation, implementation of district rehabilitationcentre schemes, vocational training programmes,National Programme for Rehabilitation of Persons withDisabilities, bringing differently abled children in themainstream education have been some of theprogrammes through which social workers have triedto make a dent into the vulnerable conditions ofdisabled children.

Girl Child: Social work professionals have attemptedto ameliorate precarious condition of girl child in theconstricting patriarchal social structure of Indiansociety. They have advocated for their ‘Right to be Born’,fought against female foeticide, infanticide, struggledagainst child marriage and denial of equal opportunitiesfor growth and development for girl child.

Child Labour: India has highest number of workingchildren in the world. Social work professionals haveplayed a proactive role in abolishing child labour —bringing necessary changes in policies, conductingrescue operations, restoration and rehabilitation of childlabour.



Child Trafficking and Child Prostitution:Undoubtedly, trafficking of children and forcing theminto sex trade has been a cause of concern for socialworkers. As NGO functionaries or as part of the statemachinery, social workers have put in great efforts bothat preventive as well as rehabilitative aspects.

Child Abuse: The term encompasses wide spectrum ofexploitations on children, denial of their dues andviolation of their rights. Child abuse, at the familiallevel, community level, school level, have beenaddressed by social work professionals working inschools, as family welfare officers, counsellors, NGOfunctionaries and similar other settings.

These are some of the salient areas where social workprofessionals have been working for the care anddevelopment of children. You may also apprise thatsocial workers involved with family welfare anddevelopment also address child related issues. Similarly,community development, urban as well as rural, maybe indirectly, deals with child care issues. SocialDefence, a significant field of social work practice,tackles child delinquency, beggary, drug addiction,suicide and other such issues.

ConclusionIn the current situation, it was felt that Social Workgraduates or those coming into the field from otherareas of practice, were not always well prepared forhealth care and that the constantly changing natureof the field, plus its diversity, often seemed confusingto newcomers. It is hoped that a core of knowledge mightbe identified which would give them the grounding tobecome more effective practitioners more quickly.

References

Verma, R. (1991), Psychiatric Social Work in India, Sagepublications: New Delhi.

Banerjee, G.R. (1972), Papers on Social Work: An IndianPerspective, TISS, Bombay.

Pathak, S.H. (1961), Medical Social Work in India, DelhiSchool of Social Work, Delhi

Mane, P. and Gandevia, K. V. (1993), Mental Health InIndia, TISS, Bombay.

Pomaerleau, J. and McKee, M. (2005), Issues in PublicHealth, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi.

Rolf, M.O. (1984), Social Work and Mental Health,Tavistock Publications limited, New York

Reddy, A. R. (1995), Health Care Service Management,Delta Publishing House, Hyderabad.

Park, K. (2007). Preventive and Social Medicine.Banarsidas Bhanot publications. Jabalpur.

Kishore, J. (2002). National Health Programmes ofIndia. Century Publications. New Delhi.


15Education and Research

*Joselyn T. Lobo and Roshini Nilaya

Introduction

Fieldwork, the practicum or placement, emphasises theapplication of theory to practice. The application ofclassroom learning in agency or fieldwork settings hasbeen a characteristic of social work education sinceinception. Just as chemistry and language studentspractice in their laboratories, social work students reachout into agencies and communities to develop theirskills. Education and research is an importantplacement area of field work. We shall look at educationfirst.

It has been increasingly felt, that schools and collegesneed social workers and counsellors for the properdevelopment of students. A social worker will identifychildren with learning or adjustment problems, discussand implement the subsequent course of action withthe students, his family and the school authorities.

Before going into the intricacies of field practicum inthe education sector it is better to provide a briefoverview of the education system in India.

* Joselyn T. Lobo and Roshini Nilaya, Mangalore

Education System in India

The educational system in India is a picture of bothlight and shades—some noteworthy achievementsalong with numerous failures and problems. Theeducational scenario can be neatly summed up in theparadox of the best educational institutions on par withinternational standards on the one hand and largestnumber of illiterates in the world on the other.

The formal system in India is a carry over of the Britishand much has not changed since Independence. It ischaracterized by rigidity, irrelevant syllabus, single-point entry, out-dated teaching and learning methods,poor infrastructure and an inhuman examinationsystem. There is no scope for creativity and the schoolcurriculum has no relation to the life and environmentof the students.

As mentioned, our education system still continues tobe dominated by models and value-systems adoptedduring the colonial regime. It lays emphasis on narrowindividualism, unhealthy competition, mere acquisitionof information and examinations. It places undueimportance on the formal school and neglects both non-formal and recurrent education.

There is a dual system of education operating—highlysophisticated private schools for the rich and poorquality government schools for the poor. The situationof the rural schools is dismal and shocking. Most ofthe primary schools in our villages are conducted indilapidated, crowded buildings or in the open air. Manymore are single- teacher schools, and still more haveno teacher for varying periods of time. The minimum

Education and Research 321


requirements like blackboard, playgrounds, drinkingwater, toilet facilities are absent in majority of ourschools.

Besides the structure, system and the infrastructurewe constantly read about teacher-student issues. Thestick is still adopted and in some cases physical tortureis inflicted. Harsh treatments by inhuman teachers haveresulted in permanent damages and even death ofschool children.

The above description will give glimpse of the schoolsystem in India. The need for a school social worker isobvious. Unfortunately, except for a few urban schools,the majority of the schools have neither appointed asocial worker nor have felt the need for one.

Social Work Practicum in the EducationSectorThe field of education covers a wide area andencompasses different age groups and thereby providesscope for social work interventions. Education levelsrange from pre-school to collegiate education andresearch institutions as well as adult and continuingeducation. Non-formal educational channelsincorporate literacy and post-literacy programmes,distance education, open education, on-line educationand other recent trends involving InformationTechnology.

Social Work Initiatives at Pre-school LevelEducational programmes for the pre-school child (agegroup 3-5) include Anganwadis, Children’s Play

Centres, Mobile Day-Care Centres and Crèches andPre-Schools attached to Primary Schools.

Non-formal pre-school education is an importantcomponent of the ICDS Programme. The Anganwadi isthe first stage in the process of education—before thechild goes to primary school. Pre-school educationbecomes a link between the Anganwadi and the primaryschool.

The student social workers may be placed in theAnganwadis directly or may encounter them whenplaced in community settings. Whatever may be thecontact, the students will have to work in closecollaboration with the Anganwadi worker.

The Anganwadi worker is required to organise pre-school activities for about 40 children in the age group3 to 6 years. She should be sensitive to the psycho-social needs of the child—the need for love, security,trust, praise, and recognition. Use of locally availableand scrap material for pre-school education activitiesis encouraged.

Pre-school activities have been classified into thefollowing five sections:

1) Activities for physical development.

2) Activities for language development.

3) Activities for emotional development anddevelopment of creativity.

4) Activities for social development and habitformation.

5) Activities for development of intelligence.



Pre-school education at the Anganwadi aims at the totaldevelopment of the child—physical, motor, psychologicaland social, and the development of language andintelligence.

Role of the Anganwadi Worker in Pre-schoolEducationStudent social workers may organise activities on theabove lines. They can supplement the work of theAnganwadi worker whose role is explained below:

1) To organise pre-school activities aimed at thedevelopment of personality of the child.

2) Make use of local material of pre-school activitieswhich can be acquired freely or with the minimumcost. Natural items (like sand, clay, pebbles, andshells) and waste material (like empty tins,newspapers, empty matchboxes and cloth pieces)may be used to make toys, puppets and masks.Use your own imagination and that of the childrenis the guiding principle for these activities.

3) Keep space for both indoor as well as outdooractivities. Children can also be taken to the fields,markets, park and zoo.

4) Be sensitive to the psycho-social needs of thechildren. Children need love, praise, recognitionand new experiences.

5) Display posters, dolls, toys, puppets, masks andany other items made by children in the Anganwadito make the place look cheerful.

6) Involve the local community in general and parentsof the children in particular in pre-school education.

The community can provide free accommodationfor the Anganwadi, playground and play materials.

School Social Work: Implications andPossibilitiesHaving the second largest educational system in theworld, schools form a major setting for field placements.Many undergraduate students of social work are placedin primary and secondary schools—both private andgovernment. The majority of the schools in India donot appoint a social worker or a school counsellor eitherfull-time or part-time and those schools which haveone on their roles are mainly in urban areas. Let usnow focus on the origin, nature and functions of schoolsocial work.

Beginnings in School Social Work

Social work services were first established in the schoolsof Boston, Hartford and New York in the beginning ofthe 20th century under the sponsorship of communityagencies. The Psychological Clinic in Hartford initiatedthe first visiting teachers program (today frequentlyreferred to as school social workers) in that area. Thepublic school systems of Rochester, New York, in 1914become the first school system to finance school socialwork from its regular budget.

Social work in the schools is in response to the passageof compulsory school attendance laws, new knowledgeabout individual differences among children and arealization of the strategic place of the school in thelives of children.



In the United Kingdom, the origins of education welfareservice date from late nineteenth and early twentiethcentury legislation that aimed to ensure basic educationfor all children and recognized that social conditionsmay affect children’s ability to benefit from school.

Social work in relation to schools is mainly undertakenby staff in the education welfare service, also callededucation social work service. The service has a longhistory but an ambiguous position in relation to botheducation and the personal social services.

Nature of School Social Work

School social work is embedded deeply in the roots ofsociety’s mandate to the schools to educate and trainchildren to their fullest potential. Specialists areattached to the school for the purpose of helpingchildren achieve their potential in the academic setting.One such specialist is the social worker who relates tothe role performance of the child.

School social work is an application of social workmethods and principles to the major purpose of theschool. School social work is related to a particularschool system, the outside community, thecharacteristics of the pupils, and the conditions theyface. W.A. Friedlander maintains that the school socialworker works with four parties:

1) The Child

2) The Family

3) The School Staff

4) The Community

School social work enables the school to pay attentionto the unique individual needs of the child and to offerthe opportunities for success and achievement to eachchild. The focus of school social work is on the followingcognitive areas:

Learning

Thinking

Problem-solving

as well as the traditional areas of concern i.e.

Relationships

Emotions

Motivation, and

Personality

The social worker focuses on social functioning and onthe needs of the child to make the best possible use ofthe learning experience. He or she is concerned withthe fact that forces within and outside the child mayblock the child’s use of the school experience. Thesocial worker works with teachers, principals, pupilsand parents to deal with this problem.

School social workers are an “extended arm” of theeducator in fulfilling educational objectives. The socialworker acts as consultants as well as counsellors. Heor she shares knowledge with students, teachers,parents and other stakeholders.

Social workers provide a link between the school andsocial agencies and are brokers for the services providedfor pupils and their families. Social workers in the school



provide diagnostic, counselling and treatment servicesto individuals or groups or arrange for such services.

Social work collaborates with the educational team andthe social worker addresses tasks and problemssurrounding the teaching-learning needs of students.The profession of social work has provided the schoolsocial worker with new knowledge and techniquesappropriate for practice.

Social work practice addresses a wide range of problemsand issues. Among the problems to be dealt withinclude absenteeism, behavioural problems, scholasticbackwardness, economic backwardness, hostile homeenvironment, disability and other health relatedproblems.

Tasks for the School Social Worker

In the 1960s, social workers appeared to be comfortablewith traditional roles and residual functions. Thetraditional role of the social worker is the worker-clientapproach, somewhat independent of the teacher. Thisapproach neither brought educator and social workertogether in mutual effort nor focused on the milieu ofthe school.

Lela B. Costin (1972) strongly suggests that more isneeded in school social work than “a major emphasisupon traditional methods of work that have focusedprimarily upon the individual child in relation to hisemotional problems and his personal adjustment.” Thefollowing is an abridged version of her list of task andresponsibilities for social workers in the schools:

1) The social worker should facilitate the provision ofdirect educational and social services to pupils.

2) The social worker should focus on the urgent needsof selected groups of pupils.

3) The social worker should consult with schooladministrators in order to jointly identify a problemsituation toward which a planned service approachcan be aimed.

4) The social worker should consult with teachersabout techniques for creating a climate in whichchildren are free and motivated to learn. Forexample by facilitating the use of peers to help atroubled child.

5) The social worker should organize parent andcommunity groups to channel effectively concernabout pupils and schools and to act as a constructiveforce.

6) The social worker should develop and maintain aproductive liaison between the school and criticalfields of social work and legal practice.

7) Finally, the social worker should provide leadershipin the coordination of interdisciplinary skills amongpupil services personnel like guidance counsellorsand psychologists.

A majority of the problems of students in schools canbe handled on a one-to-one basis. Others require agroup approach. Teachers in consultation with socialworkers frequently handle classroom problems.Another approach is referral to other members of the



personnel team. The full range of community servicesis also available for students and their parents.

School social workers connect students with both thesource and the means of existing services. Oftenstudents do not know where and how to seek help.Social workers know services and referral processes.Among the professionals, the social worker is the linkbetween provision and people.

Knowledge Appropriate for the tasks of School SocialWorkers

Social workers in the schools should possess theminimum of a bachelor’s degree in social work. Inaddition, their knowledge should include:

1) Knowledge of the school.

2) Theories in relation to work with individuals,including behaviour modification, transactionalanalysis, and basic relationship skills.

3) Learning and cognitive theories to make educationaldiagnosis and recommend corrective learningexperiences.

4) Knowledge and understanding of learningdisabilities.

5) Knowledge about social enhancement, socialization,educational and skill-learning groups.

6) Community knowledge and skill for mediation,advocacy, and social action processes appropriatefor social work in the schools. Knowledge about

the community, its structure and function isessential to social work.

7) Communication theory and teaching knowledgeand skills.

University, College Students and YouthGroupsIndia’s population of over a billion comprises 600 millionunder the age of 25. Of this, a sizeable chunk belongsto the category of youth. Youth are prone to manyproblems and are in a serious crisis of identity.

In our country, only 10 per cent of youth population isenrolled in higher educational institutions. Theremaining 90 per cent who form the bulk of youngIndia have no access to formal education. A large portionof the youth in the 15-25 age group who are illiterateor semi-literate have either not got involved in theprimary schools at all, or have left primary school at anearly age. The members of this group play a veryimportant role in society. They are often engaged ineconomically productive occupations and are involvedin many community activities as well.

Social workers can work in campuses across the countryand reach out to the students who pursue highereducation in colleges and universities. For theremaining youth, intervention may be through otheravenues like Youth Clubs, Nehru Yuvak Kendras, Non-formal Education Centres, Vocational Institutes andNon-Governmental Organizations.



Characteristics of Youth

The youth of today form the administrative fabric oftomorrow’s society. The young are idealistic and canbe rallied around a cause. It is easy to remove prejudicesfrom young minds.

Youth are generally alert, inquisitive, impressionable,and capable of being inspired by emotionalcommitments to service of the people and the country.Some attributes of youth are:

Youth are in the most dynamic stage—imbibed withboth the potential and thirst for learning.

Youth grow better in an environment of spontaneity.

Young people dislike people who are notcomfortable with themselves. They can easily detectthose who wear masks.

Society must regard young people as best capableof building a new society.

Youth Groups must be promoted to give youth thepower of mutual sustenance.

Attributes Required by a Youth Worker

To work with youth, a social worker requires thefollowing attributes:

Accept the young as they are and believe in theircapacities.

Accept each one’s uniqueness.

Provide opportunities for their growth.

Give positive feedback/reinforcement.

Foster trustworthy climate and maintainconfidentiality.

Recognize that they too have emotions.

Nature of Programmes for Youth

The content of the programmes will depend uponeducational attainments and needs of the youth. Asmany young persons will be workers a strong vocationalelement will have to be built in all educationalprogrammes. New vocational skills will enable them toimprove their economic status.

As the members of this group are of marriageable ageor already married, an important component will befamily life education, including family planning. Aprogramme on family life will interest the young andwill also be beneficial.

In brief, programmes for youth can include the followingcomponents:

General education (including functional literacy,where necessary)

Vocational training (to improve existing skills andlearn new vocational skills)

Family life education (including family planning)

Leadership training and personality developmentprogrammes

Recreational and cultural pursuits



Participation in programmes of social service ornational development

Social awareness and citizenship training (tounderstand the problems facing the society andthe country)

Health and nutrition education

Adult and Continuing Education

Illiteracy is a major problem in India. We have thelargest illiterate population in the world amounting toover 350 million people. Formal education has failed tosolve the problem of illiteracy. Alternative channels ofnon-formal education for children and youth, and adulteducation for men and women are needed to tacklethe problem. A programme of post-literacy andcontinuing education has to be planned in order thatneo-literates do not lapse into illiteracy.

Social work students can be involved in a big way intraditional adult literacy centres and through literacycampaigns which are going on in different parts of thecountry as part of the National Literacy Mission. Studentsocial workers can involve in the following ways:

Conducting literacy survey in their respective areasto identify the illiterates.

Motivate learners to join the literacy classes.

Participate in environment building andmotivational programmes by organizing street plays,rallies, media campaigns on the issue.

Act as volunteer teachers and teach groups ofyouth, men and women in their respective areas.

Collaborate in the preparation of primer and otherteaching-learning materials.

Encourage neo-literates to continue learning bysupplying reading material and monitoring theirprogress.

Social Work Practicum in ResearchSettingsSocial work research has a unique role to play inenabling social work students, educators andpractitioners to meet the growing demands of higherprofessional standards and accountability.

Social work educators must integrate the theory andpractice of social work with research in social work.Training in social work research must get integratedinto the training of social workers as part and parcel ofthe teaching of courses. The critical analytical tools ofthe students must be sharpened in their field workpractice.

Field Work Placement in Research Institutes

Integrating research and practice can be initiated fromthe very first stage of fieldwork training. Students maybe helped to develop a research design and undertakea study of the problems of individuals/groups/communities during their fieldwork training.

The field work placement is intended to enable thestudents to associate themselves with ongoing researchin Institutes and Universities offering social workeducation and in other research organisations in thecity. Students need to be introduced to the



administrative and organisational aspects of researchand research units.

The main problems related to field work placement are:

1) There are very few institutes or organisations whichhave full-fledged social research units.

2) The available research centres are usually locatedin cities. Small cities and towns and rural areasmay not offer much avenues for field placement inresearch based settings.

3) The initiating of research projects and the durationof these projects do not always coincide with thefield work period of the students. Hence, the activeparticipation of students in all phases of theseprojects is not possible.

4) During the concurrent field work period, thestudents spend only two days a week in the researchunit and so have to gain the greater part of theirknowledge from the project research staff on whatwas done during their absence.

In spite of the problems of placement in researchcentres, research as an avenue for field placementcannot be ignored. Students need to be encouraged totake up research work while placed in communitysettings and also in NGOs who frequently undertakeevaluation studies. Social work research offers anopportunity for social workers to make a significantdifference in their professional standards andaccountability to their intervention.

Let us now try to understand the nature and role of

social research in general and social work research inparticular. We will later examine the role of socialsurveys and evaluation studies.

Role of Social Research

Research may be described as systematic and criticalinvestigation of phenomena towards increasing thestream of knowledge. Scientific research is defined asa systematic and critical investigation about the naturalphenomena to describe, explain and finally tounderstand the relations among them. According toGeorge Lundberg (1946), scientific method consists ofthree basic steps, viz., systematic observation,classification and interpretation of data.

Social sciences primarily deal with human behaviour,which is complex and dynamic in nature. The object ofsocial research is the discovery of causal relationshipsin human behaviour. Unlike physical and naturalsciences, in social research, the objects are consciousand active human beings.

Social research concerns with social data, which aremuch more complex than physical data. The complexnature of social data reduces the power of exactpredication in social research. Much of the subjectmatter of social research is qualitative and does notadmit quantitative measurement.

Social Work Research: Nature and Scope

Social work research is the use of the scientific methodin the search of knowledge, including knowledge ofalternate practice and intervention techniques. Socialwork research is the species that belongs to the



category of social research, or more specifically referredto as social science research.

Definition of Social Work Research

Social work research is the application of researchmethods to the creation of knowledge that is neededby social workers to solve problems in social workpractice. According to Genevieve W Carter, “Social workresearch is the systematic, critical investigation ofquestions in the social welfare field with the purposeof yielding answers to problems of social work and ofextending and generalising social work knowledge andconcepts”.

According to Webster, “Social work research is astudious enquiry, usually critical and exhaustiveinvestigation or experimentation having for its aim therevision of accepted conclusions in the light of newlyaccepted facts.”

Social work research focuses on select aspects ofbehaviour and alternate modes of behaviourmodifications. Social work research searches foranswers to questions raised regarding alternateinterventions or treatments in social work practice.

Social work research is a technique of social work inthat social work research procedures are applied orutilised in the diagnosis of individual, group orcommunity problems. For instance, a case worker isinterested in obtaining information about the actualor potential effectiveness of the individuals, couples orfamilies. Similarly, a community organiser wants toknow the view of the community before he takes adecision to change the programme objectives.

Social work research, therefore, is a systematicinvestigation into the problems in the field of socialwork. The study of concepts, principles, theories,underlying social work methods and skills are the majorconcern of social work research.

Historical Perspective

A scientific orientation to social work was articulatedin the late 19th century in the scientific philanthropymovement. The purpose was to enable the giving ofrelief to the poor a scientific endeavour.

The role of research in building knowledge for practicealso had its roots in the scientific philanthropymovement. Efforts were directed to identify the causesof social problems like poverty and delinquency.

The early leaders of the profession hoped that socialwork might follow the example of medicine andengineering and draw its knowledge from the physicalsciences. For social work, however, the logicalknowledge base seemed to be the social sciences.

Action or operations, research in social work found itsearliest major expression in the survey movement,which began in the 1900s. The movement took placein a progressive climate and was spurred by increasingurban problems such as poverty, housing and childcare. Other forms of operations research, includingevaluations of programmes, statistical reports of services,were all in evidence at the beginning of the century.Thus, social work has a long tradition of using researchprocedures and data to inform and guide itsprogrammes and activities.



Functions of Social Work Research

Social work research basically deals with problems facedby professional social workers, social work agencies andthe community. In social work research the study of aproblem is done from the point of view of professionalsocial work. As such the research design, data collectionand their interpretation will have to be attempted in amanner as will be useful to professional social workers.

The functions of research in social work aremultifaceted:

1) The perspectives and methods of science canprovide a framework for practice activities.

2) Research helps to build knowledge for practice. Itcan generate and refine concepts, determine theevidence for theories, and ascertain the effectivenessof practice methods.

3) Research serves the practical function of providingsituation-specific data to inform action, such asoperations of programmes or efforts to achieve socialchange.

Content and Methodology

In a broad sense, social work research concerns itselfwith the problems faced by social workers. Itencompasses the questions and problems encounteredin social work practices or in administering social workservices.

A rough idea of the content of social work research canbe gleaned from various studies of the social work

research literature. Literature on social work researchcan be divided into four categories: studies of

1) the behaviour, personality, problems, and othercharacteristics of individuals, families, and smallgroups;

2) characteristics, utilization, and outcome of services;

3) attitudes, orientations, and training of socialworkers, the profession, or interdisciplinaryconcerns; and

4) organizations, communities, and social policy.

Social work research utilizes the same scientificmethods and techniques, as does social research.However, when some designs are not suitable, socialworkers need to develop the tools which will be moreappropriate to social work research.

According to analyses of published research, the majorstrategy in social work research is to study phenomenathrough naturalistic methods, that is, withoutexperimental manipulation.

Social Work Research in India

Reasons for the stunted growth of social work researchin India are many and include the following:

1) Inadequacy of funds,

2) Shortage of research personnel,

3) Inadequacy of research facilities,

4) Load of teaching,



5) Lack of research incentives,

6) Lack of research training,

7) Obstacles to communication and utilisation ofresearch, and

8) Absence of machinery for research planning andcoordination.

Social Survey

The survey movement was the predecessor of mostcontemporary forms of assessments of needs. Surveyshave their usefulness both in leading to the formulationof hypotheses and at a more advanced stage in puttingthem to the test. According to C.A. Moser, “Thesociologists should look upon surveys as way and asupremely useful one of exploring the field of collectingdata around as well as directly on the subject of studyso that problem is brought into focus and points worthstudying are suggested.”

Difference between Social Survey and SocialResearchSocial Survey and Social Research, though identical inmany respects, are not one and the same. The majordifferences between the two are:

1) Social surveys are concerned with specific persons,specific problems and situations, whereas socialresearch is concerned with general and abstractproblems.

2) In social survey the object is to fulfil immediateneeds and use knowledge available at a given time.It is thus practical in nature. While in social

research the object is long time research in orderto develop accurate procedures and theories. Itsprimary aim is theoretical in nature.

3) In social survey the purpose is to improve the lot ofmen and, hence, it is utilitarian in nature. Whereasin social research the purpose is to increase thegeneral knowledge or improve the technique ofstudy. It is thus purely academic or scientific innature.

4) Social surveys result in social reform oradministrative change. Social research results inthe formulation of new theories or modification ofold concepts.

5) Social survey may form the basis of somehypothesis, whereas social research develops thehypothesis and thus evolves a theory.

6) Social surveys are conducted on professionalmonetary basis. Many surveys are conducted onpayment from interested parties e.g. opinionsurveys. In social research thirst for knowledge andsatisfaction is the main incentive for a socialscientist.

Evaluation Research in Social Work

Evaluation research is an area of social work researchand implies the use of research designs. Evaluationprovides objective assessment of the performance. Allprogrammes are evaluated for the results they haveachieved or failed to achieve.

Evaluation, apart from making an analysis of theprogress made and problems faced in the



implementation of a programme also indicates thecorrective measures necessary. Evaluation is, thus, anindispensable tool in the organizational process ofimproving both activities still in progress and for futureprogramme planning and decision making.

Concept of Evaluation

Evaluation, literally means, ‘assessing the value of’.Evaluations are undertaken in all spheres of life, informal or informal ways, whenever one wishes to knowand understand the consequences of some action orevent. Evaluation of development work may beundertaken during the implementation of thedevelopment programme or project or after it has beencompleted.

The process of getting reliable data using scientifictechnique is known as evaluation. In a broad sense,the concept of evaluation research or programmeevaluation connotes use of research methods toevaluation programmes or services.

According to Rossi and Freeman (1993), evaluation isthe ‘systematic application of social research proceduresfor assessing the conceptualisation, design,implementation and utility of social interventionprograms’.

Differences between Evaluation and Basic Research

Social research, in general, and basic research, inparticular, is carried on for its own sake. In a very broadsense evaluation research is applied social research.

Evaluation research is a special branch of applied

research, designed to evaluate social programmes andprojects, such as adult/non-formal education, welfareschemes, innovative intervention methods and healthcare systems.

The findings of evaluation research are not meantmerely to add to our knowledge or construct theories.They are more concerned about whether theprogrammes should continue or be abandoned,whether budgets should be enhanced or reduced andwhether the programme achieved its goals.

Evaluation research is designed with a shorter timespan than basic research as it is carried out to evaluateongoing programmes. The social problems are not solvedimmediately, but decisions about programmes are madeimmediately. The need for quick and definite answersmakes evaluation research different from basicresearch.

Types of Evaluation Research

It is difficult to make precise categorization of numeroustypes of evaluation used by researchers. Someresearchers prefer to classify evaluation researchaccording to evaluators, i.e., the persons responsiblefor evaluation for the programme. Based on thisclassification, evaluation researches can be of threetypes:

a) Internal EvaluationIt is a continuous process of self-evaluation byprincipal actors and participants according to pre-established criteria. Here, the personnel and theexecutive of the agency and the group participate.



b) External EvaluationHere, persons outside the agency do the evaluation.External evaluators are chosen mainly because the‘outsiders’ are more objective or at least neutral.Besides, having specialists who possess experttechnical knowledge can add fresh thinking andenhance the credibility of the results.

c) Joint EvaluationHere, external evaluators and one or morerepresentatives of the organization are involved.Joint evaluations, though difficult, enable trainingof agency personnel and gaining their ownershipof results.

Social work practitioners are constantly evaluatingeffectiveness. A social case worker evaluates the extentto which changes in the anxiety of a particular clientare associated with his or her treatment activities.Similarly, a group worker wishes to asses the extent towhich a film on birth control is more or less effectivethan group discussion in increasing knowledge of birthcontrol.

All such evaluations are not ‘evaluation research’because most of the time we do not think of applyingscientific method. We use a term called ‘informalevaluation’ for all such evaluations.

Need for Programme Evaluation

NGOs and donor agencies need to prepare systematicevaluation reports of their effectiveness. Though NGOshave increased in number there have been very fewevaluation studies on their effectiveness.

NGOs that undertake welfare schemes and provideservices to individuals, groups and communities areconcerned about the outcome of their services. Theyneed to know whether the services are effective andrelevant or whether the goals have been achieved.Besides, the funding organizations want reliableevidence to know if funds have been effectively utilized.

It needs to be mentioned that systematic evaluationhas not been given due attention either by the NGOsor by the funding agencies. Most of the NGOs assesstheir outcome by presenting individual ‘success stories’to justify their performance. The donor agencies mainlyrely on annual progress reports and evidences collectedduring their field visits. NGOs and funding agenciesneed to realise that evaluation research is an integralpart of the projects.

Evaluation research can play multifarious roles to makeservices more effective. The various role of evaluationresearch at different stages of programme planning,implementation and outcome can be classified intothree categories:

a) Evaluation research for programme formulation,

b) Evaluation research for monitoring of programmes,and

c) Evaluation research for programme outcome.

ConclusionThis chapter has given you a broad framework for fieldsetting in the area of education and research. Frompre-school stage to higher education and research



undertakings, social workers can play an importantrole.

School social work has changed with the dynamicchanges of society. School social workers diagnosestudents’ problems and arrange needed services,counsel children in trouble, and help integrate disabledstudents into the general school population. Schoolsocial workers deal with problems such as learningdifficulties, misbehaviour in class, and excessiveabsences. They also advise teachers on how to copewith problem students. School Social Workers are, thus,a vital part of the total educational team.

The purpose of evaluation research is to assess theutility of social intervention and human serviceprogrammes. Student social workers placed in NGOscan help the internal and external evaluation teamsand thereby get knowledge of evaluating proceduresbesides helping the concerned organisation inundertaking evaluation.

Social workers can achieve their potential as acontributing member of the social work profession whenthey are competent with research methods. Researchknowledge will enable you to reach higher goals.

ReferencesDale, Reidar. Evaluation Frameworks for DevelopmentProgrammes and Projects. New Delhi: Sage PublicationsIndia Pvt. Ltd., 1998.

Das, D K Lal. Practice of Social Research: Social WorkPerspective. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2000.

Ramachandran, P. Issues in Social Work Research inIndia. A Felicitation Volume. Bombay: Tata Institute ofSocial Sciences, 1990.

Skidmore, Rex A., and Milton G. Thackeray. Introductionto Social Work. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.,1982.

Stroup, Herbert Hewitt. Social Work: An Introduction tothe Field. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing HousePvt. Ltd., 1960.


16Correctional Services

*Sangeeta Dhaor

IntroductionAll societies place restriction and limits on humanbehaviour and establish both formal and informalmeans to deal with those who exceed the limits. Formalmeans find expression in written laws and institutionalstructure, that identify, charge convict and sentenceviolators. This crime control apparatus is called criminaljustice system.

The response to crime is a complex process that involvescitizens as well as agencies and branches ofgovernment. The criminal justice system is designedto control crime and contribute towards a safe andorderly society. There are really many levels of criminaljustice systems and much of the response to crimeusually involves local officials. The total system seeksto properly identify law violators establish guilt, issuean appropriate sanction and change offenders’behaviour. These responsibilities are carried out bypolice, courts and corrections component within aframework of democratic principles designed to protect

* Sangeeta Dhaor, Dr.B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi.

all individuals’ civil rights. Officials are legally permittedto exercise wide discretion in determining a person’sentry into, movement through and exit from the system.

Definition and PhilosophyCorrection is one segment of criminal justice systemby which the society seeks to protect the public, punishoffenders, change behaviour and in some casescompensate victims.

Since a wide range of social and political objectives areexpressed in criminal justice and correctionalprocesses, various degrees of supervision are inoperation. Supervision ranges from a minimal amountwithin the community to maximum securityincarceration.

Criminals are not born but made. The human potentialin every one is good and so one must never write offany criminal as beyond redemption. Mahatma Gandhiand Jawaharlal Nehru always maintained that harshsentencing under rigorous conditions did not serve thehumanizing purpose of punishment. On the subject ofcrime Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation, hadonce said “Crime is outcome of a diseased mind andjail must have an environment of a hospital fortreatment”. We firmly believe in this principle and,during the last 56 years, we have tried to convert ourprisons into the correctional institutions. The main goalof prison administration in India, today is to develop asense of discipline and security among prisoners, andto reform and rehabilitate them in the given social milieuthrough appropriate correctional interventions. We also

Correctional Services 351


aim to equip the prisoners with such skills and abilitiesas will help them to lead a normal life as a citizen, oncethey are let out of prisons.

We share a universally held view that sentence ofimprisonment would be justifiable only if it ultimatelyleads to protection of society against crime. Such a goalcould be achieved only if incarceration motivates andprepares the offender for a law-abiding and self-supporting life after his release.

It further accepts that, as imprisonment deprives theoffender of his liberty and self-determination, the prisonsystem should not be allowed to aggravate the sufferingalready inherited in the process of incarceration. Thus,while certain category of offenders, who endangerpublic safety, have to be segregated from the socialmainstream by way of imprisonment; all possible effortshave to be made to ensure that they come out of prisonsas better individuals than what they were at the timeof their admission thereto. Keeping this in mind in anumber of judgments on various aspects of prisonadministration, the Supreme Court of India has evolvedthree broad principles:

1) A person in prison does not become a non-person.

2) A person in prison is entitled to all human rightswithin the limitations of imprisonment.

3) There is no justification in aggravating the sufferingalready inherent in the process of incarceration.

Obviously, these principles have serious implicationsfor prison administration. They call for a thoroughrestructuring of the prison system in terms of

humanization of prison conditions, minimum standardsfor institutional care, reorientation of prison staff,reorganization of prison programme and rationalizationof prisons rules and regulations.

History of Prison in IndiaThe historical account of jails in our country can betraced back to the Epic age. In Ramayana, when Bharatasaw Rama at Chitrakut, the latter, while making detailedinquiry about the state of polity and welfare of peopleof Ayodhya, did not forget to elicit the situation in jailthere. References of jail are also there in theMahabharata. In those mythological period there wereeighteen important state officials and one of them wasthe head of the institution of jail (karagriha). InManusmriti it is stated that (the King) should have allthe prisons built on the royal highway, where thesuffering and mutilated evil doers can be seen. Therewere also horrific punishments like feeding to animals,mutilations etc .We have locked up people in ourcountry (in dungeons and cellars) to get them out ofsight and often to await some other punishment suchas banishing, ostracizing, and death. This includes thelocking up of Krishna’s parents in a dungeon with sevendoors in Mathura where Krishna was born. The pre-Buddhist jails were said to be very cruel. Here, theinmates were, kept in chains and under heavy loads.Whipping was a daily routine in these jails. Account ofAshoka’s Naraka (hell) was included in the writings ofHuien Tsang and Fa-Hien. Good and humanetreatment of prisoners was unknown in this period.During Muslim period, old forts and castles served thepurpose of regular prisons. These prisons were not as



cruel as the pre Buddhist prisons.

Since Independence, a number of jail reformscommittees have been appointed by state governments.There was a report on Jail Administration in India bythe UN expert, Dr. W.C. Reckless in 1951-52. Hisrecommendations resulted in the revival of theconference of Inspector Generals of Prisons after a lapseof 17 years. An All India Jail Management Committeesubmitted its report in 1960. This resulted in thesettings up of the Central Bureau of CorrectionalServices, which was later redesigned as the NationalInstitute of Social Defense.

Lord McCauley Commission Report, 1835

In this report Lord McCauley suggested the abolitionof outdoor labor, general introduction of indoor work,the inauguration of separate system, betterclassification of convicts, careful separation of untriedprisoners, the institution of central or convict prisons,and the regulation of prison system generally byemployment of inspectors of prisons were the mainrecommendations of this report.

The Prison Discipline Committee, 1836

Lord William Bentick appointed the second committeeon Jan 2, 1836 under the Chairmanship of HShakespeare, a member of Governor General’s Council.This committee is known as the Prison DisciplineCommittee. They submitted a report in 1838 to LordAuckland. The major observations are “the rampantcorruption in the establishment, laxity of discipline,and the system of employing prisoners on extra- murallabor”. The committee recommended increased rigorous

treatment and rejected all notions of reformingcriminals through moral and religious teaching,education or any system of rewards for good conduct.It recommended separation of untried prisoners fromthe convicted ones. Another notable recommendationof this committee is the request for establishing the‘office of Inspector General of Prisons’

Commission of Jail Management and Discipline,1864

A second committee was appointed in 1864 toreconsider the whole question addressed by the firstcommittee. Sir John Lawrence’s examination of thecondition of the jails in India led Lord Dalhousie toappoint this Commission of Jail Management andDiscipline.. This commission made specificrecommendation regarding the accommodation,improvement in diet, clothing, bedding, medical careof the prisoners and for the appointment of MedicalOfficers in jails. The commission also recommendedthe separation of male prisoners from females andchildren from adults.

The Fourth Jail Commission, 1888

In 1888, the fourth jail commission was appointed byLord DufFerin to inquire into the facts of prison. Thiscommission reviewed the earlier reports (reports of1836, 1864, and 1877) and made an exhaustive inquiryinto all matters connected with jail administration. Itwas of the opinion that uniformity could not be achievedwithout enactment of a single Prisons Act. It alsorecommended the setting up of jail



The Prisons Act, 1894

Based on the 1888 Jail Commission’s report, aconsolidated prison bill was prepared. This bill was laterpassed. Thus came into being the Prisons Act, 1894which is the existing law governing the managementand administration of prisons in India. This Act, as itis, based on deterrent principles concerned more withprison management than with the treatment ofprisoners and gave more consideration to prisonoffences and punishments than to their effect.

The Indian Jail Committee, 1919-20

The Indian Jail Committee 1919-20 made the firstcomprehensive study of the problems in the presentcentury. This committee report was treated as a turningpoint of the prison reforms in the country. Thecommittee departed from the vintage theoretical basisof prison administration-(deterrents) and advocated fora new outlook to the prisons. For the first time in thehistory of prisons, ‘reformation’ and ‘rehabilitation’ ofoffenders were identified as the objectives of prisonadministration. The committee also recommended thecare of criminals should be entrusted to adequatelytrained staff, rejected the idea of excessive employmentof convict officers and recommended the reduction ofsuch excessive employment. The committee condemnedthe presence of children in jails and recommended theestablishment of children’s court and the juvenilehomes.

Reckless Commission Report, 1952

Dr. W C Reckless, a UN Expert on correctional work,visited India during the years 1951-52 to study prison

administration in the country and to suggest ways andmeans of improving it. His report ‘Jail Administrationin India” is another landmark in the history of prisonreforms. He made a plea for transforming jails intoreformation centers and advocated establishment of newjails. He opposed the handling of juvenile delinquentsby courts, jails, and police meant for adults. He alsoadvocated the detention of the persons committed tothe prison custody and for their reformation andrehabilitation. He recommended revision of outdatedjail manuals

All India Committee on Jail Reforms, 1980-83

In 1980 Government of India constituted All IndiaCommittee on Jail Reforms under the chairmanship ofJustice Anand Narain Mulla. The recommendation ofthis commission, universally known as MULLACOMMISSION constitute a landmark in the reformatoryapproach to prison reforms. The commission madethorough study of the problems and produced anexhaustive document which is still considered as bibleof correctional services. The Mulla Committee examinedall aspects of prison administration and made wide-ranging recommendations, which if implemented wouldgo a long way to make prison administration efficient,humane and professional. The recommendations of theMulla Committee touched upon legislative, operational,security aspects besides matters like classification ofprisoners, living conditions in prison, medical andpsychiatric services, treatment programs, vocationaltraining for prison inmate, problems related to under-trials and other un-convicted prisoners, problems ofwomen prisoners etc. The report laid emphasis on the



management of prisons to be entrusted to a cadre ofprofessionals.

Fragmentation of Corrections

There is a fragmentation of correction on the basis of anumber of factors. Main sources of fragmentation areas follows:

By jurisdiction

a) Central

b) State

c) Local

By criminal justice function

a) Police

b) Courts

c) Corrections

By location

a) Institutional

b) Non-institutional

By age

a) Adult

b) Juvenile

By other factors

a) Size of operation

b) Sex of offender

c) Type of offence

d) Special program

All these fragments come under one masterclassification which is statutory and non statutory.Statutory is the category covered under Indian PenalCode and other laws. Correctional work with adultprisoners comes under this category wherein minorprisoners are sent to Welfare Homes and Nari Niketan(in case of females). Other statutory ones come undersocial legislations like JJ (Care and Protection) Act,2000, Immoral Trafficking (prevention) Act, 1956, andBombay Prevention of begging Act, 1959.

Correctional AdministrationThe success of correctional administration mainlydepends on the faith, philosophy and efficiency of thecorrectional personnel. Prison officers play a pivotal roleand have a most difficult task on hand. Goodprofessional relationship between staff and prisonersare essential elements of dynamic security.

Carefully selected, properly trained, supervised andsupported staff goes a long way in performing efficiently.

The role of prison staff is to:

i) treat prisoners in a manner which is humane,decent, and just;

ii) ensure that all prisoners are safe;

iii) make sure that dangerous prisoners do not escape;



iv) make sure that there is good order and control inprisons; and

v) provide prisoners with the opportunity to use theirtime in prison positively so that they will be ableto resettle into society when they are released.

It is found that prison staff helps in guarding againstthis insularity. Staff needs to remain sensitive tochanges in the society and consequential changes inprison administration.

Correctional programmes in prisons in nearly all partsof the globe show a significant trend towardsspecialisation, diversification and experimentation.Another important trend is the substitution of theindividualized treatment to prisoners based on theirreformative requirements for the earlier doctrine ofequal punishment for same crime (individualization).The third major trend in prison administration involvesan attempt to reduce the social barrier between inmatesof the correctional institutions and the civiliancommunity. There is also increasing interest in thepossibility that the society or groups of prisoners canbe utilised for therapeutic purposes. Group therapyand other devices aimed at increasing inmatesparticipation in the routine affairs of prisonadministration are designed to reduce the barrierbetween the society and the administrative policy andto give the inmates desired degree of self-esteem andconfidence.

Tihar Prisons have a history of reformation programmesin tune with the current correctional philosophy.Education, Cultural activities, Vocational activities and

Moral Education etc. have been going on in Tihar Jailsfor a long time as a part of the efforts of the PrisonAdministration for reformation of the prisoners. In thelast ten years the process has accelerated and receivedworld wide attention. The reformation package triedout by the Delhi Prison Administration is popularlytermed as “New Delhi correctional model”, the basiccharacteristics of which are:

i) Bringing the community into the prison.

ii) Formation of a self-sufficient community ofprisoners

iii) Participative management.

This model strikes a balance between the approachesof “Privatisation of Prison administration” and the “Halfway houses”. The New Delhi correctional Model hasbeen presented and discussed in Crime Prevention andCriminal Justice Branch at UNO, Vienna and otherinternational and national conferences. It has beendeeply appreciated.

Women in Detention

Respect for gender dignity and rehabilitative concernfor women is very important consideration in allcorrectional institutions and personnel in the CriminalJustice System.

The police, prison, correctional and judicial personnelinvolved in the handling of women, are especiallytrained to ensure this and their knowledge are updatedin laws and procedures applicable to women. Takinginto account the special role of women in family life



and social development and the vulnerability of girls,the current policy of the Criminal Justice System is toavoid the arrest and detention of women to the extentpossible. In cases where women are taken into custody,all provisions regarding protection of their person andrights are scrupulously adhered to. At no stage, a womanarrestee is left unguarded by police women or otherwomen authorised by the Government.

Whenever, women are detained or kept in custody, inaddition to basic amenity and privacy, the prisonadministration makes every effort to provide theessentials for meeting the women’s special needs

Juvenile Justice (care and protection of children) Act,2000

Juvenile Justice (care and protection of children) Act,2000 considers any person below the age of 16 as ‘child’.Person who has acquired the age of 16 but not 18 isconsidered a ‘minor’ JJ (Care and protection ofchildren) Act, 2000 focuses on two kinds of juveniles,

a) Juveniles in need of care and protection,

b) Juveniles in conflict with law.

There is distinction between the children in need ofcare and protection and children in conflict with thelaw. Children in need of care and protection are theones who do not have any place of abode and are foundbegging, working and in conditions of vulnerability.Such children are taken and produced before childwelfare committee and later sent to juvenile homestill they attain the age of 18 and efforts are made towardsrehabilitating them either into their own family or

arranging for adoption, foster care, or sponsorship. Ifneeded institutionalization of such children is also donethough it is not a very favorable option

Juveniles in conflict with law

These juveniles are identified through regular criminaljustice process wherein when a person is caught insome offence, his/her age is verified. If that personhappens to be a minor or juvenile, comes under thejurisdiction of JJ Act (Care and protection of children)2000, such a person is produced before special courtswhich comprises of two social workers apart from onehonorary magistrate.

The law pertaining to what are now called children inconflict with the law has undergone a few changes.The adjudicating authority has been redesigned as theJuvenile Justice Board and the composition haschanged from an adjudicating authority which was aMagistrate with a panel of two social workers to assisther as prescribed under the old law to a Bench whichis composed of two social workers and one Magistrate.This change in composition of the adjudicating authorityis one of the more significant changes in the new law,as now the space exists for bringing about a change inthe very nature of the inquiry. The primary inquiry ofwhether the child did commit the offence as mandatedby a magistrate’s training could now be displaced by asocial worker’s inquiry, which could focus in on whythe child committed the offence, and how does oneredress the same. The shift in composition of the Boardcan bring about a shift in the line of inquiry fromintention to motive. Thus what could change has beenreferred to as the criminal law mindset itself. This is in



effect an important step towards decriminalizing theadministration of juvenile justice, provided the rulesoperationalize the same.

The role of social workers in this setting pertains toidentifying the cause of the offence and makingnecessary recommendations for the rehabilitation ofsuch chidren.

Children in need of care and protection

In case of children in need of care and protectionadequate social investigation is done so as torehabilitate them back to their families. If the familiesare not found to take care of the children adequatelythen other options are sought.

Social worker can serve in juvenile homes as well asobservation homes by way of group work or social casework with the client; juvenile, in this case is helped todevelop an understanding of his problem, look at theresources available to him and involve them in thedecision pertaining to them. Involving community inactivities of children such as celebration of someimportant days or cultural activities is also undertaken.

Immoral Trafficking (Prevention) Act, 1960

Another social legislation is Immoral Trafficking(Prevention) Act which deals with prevention of solicitingin public. Under this act two kinds of persons arecaught-ones who are accused and the others ones whoare victims. Accused are the ones who are touts orpimps or who voluntarily work as sex worker and solicitclient at public places or arrange clients for madams.These people are dealt with as per the provision of the

Act and sent to jail after trial. Another category is ofthe victims who indulge in sex work under pressure.Such victims are verified for age and in case of personbeing minor or juvenile the case is referred to ChildWelfare Committee under JJ (Care and Protection ofchildren) Act, 2000.

In case the victim being major she is sent to Nari Niketanwhere social workers work towards the rehabilitationof these women. They are sent back to their families orto the ones who claim only after thorough verification.In case the minor is trafficked from neighboringcountries she is handed over to the concerned embassy.

Bombay Prevention of Beggary Act, 1956

Beggary is an offence. Under this, persons who are foundbegging are caught by the police and within 24 hoursproduced before the magistrate. In case of it being afirst offence bail is granted to the person. If the personis a habitual offender (Bagger in this case) he is sent tobaggers home and is given vocational training as toprevent him from bagging in future. In this case alsothe persons are verified for the age and in case ofoffender being minor comes under the purview of JJ(Care and Protection) Act, 2000.

Correctional Social WorkIt refers to application of social work principles tocorrectional setting. Most individual who are performingtherapeutic and quasi therapeutic functions incorrection setting such as probation or parole officersand institutional counselors are operating under theumbrella of correctional social work. But it is not a



smooth sail as there are many barriers in theadministration of justice and rehabilitative approachto the offenders; Presence of such barriers enduresbelief that behaviour can be modified by coercivepunishment and also militates against treatmentadvances.

Social work emerged as a profession in the twentiethcentury and today is the profession charged withfulfilling the social welfare mandate of promoting well-being and quality of life. Thus, social work encompassesactivities directed at improving human and socialconditions and alleviating human distress and socialproblems. Social workers, as caring professionals, workwith people to enhance their competence andfunctioning, to access social support and resources, tocreate humane and responsive social services, and toexpand the structures of society that provideopportunities for all citizens. In the main, counselingand in particular casework is the method that is beingapplied in prison social work, even though consciousefforts are being made to place emphasis on both groupwork and community work. Social work in prison doesnot follow any particular framework for practice. Thismakes it difficult for practitioners to clearly define theirpoint of departure. To conclude, social workpractitioners should acknowledge and respond to thereal environmental and emotional crises that can becreated by incarceration. Each offender has the capacityto grow and develop to be a constructive member of thefamily, community and society. Prisoners areresponsible for their behavioural change. A centralcomponent of valuing the individual is recognizing theindividual in relation to their family and community.

Workers challenge attitudes and behaviours, whichresult in crime and cause distress, or harm to victimsand others.

Initiatives such as diversion, community services, parole,probation, correctional supervision and the conversionof imprisonment sentences to those of a community-based treatment should be explored to minimize re-offending or recidivism. Social workers in correctionalfacilities provide two types of services: supportive serviceswithin the institution and connections to resources inthe community. Within a correctional facility, socialwork services might be utilized in the areas of mentalhealth, substance abuse, education, and vocationalrehabilitation. This will help social workers tounderstand the prison environment and offender better.

Probation

The earlier penological approaches held imprisonmentthat is custodial measure to be the only way to curbcrime. But the modern penological approach hasushered in new form of sentencing whereby the needsof the community are balanced with the best interestsof the accused. Compensation, release on admonitionprobation, imposition of fines, community services area few such techniques used.

Probation is derived from Latin word which means “totest or to prove”. It is developed as custodial alternativewhich is used where guilt is established but it isconsidered that imposing of a prison sentence woulddo no good. Imprisonment decreases his capacity toreadjust to the normal society after release andassociation with professional delinquents often has



undesired effects. During probation the probationerlives in the community. He regulates his own life underconditions imposed by court or other constitutedauthority and is subjected to supervision by a probationofficer.

Court if it is convinced that no previous conviction isproved against him, and with regards to age, sex, andantecedents of the offender may order the release onprobation of good conduct. The court may direct thathe/she be released on his entering into a bond with orwithout sureties to appear and receive sentence whencalled up and in the meantime to keep the peace andbe of good behaviour.

Section 361 makes it mandatory for the judge to declarethe reason for not awarding the benefit of probation;often offender is under 21 years of age.

Probation in India mostly depends on the policy of thestate. After care program has been set up to improvethe lives of those released on probation.

In all the settings the after care and follow up are anintegral part to prevent recidivism. After care is microconstituent of the principle of social defence which is aterm used in correctional frame of reference.

After Care

Concept of after care

The term after care refers to the programme and servicesorganized for the rehabilitation of inmates fromcorrectional institution. It can be used to refer to theprogramme and services organized to complete the

process of rehabilitation of socially and physicallyhandicapped individual or group which have beenbegun and carried up to a particular stage in aninstitution. The model prison describes it as a bridgewhich can carry the offender or any other socially orphysically handicapped individual from artificial andrestricted environment of institutional custody; fromdoubts and difficulty and from hesitation and handicapto satisfactory citizenship; resettlement and to ultimaterehabilitation in the free community. After care thus isa continuation of the reformative rehabilitationendeavor for the helping service, guidance counselingsupport and protection of persons released from juvenileand adult institution meant for socially and physicallyhandicapped individuals.

Social work approach in correctional setting implies aphilosophy as well as application of techniques forproblem solving. Operational philosophy of social workrests on three specific premises.

1) Function of intervention is to target on a problemin social function.

2) Social work conceives problem solving as apartnership activity between social worker andclient.

3) Response to the client means most and equilibriumis best restored at the point of crisis so crisis, relatedsocial work should be emphasized.

Some of the important skills and techniques of socialwork with the clients are:



Counseling

It is a relationship in which one endeavor to helpanother understand and solve his problem ofadjustment. It is distinguished from advice oradmonition in that it implies mutual consent. It hasas its goal the immediate solution of a personal problemor long range effort to develop self understanding andmaturity.

Insight and empathy

Perceptive understanding is required on the part of thesocial worker who develops insight into the problem ofthe client/offender by empathy. Empathy is a criticalingredient in the therapeutic process: “Getting intothe client’s frame of reference.”

Interviewing

Interviewing is a professional conversation with apurpose. Effective communication is at the heart ofpositive human interaction. Interviewing is differentfrom intense psychotherapy and counseling. Interviewis basic while counseling is the epitome of positiveguided interaction.

In correctional setting there are a few issues which mustbe kept in mind

The captive client

Here the client because of the constrained setting iscaptive. Presence during the sessions is not voluntaryand somewhat imposed. Hence it is a very responsibleprocess and the whole environment should belighthearted. There is needed a structured permissive

relationship between the client and interviewer. Thisrelationship should allow the client gain anunderstanding of himself to a degree which enableshim take positive step in the light of a newenvironment.

Stigma and self esteem

Oxford Dictionary describes stigma as a “mark ofdisgrace”. It should be kept in mind that becoming anoffender and coming in conflict with law has a deeperimpact on the self esteem of the client, as the societytreats them as marginalized and stigmatized. Sometimesthe client internalize the stigma and behaves in a verydifferent way (defensive or abusive) Hence the socialworker has to keep these factors in mind before enteringinto any kind of intervention with them.

Role of NGOsThere is considerable scope for NGOs and voluntaryagencies to work in the field of treatment, after careand rehabilitation of offenders. If the services of wellorganized NGOs could be obtained on a regular basis,it would be desirable to assign a role for them asvisualized by the Mulla Committee in regard to thefollowing:a) Services of experts in education, medicine,

psychiatry, law, social work, the media etc. couldbe utilized in the formulation of correctional policyby associating them with advisory committees atthe national and state levels.

b) Appointments of eminent citizens interested incorrectional work as visitors to prisons. They could



also be appointed as non-official members onsentence reviewing boards for district and centralprisons.

c) In conducting adult education and free legal aidprograms;

d) Running health camps;e) Organizing recreational and cultural activities;f) Individual coaching to inmates pursuing higher

studies; andg) The NGOs should play a greater role in creating

the right kind of awareness about the prisonadministration and the core problems of correctionalsub-systems with a view to eliciting public co-operation.

There is increasing public awareness in regard tohuman rights and the need to adhere to humanitarianlaws and in issues like custodial violence and deaths,unduly long detention of persons under special lawslike Tada.

A number of after care programmes are being run bythe government with the help of non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) which are acting as a bridgebetween the prisoners and the community. Theseservices are offered to the prisoners on their release.The Prison Departments are also providing tool kits oftrades to released prisoners to achieve self-employment.Prison Welfare Officer also helps released prisoners inavailing grant or loan under various developmentschemes. In certain states, half-way homes have alsobeen set up especially for women prisoners who arefacing problems of rehabilitation.

There are many constraints pertaining to the role andposition of social worker in correctional setting.

The working conditions of social workers shouldbe investigated and reengineered to effect betterrehabilitation services to the offender. Re-visit socialwork salaries, positions and promotions to improvemorale and level of job-satisfaction of social workers.

The size of social problems in prison and the paucityof social workers call for a generalist social workerwho is able to attend to the overall needs of a family.However, developments in social work attest to theneed for specialization of social workers in somesectors of social work practice: e.g. youth centers,probation and parole and long-term

ConclusionCorrection is one segment of criminal justice systemby which the society seeks to protect the public, punishoffenders, change behaviour and in some casescompensate victims. It took long to develop the conceptof correction in Indian prisons, though the history ofprisons is long and horrifying. It took the efforts of Mullacommittee to light a ray of hope in the prison reforms.

The kind of efforts which are required for organizingcorrectional services and their delivery are taught inthe form of various skills and techniques in the teachingof social work profession. The philosophy of correctionalas well as that of social work get along well. It is realizedthat there is a very important role of social workers inthe field of correctional services. The roles of socialworker in correctional setting include those of advocacy,



broker, mediator, catalyst, social control agent, andcommunity organizer among others. Social workers alsoprovide services in the areas of advocacy, brokerage,and linkages between incarcerated individuals andtheir community ties. In addition to that the socialworker’s input may influence decisions regarding aresidents‘ movement within and between facilities aswell as decisions made by parole boards and courts oflaw.

ReferencesSnarr W. Richard, Introduction to corrections. 3rd

ed.Brown & Benchmark, 1996.

Chakrabarti N.K.,Institutional Correctios, In theAdministration of Criminal Justice-Deep & DeepPublications, 1999.

Carney P. Louis, Corrections: Treatment and Philosophy.Prentice Hall,Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.

Tripathi S.C. and Arora Vibha, Laws Relating to Womenand Children, Central Law Publications, 2005.

Vernun BFox, Stinchcomb B.Jeanne, Introduction toCorrections, Prentice Hall Career & TechnologyEnglewood Cliffs NJ 07632, 1994.

Kant Anjani, Women & Law. Rawat Publications.

Carter Robert M. Glaser Deniel, Wilkins Leslit.Probation Payrole and Community Correction. 3Rd Edn.Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Johnson, Elemer H. Crime Correction and Society. 4th

Edn. (1978). Dorsy Press.

Report of the All India Committee on Jail Reforms:1980-83, Vol. I, II, Govt. of India.

www.westbengalprisons.org, www.vedamsbooks.com,http://etd.uj.ac.za, www.indiangos.com,www.altlawforum.org, www.legalserviceindia.com,www.apcca.org, www.tiharprisons.nic.in, http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~DREVESKR/cjhr.html-ssi


17Corporate Sector, Donor Agencies

and NGOs*Joseph Verghese

IntroductionThe aim of any private enterprise is to maximize profitand give its owners/ shareholders the maximum returnon their investment. However, even in free marketcountries private enterprises are not allowed completefreedom. Governments do administer a number ofregulations related to pollution, labor, prices, andquality standards. Controls are administered so thatthe functioning of the enterprises does not cause injuryto the society then and in the future. Often theseregulations are made in form of laws which thegovernment implements. The enterprises are also taxed.The basis for the administration of these measures isthat while enterprises are private initiatives they arevery much part of the society and benefit from itsresources. For example, an enterprise gets its clients/buyers and employees from the society. Hence, theprivate enterprises have a responsibility towards thesociety also. Thus the immediate stakeholders of anycompany are its owners, shareholders, employees,

* Joseph Verghese, Christ College, Bangalore.

buyers, and distributors. In the larger sense allmembers of the society are its stakeholders.

Industrialists during the early days of industrialcapitalism did not have the idea of social responsibility.Consequently there existed 16 hours working days withno holidays, child labour, no security control onpollution. Gradually with the increased pressure fromlabour movements and growing awareness, industriesallowed regulation in these areas by the state. Presentlygovernment and increasingly international bodies actas watchdog of the industry performance in these areas.For example, the issue of climate change has lead tointergovernmental cooperation to regulate the emissionof greenhouse gases by companies. How muchregulation is needed and its effectiveness is subject ofperennial debate.

Corporate social responsibility is presently used andadvocates that corporate should do more than just followlaws, it should actively participate in efforts to enhancethe well-being of the society. Corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) is defined in many ways.McWilliams and Siegel (2001) define it as situationswhere the firm goes beyond compliance and engagesin ‘actions that appear to further some social good,beyond the interests of the firm and that which isrequired by law’. Others have given a broader view ofCSR. According to this view, all actions that a corporatedoes to benefit the society can be called CSR. It neednot be voluntary as it can be statutorily enforced (Hib,2004). Thus, all decisions, which affect all thestakeholders, are part of CSR.

Corporate Sector, Donor Agencies and NGOs 377


There are many who feel that CSR can help thecorporate in many ways. It has contributed toprofitability and sustainability. The sustainabilityfactors include governance and management,stakeholder engagement, environmental processimprovement, environmental products and services,local economic development, community development,and human resource management. It can prevent theloss customers, shareholders and even customers (ibid,p3).

Corporate Social Responsibility in IndiaIndian industry has been engaged in the CSR initiativesfor a long time. Mahatma Gandhi’s theory of trusteeshipaimed at making the industry owners trustees of theindustry. The industry would be run for the benefit ofthe society rather than for private benefit.

The first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehruaddressing a meeting said ‘... [Business has]responsibility to itself, to its customers, workers,shareholders and the community ... every enterprise,no matter how large or small, must, if it is to enjoyconfidence and respect, seek actively to discharge itsresponsibilities in all directions ...and not to one ortwo groups, such as shareholders or workers, at theexpense of community and consumer. Business mustbe just and humane, as well as efficient and dynamic.

A number of corporate and the business houses haveinitiated a number of initiatives. For example, the Tatashave supported a number of social initiatives. The Tatainstitute of social sciences is one of its significantinitiatives, which started professional social work

education. After liberalization process was started inthe government it has asked corporate to participatemore actively in social development.

According to a survey, three core elements in CSR existin India which are as follows:

1) Community development: Most large companieseither have their own foundations or contribute toother initiatives that directly support thecommunity upliftment, notably in health,education, and agriculture.

2) Environmental management: Environmentalpolicies and programmes are now standardized, andmany companies have implemented the ISO 14 001system throughout their businesses.

3) Workplace: Growing out of long-standingcommitments to training and safety a more recentemphasis has been on knowledge and employeewell-being.

Professional social workers are mostly engaged in thefirst and third function.

Scope of Social Work in Corporate Social InitiativesThe professional social worker has to play an importantrole in CSR initiatives in the country. Indian CSR hasfocused mainly on the community developmentinitiative and workers welfare. Social workers can assistCSR in the following ways.

1) Assisting the corporate to convert socialresponsibility into initiativesInterpreting social responsibility is the primaryresponsibility of the social work. Often corporates



are willing to spend resources for social initiativesbut are unaware of how it should be operationalised.Most of them busy are running the business thatthey do not get enough time to conceptualize theinitiative. Social work can identify the client groups,understand their needs, and formulate programmesto address their problems.

There is an increasing tendency to place MBAs inthe role of managers of social initiatives as it isassumed that their management skill will result ingreater efficiency. In fact, MBAs are being placedin social work agencies all over the world. Howevermany of them do not have an understanding of theclient dynamics and provide unrealistic solutions.Therefore, while a multidisciplinary approach isuseful the social worker has to educate the otherprofessionals to understand client system.

Another tendency is to convert social initiatives intopublic relation exercises and get media attention.While this is a legitimate objective, it can result inpaying lip service and publicity seeking initiatives.

2) Implement the programme

Various programmes can be implemented by thesocial worker through various methods of socialwork.

Social Work Practicum in the CorporateSectorThe option of doing fieldwork in the corporate sector isincreasing as increasing number of industries are

starting CSR initiatives. For students it is anopportunity to gain practical experience in an agencywhose competence is not in community development,counseling, etc. CSR for the corporates are an importantarea of work but definitely not their priority. Secondly,often the relationship between the various departmentsand the department which handles CSR, is not clearor well defined. Defining the role of the department inthe corporate and disseminating information about itsinitiative within the company is itself major exercisefor the students placed in the corporates other areas ofinterest in practicum are:

1) Assist in the formulation of the projects

Activities to assist the formulation of the projectsinclude determining the objectives, the targetpopulation, their needs and programmes.

2) Implement the projects

Tasks in implementing the projects include –breaking down the programme components,division of responsibilities, mobilizing the targetpopulation and performing various tasks andmonitoring their progress. The methods of socialwork-casework, group work and communityorganization are used in this stage of work.

3) Ensure publicity of the programme within andoutside the corporate about the programmes

Publicity about the corporate’s programme in thelarger society is an important activity from its pointof view. If the programme is sufficiently large,coverage by the press maybe expected. Even



otherwise publicity in form of banners, handouts,and brochures can be prepared.

4) Another equally important area is the awarenessabout the programmes within the corporates itselfamong its employees. It is their involvement in theprogrammes and their appreciation that willencourage the corporate to continue to engage insimilar programmes. Programmes have to beformulated so that it is possible for the employeesto be part of the programmes and benefit from themoral satisfaction that is obtaining by helping theneedy. For achieving this object the programmeshave to be imaginative enough to catch the attentionof the employees and be agreeable to their valuesystem. It should be planned during such periodswhen the employees can spend their time andenergy in these extra activities. It is only when thecorporate investment’s in CSR brings abouttangible returns in form of publicity and morale ofits employees will CSR be promoted and supported.

5) Evaluation of the programme seeks to study as towhat degree the objectives of the programme areachieved and how far have been the participationof the employees.

CSR is an emerging area of the work for socialworker. Increasingly government, associations,corporates, and social scientists are calling forgreater involvement of the corporate in the socialsector. It is also an opportunity for social workersto gain entry in a sector which is bound to grow inthe coming decades.

Field Work in NGOsNGOs are characterized by the following characteristics:(1) Non profit orientation, (2) autonomy from state andits direct control, (3) initiative from the civil society, (4)working for public good on basis of mutual aid, selfhelp and helping other.

The predominant feature of the NGO sector is its variety.The variety is seen in different aspects of the NGOmovement. The NGO approaches the issues in differentways. The size and level of competence is also different.

Increasingly NGO’s are professionalizing them. NGOsare hiring professionals like social workers, lawyers,doctors, scientists and management professionals.NGOs are run on formal lines and there are departmentsto handle the work. There is growing awareness andacceptance of the work of NGOs among the people.Socially committed individuals are also opting for acareer in this sector.

NGOs are also collaborating with governments toinfluence policy and implement programmes.

Functions of NGOs

1) implementation of development programmes, 2)provision of services like child care, counseling and legalaid, 3) mobilizing people to demand services and protestagainst injustice, 4) advocacy for unrepresented people,5) research, 6) creating awareness among the peopleon important issues, 7) running homes for thedestitute, refugees, disease afflicted persons, 8) de-addiction and rehabilitation centers.



Practicum in NGOs

1) Understanding the NGO, its services and thebeneficiaries. The various aspects of the NGO canbe as follows:

– objectives of the organization

– history of the organization

– profile of the beneficiaries

– geographical area of work

– registered under which act

– organizational structure

– sources of funding foreign funding (institutionaldonors, individual donor, governmental and nongovernmental) and Indian funding(governmental, non governmental, corporate)

– people support in form of contribution of funds

– Infrastructure facilities of the agency

– relationship with other agencies including otherNGOs, government depts., Panchyat Rajinstitutions and community basedorganizations

– opinion of the beneficiaries and public on therelevance and quality of services

– problems of agency from within and outside theorganization

– future plans

– recognition and awards.

2) The client and NGO relationship:

– The nature of NGO-client relationship

– the ideology of the NGO and the ideology-practice gap

– the rationale for implementing the projects

– the targets set and achieved

– the factors that have bearing to the attaining/not attaining the targets

– the agency view of the beneficiaries

– the relationship between the agency and thebeneficiaries

– the relationship between the agency andcommunity

– the number of projects the agency isimplementing

– the intended tasks and the time frame for thesame

– the ways and means how the project ismonitored

– the indicators for evaluation

– the means adopted to obtain participation ofthe people



– means of improving cost effective programmeimplementation.

3) The student also has to go beyond the obviousinformation that the he collects from the NGO’sofficials and documents.Some of the importantinference you should make is regarding thefollowing points:

– The value system of the agency. Does it adhereto the ideology that wants status quo or does itpromote change? Does it empower its clientson a long-term basis or does it providetemporary relief making the client dependenton others?

– Do values of freedom, justice, dignity,democracy, and liberty guide the functioningof the organization? It is often unrealistic toexpect an organization to follow these valuesin all situations. However it is upto you to inferwhether the deviations are too great. How areemployees treated?

– Is the NGO a learning organization i.e. anorganization where continuous change is wayof its functioning and its core assumptionsbecause of its experience in the field. A learningorganization should have a mechanism to obtainrelevant information from the field, convert itto concrete knowledge, and share it to themembers in the organization

– Many NGOs are indulging in wrongdoings likemisappropriating funds, fudging accounts,

creating fictionous clients etc. It can be rectifiedif transparency and openness are encouragedby the NGO. What is the position of the NGOon that and how does it maintain accountabilitytowards the donor, government and the publicat large?

– Does the NGO organize regular programmesfor increasing the capacity of the agency tomanage the new situations that are emerging?

4) Understand the client system

– Socio-economic profile of the client

– cultural and psychological problems thatcontribute to the problem

– factors causing the problem

– Government action to solve the problem andits limitations

– Non governmental actions to solve the problem.

5) Practice the methods of a social work – casework,group work and community organization in theagency. The practice of the methods of social workdepend on the following factors:

– the agency philosophy, methods, values andresources available

– the community support to the programmes

– the knowledge and skill of the students



– the time and other resources available to thestudent.

The field work in the NGO is a very rewarding one. Itallows the student to understand the NGO sector. Theimportance of this sector is growing in the recent times.The government is withdrawing from the economic andupto lesser extent from the social sector. Increasinglythe social sector is going to be dominated by thevoluntary sector. This sector will need social workprofessional to implement their programmes.

Field Work in Donor AgenciesA donor agency is agency that funds otherorganizations to implement projects and to meet theiradministrative costs. The main functions of the donoragency is as follows:

1) To mobilize monetary resources from corporates,individual donors, and interest groups.

Mobilization of resources is a major activity of thedonor agency. It organizes campaign to createawareness about crucial issues like poverty, childrights and child care, violence against women orany other issue that the agency thinks is important.The agency then requests the individual to donatefunds either through one time or periodicallysubscriptions. They can also make bequests in thewills in favor of the agency. Corporates also have apolicy of providing funds for social causes.Prominent corporates give matching contributionsto the amount of the contribution of theiremployees. They then donate the amount to donor

agencies or to NGOs. Often the donor agencies haveto do a lot of preparation in highlighting issues inthe media so that people respond to the issuepositively.

2) To select NGOs that are creditworthy, efficient andhave a positive image among the targeted groups.

There are a large number of NGOs, which work inthe different sectors. Many NGOs apply for aid toconduct their programmes. The donor agency hasto study the NGO: (i) its philosophy and itsapproach, (ii) its track record in implementingprogrammes and projects, (iii) the agency’s humanresources and its leadership, (iv) its relationshipwith the target populations, (v) its area of work, (vi)its relationship with government, (vii) its financialsituation.

The donor agency has to develop criteria in form ofindicators to evaluate the agencies that have appliedfor aid. Investigators representing the agency woulddo a field visit to the agency and get informationdirectly from the field. All this information is usedto decide which agencies have to be selected forthe fund.

3) To fund the agencies selected and monitor theprogress.

The donor agencies fund the agency for a fixedperiod. Progress of the work is monitored on theregular basis, again using indicators formulated forthe purpose. Field visits are also done to get primaryinformation from the field. Advice is rendered in



the areas where improvement is needed.Corrections are made if there are errors in theimplementation. Training is provided to enhancethe capacity of the agencies.

4) Evaluation and follow up

Evaluation of the work is done by the donor agencyand in many cases if an extension is needed, it isprovided. Evaluation also needs indicators that willreveal the impact of the project on the community.Nowadays the donor agencies are increasinglyinterested in determining to what extent theprojects are sustainable and enjoy people’sconfidence and support.

Activities in donor agencies

Field work in donor agencies is relatively new area.Donor agencies usually do not provide opportunitiesfor practice of social work methods of casework, groupwork and community organization. A few donor agenciesalso implement their own projects in which case theremaybe opportunities for the practice.

Student can perform the following activities:

1) Understand the politics of Aid mobilization and Aiddistribution

The objective of aid is not always altruistic-it is oftenpolitical. There are attempts to push surreptitiouslya political or social agenda. Karat (1985) analysesthe donor motives to fund NGOs activities in Indiaand other developing countries and conclude thatthe funding agencies provide aid to further the

interests of the MNCs and the developed countries.According to him the implicit aim of funding is todivide, the broad anti imperialist and anti capitalistmovements into smaller splinters based on casteand gender, and replace the revolutionary idealsof the former with the reformists’ aims of thesemovements. In other case, another donor agencyis alleged to have the aim of reducing the poor ofthe world by providing them with birth controlmeasures. Funding for religious purpose also takesplace.

However, it is not to say that all aid is negative andwill harm the society. An example is the food aidIndia received form European commission foroperation flood, which was used judiciously andcontributed towards making India the largestproducer of milk. Therefore, the student shouldunderstand the dynamics of the functioning of thedonor agency.

The student should be able to the analyze thedonor agency in the following terms:

What is the aim of the agency?

What are the major assumptions of the donoragency?

What role it visualizes for itself in the society?

What ideology does it follow?

Who are its major backers?

Why are they supporting the agency?

What changes has the agency been experiencingin the years after its initiating?



2) The student trainee can gain experience in usingindicators for monitoring and evaluation

Action research is a tool often used by donor agencyto obtain information about the progress of theproject. It is an important area of research. Oftena baseline survey is done at the beginning of theproject to understand the existing situation in thetarget area and then compared with the researchfindings after the intervention is done. Oneimportant element in this type of research(beforeand after research) is the preparation of indicatorsfor the change if any that has taken place in thebehaviour of the clients due to the intervention.Indicators are to be carefully constructed. They haveto be realistic, demonstrable and lucid. Oftenagencies borrow indicators from other agencies likeWorld Bank. The use of this type of research is animportant learning for the student placed in donoragency.

3) Exposure to reporting systems used by the agency

Related to the formulation of indicators andresearch are reporting systems, which is beingincreasingly used by the donor agency tounderstand the progress, caused by theintervention. Reporting in agencies has become amajor activity and an important activity.

4) Exposure to project proposals and criteria forselection

A donor agency will receive a number of projectproposals for funding from different agencies which

they would evaluate using their own criteria. It canlearn from different proposals available on thestrategies used by the agencies to further their casefor funding. The student can learn on what factorsare proposals judged. Sometimes extraneous factorslike personal factors may play a role in the selectionof the projects. If the trainee can persuade a seniorstaff member to discuss how proposals areevaluated, it would be a major contribution to hislearning.

5) Doing field visits to monitor progress

Donor agencies often visit the field to assess thework of the funded agencies. If permission is givenfor the trainee to accompany the donor agencyofficials on such field visits, it would be aninvaluable experience as he would be exposed tothe functioning of a variety of agencies. He couldalso observe how donor agency officials deal withthe agency officials and what kind of questions andclarifications are asked.

6) Dealing with inef f iciency, corruptions andmismanagement

Most of the donor agencies encounter inefficiency,corruption, and mismanagement in the agenciesthat they fund. How they take action against theguilty parties is important. NGOs are increasinglylosing credibility in the society as they are seen asmoney making ventures. To check these trenddonor agencies are taking recourse to a number ofmeans including litigation, blacklisting of NGOsand suspension of funding.



Most donor agencies have evolved a procedure todeal with complaints. They include conducting anenquiry and asking for written explanation.Conducting a spot investigation and checking theaccounts, are other measures.

7) Observe and participate in capacity buildingprogrammesDonor agencies often conduct or arrange forconducting organizational developmentprogrammes, training programmes andcollaborative programmes to improve theeffectiveness of the organizations. The student cangain exposure to the planning and execution ofthese programmes.

It is quite possible that the donor agency does notallow you to participate directly in the variousprocesses. However, the student can ask forinformation from the staff members.

It is strongly recommended that the student getsexperience in the practice of social work methods –casework, group work and community organizationand direct experience in the field before he/shedoes her field work in a donor agency. His/her fieldwork would be incomplete if he/she does not havedirect experience in the target groups.

ConclusionCorporates, donor agency and NGOs will be importantareas where the social workers will be employed in thefuture. Field work in these areas will be very rewardingfor the student. Each of the sectors has their ownstrengths and weakness. Each of them presents adifferent kind of challenge to the social work and thesocial work trainee.

However, the main objective is to practice the method.The exposure to these sectors should teach you whichmethods to be used, how to use them and how to satisfyvarious stakeholders in the processes.

References

Kumar, Rita(2004). The State of CSR in India 2004,acknowledging progress, prioritizing action,background paper, TERI, New Delhi

Karat, Parkas (1984), the Marxist.

McWilliams, A., Siegel, and Wright. Corporate(2006)social responsibility ; strategic implications in Journalof Management 43;1.


msw 005 social work practicum and supervision

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