MSD-017Challenges to Sustainable

Development

THREATS

UNIT 1

Land Degradation 5

UNIT 2

Desertification 21

UNIT 3

Disasters 41

UNIT 4

Biopiracy 56

Block

4

Indira Gandhi

National Open University

School of Interdisciplinary and

Trans-disciplinary Studies

PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE

ADVISORS

Prof. V. N. Rajasekharan Pillai Prof. M.S. Swaminathan Dr. (Mrs.) Latha Pillai

Former Vice-Chancellor Honorary Chair, Chair for Former Pro-Vice Chancellor

IGNOU, New Delhi Sustainable Development and Executive Director, CSD

IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

EXPERTS

Prof. P.C. Kesavan Dr. A.K. Shiva Kumar Prof. M.K. Salooja

Emeritus Professor Advisor, UNICEF CSD & SOA

CSD, IGNOU, New Delhi New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. P.S. Ramakrishnan Dr. Swarna S. Vepa Prof. K.S. Rao

JNU, New Delhi Madras School of Economics Dept. of Botany

Chennai University of Delhi

Dr. P. A. Azeez

Sálim Ali Center for Ornithology and Dr. Nehal A. Farooque Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra

Natural History (SACON) SOEDS, IGNOU SOS, IGNOU

Coimbatore New Delhi New Delhi

Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharaya Dr. Bibhu Prasad Nayak Dr. Anjan Prusty

Institute of Science and Technology The Energy Research Institute Sálim Ali Center for

for Advance Studies and Research New Delhi Ornithology and Natural

(ISTAR), Gujarat History (SACON), Coimbatore

Dr. Jagdamba Prasad Dr. Oinam Hemlata Devi Dr. Narendra Kumar Sahoo,

ARD, Regional Service Division School of Human Ecology Civil Engineering Department

IGNOU Ambedkar University Maharishi Markandeshwar

New Delhi University, Ambala

Dr. Naresh Chandra Sahu Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman

Department of Humanities, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Social Sciences, and Management

Indian Institute of Technology

Bhubaneswar, Odisha

PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATOR

Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman

SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE EDITOR COURSE CO-ORDINATOR BLOCK CO-ORDINATOR

Prof. P.C. Kesavan Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman Dr. Y.S. Chandra Khuman

Chair for Sustainable Development SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

IGNOU, New Delhi

FORMAT EDITOR

Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman

SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

UNIT WRITERS

Unit 1 Land Degradation :

Unit 2 Desertification :

Unit 3 Disasters :

Unit 4 Biopiracy :

PRINT PRODUCTION

Sh. S. Burman Sh. Y.N. Sharma Sh. Sudhir Kumar

DR(P), MPDD AR(P), MPDD SO(P), MPDD

IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

April, 2017

Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017

ISBN-978-93-86607-20-1

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Dr. Anjan Prusty & Ms. Rachna Chandra, SACON

BLOCK 4 INTRODUCTION

The major objective of block 4 is to study the threats. It has four units. Unit 1

describes the concept and causes of land degradation, impacts of land degradation,

scale and magnitude of the problem in India. It also highlights the existing and

proposed responses by the different departments of Govt. of India to stop further

land degradation. In unit 2 Desertification, factors responsible for desertification

and approaches in combating desertification has been discussed. In unit 3 an

attempt has been made to understand natural and man-made disasters, their effects

and the components of disaster management has been explained. Also the

strategies for disaster reduction, preparedness and resilience building for working

of a sustainable system are detailed. Unit 4 discusses various aspects of biothreats,

invasive alien species, its threat to India’s biodiversity and sustainable

development. The unit also discusses biological weapons, their ecological impacts

and the importance of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).

4

Threats

5

Land Degradation

UNIT 1 LAND DEGRADATION

Structure

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Objectives

1.2 The Concept of Land Degradation

1.3 Causes of Land Degradation

1.4 Pressures

1.4.1 Direct Pressures

1.4.2 Indirect Pressures

1.5 Problems and Impacts of Land Degradation

1.6 Magnitude of the Problem in India and Some Examples

1.7 Responses, Policy Gaps and Recommendations

1.8 Let Us Sum Up

1.9 Key Words

1.10 References and Suggested Further Readings

1.11 Key to Check Your Progress

1.0 INTRODUCTION

India supports approximately 16% of the world’s human population and 20% of

the world’s livestock population on merely 2.5% of the world’s geographical

area. The steady growth of human as well as livestock population, the widespread

incidence of poverty, and the current phase of economic and trade liberalization

are exerting heavy pressure on India’s limited land resources for competing uses

in forestry, agriculture, pastures, human settlements and industries. This has led

to significant land degradation. Among the different categories, the lands that

face degradation include: grazing land and pastures, forests, barren lands, and

uncultivable lands. Land being a shrinking resource, the detrimental consequences

of diverting fertile agricultural land for non-farming purposes would adversely

affect sustainable development. The negative effects of land degradation are taking

a heavy toll on India’s environment and economy, which are causes of serious

concern.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept and causes of land degradation;

• describe different types of land degradation: direct and indirect or underlying

pressures;

• analyze the impacts of land degradation, scale and magnitude of the problem

in India; and

• highlight existing and proposed responses by the different departments of

Govt. of India to stop further land degradation.

6

Threats1.2 THE CONCEPT OF LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation refers to an appreciable loss of productivity of land. The process

of lowering of the current and/or potential capability of land to produce goods or

ecological services is known as land degradation. The lowering of land capability

may be both quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. The rate of this process

may be 1) slow and continuous, or 2) short-lived between various states of

ecological equilibrium. Although the terms land degradation and soil degradation

is synonymous, the difference between them is mostly of academic interest. Soil

is an integral part of land, hence, any deterioration quantitatively or qualitatively

(in its quality, mass or volume, either singly or in combination), is also a

deterioration of land. Soil degradation refers to removal/erosion of the top most

layer of the land. This top soil contains organic matter and beneficial organisms

which contribute to soil health. The term soil degradation is more specific and is

directly related to agro productivity and is preferably used among researchers

from agriculture discipline as compared to the more comprehensive term land

degradation.

1.3 CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION

On a global basis, among the several factors causing land degradation, four major

ones have been identified by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):

deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture and industries with corresponding

contribution of 34.5%, 36.2%, 28.1% and 1.2%, respectively. Some more specific

causes and effects are given below:

• Mining, industrial and urban development causes deforestation and leads to

the exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Some of the

major effects of soil erosion are wasteland formation, floods, landslides

and ground subsidence.

• Industrial and modern agricultural practices (use of chemical fertilizers,

pesticides, weedicides, etc.) release toxic substances, which contaminate

soils by changing the chemical properties of the soil and kill all

microorganisms. There is always a consequential loss in fertility of soil,

and in due course groundwater recharge is impeded. Toxic soils result in

contamination of ground water, which has further environmental and health

implications.

1.4 PRESSURES

Land in India suffers from varying degrees and the types of degradation stems

mainly from unsustainable and inappropriate management practices. Loss of

vegetation occurs due to deforestation, cutting beyond the silviculturally

permissible limit, unsustainable fuel wood and fodder extraction, shifting

cultivation, encroachment into forest lands, forest fires and over grazing all of

which subject the land to degradation forces. Other important factors responsible

for large-scale degradation are the extension of cultivation to lands of low potential

or high natural hazards, non-adoption of adequate soil conservation measures,

improper crop rotation, indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals such as fertilizers

and pesticides, improper planning and management of irrigation systems and

7

Land Degradationextraction of ground water in excess of the recharge capacity. In addition, there

are a few underlying or indirect pressures such as land shortage, short-term or

insecure land tenancy, open access resource, economic status and poverty of the

agriculture dependent people, which are also instrumental to a significant extent,

in the degradation of the land. Land degradation manifest itself chiefly in the

form of water erosion, followed by wind erosion, biophysical, and chemical

deterioration.

1.4.1 Direct Pressures

• Deforestation is both, a type of degradation by itself, and a cause for other

types of degradation, principally, water erosion. Deforestation causes

degradation primarily, when the land cleared is steeply sloping, or has shallow

or easily erodible soils; and secondly, where the clearance is not followed

by good land management. Between 1980 and 1990, forests were depleted

at the rate of about 0.34 mha annually while; afforestation efforts covered

about 1.0 mha annually (MoEF 1999). Forests in India have also been

shrinking owing to pressures from user groups.

• Impoverishment of the natural woody cover of trees and shrubs is a major

factor responsible for wind and water erosion, which occurs because the

per capita forest land in the country is only 0.08 ha against the requirement

of 0.47 ha to meet basic needs, creating excessive pressure on forest lands.

This gap has resulted in impermissible levels of timber, firewood, and fodder

extraction from the forests. The demand for commercial timber comes from

industries including pulp and paper, plywood, packaging, housing,

matchwood, sports goods, furniture, agricultural implements and railway-

coaches (FSI 1987). The total demand for timber, including small timber,

was estimated at 64.4 million cum for 1996 with a growth rate of 5% per

annum (FSI 1995).

• Although, officially, extraction from the forests is organized so as to maintain

a sustainable yield yet, in practice, the extraction far exceeds the limit

resulting in a rapid depletion of forest stock. According to the State of Forest

Report (FSI 1987), against the demand of more than 27 million cubic metre,

the permissible felling of timber was only 12 million cubic metre creating

an excess felling of about 15 million cubic metre over the permissible limit

with a consequent loss of vegetative cover so essential for the health of the

land.

• Firewood extraction from forests has been exceeding the silviculturally

permissible limit resulting in a rapid depletion of the forests. Extraction of

wood from forests for fuel is believed to be one of the most important causes

of forest degradation in India. Fuelwood consumption was estimated at 260

million cubic metre in 1997 as against the sustainable supply of 52.6 million

cubic metre and has grown at a rate of about 2.4% per annum between 1980

and 1994 (Pachauri and Sridharan, 1998). This has been happening especially

in the semi-arid and arid environments of India where fuelwood shortages

are often severe and recurrent.

• A livestock population of 467 million grazes on 11 mha of pastures. This

implies an average of 42 animals grazing in a hectare of land against the

threshold level of 5 animals per hectare (Sahay, 2000). In the absence of

adequate grazing land, nearly a third of the fodder requirement is met from

8

Threats forests in the form of grazing and cut fodder for stall-feeding (MoEF, 1999).

An estimated 100 million cow units graze in forests against a sustainable

level of 31 million per annum. A sample survey by the FSI estimates that

the impact of grazing affects approximately 78% of India’s forests.

Overgrazing and over extraction of green fodder, both lead to forest and

land degradation through a loss of vegetation and physical deterioration in

the form of compaction and reduced infiltration, and increase in soil

erodibility.

• Shifting cultivation is traditionally practiced in 13 states of the country and

more extensively in the northeastern hill states, Orissa and the Eastern Ghats

on an estimated forest area of about 4.35 mha. This contributes significantly

towards forestland degradation. With the progressive reduction in the land

to population ratio, the fallow period between cultivations has fallen from

30 years to about 2 to 3 years. This in turn does not permit the natural

processes of recuperation to repair the disturbed ecosystem resulting in

erosion and a decline of soil fertility.

• An estimated 0.7 mha of forestlands are encroached upon for agriculture by

the people who live in their vicinity, such lands are mostly of a marginal

nature, susceptible to degradation. The occurrence of frequent forest fires

has been a major cause of degradation of forestland in many parts of India.

Apart from the destruction of vegetation, high intensity forest fires alter the

physico-chemical and biological properties of the surface soil and leave the

land prone to erosion and with a lowering of soil quality.

• The extension of cultivation to land of lower potential and fertility, with

greater natural degradation hazards such as steep slopes areas of shallow or

sandy soils, or with laterite crusts, arid or semi-arid land bordering to deserts,

which are called fragile or marginal lands, in many parts of the country has

resulted in their degradation. The use of agrochemicals has become essential

for modern agriculture, but they, together with sewage sludge and composted

municipal wastes are used improperly and indiscriminately, leading to the

contamination of soil and water with toxic substances and heavy metals.

This problem is widespread over the country although there is no exact

estimate of the area affected.

• The expansion of canal irrigation has been associated with widespread water-

logging and salinity problems in command areas. Disturbances of the

hydrological equilibrium resulting from excessive recharge because of

inefficient use of irrigation water, poor land development, seepage from

unlined water courses, non-conjunctive use of surface and ground water

resources and poor drainage have all resulted in a rise of the water table in

most canal command areas. In regions, where the water table approaches

the surface, waterlogging occurs, associated with salinisation and/or

sodification. Such phenomena have occurred on a large scale in several

parts of canal command areas such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project. In arid, semi-arid and sub-humid tracts of the

country, large areas have been rendered barren due to the development of

saline-sodic soils because of unhealthy land management in respect of

irrigation, drainage and crop husbandry. An estimated 11 mha of land has

thus, been affected by varying degrees of salinity and sodicity in different

parts of the country.

9

Land Degradation• An increase in industrialization, urbanization and infrastructural development

is progressively taking away considerable areas of land from agriculture,

forestry, grasslands and pastures, and unused lands with wild vegetation,

resulting in environmental disturbances. Regional plans do not build in

environmental components to provide zones for the above compatible with

surrounding land uses. This process has resulted in the degradation of land

directly through changed land use and also through the negative impacts of

waste disposal.

• Land degradation is the inevitable result of any form of mining, particularly

opencast mining, which thoroughly disturbs the physical, chemical, and

biological features of the soil and alters the socio-economic features of the

area. Although there are no data available for the area actually affected by

mining and quarrying, mining lease area, may be taken as degraded directly

due to mining activities in addition to the areas affected indirectly.

• Water erosion across the country is the major cause of topsoil loss (in 132

mha) and terrain deformation (in 16.4 mha). Wind erosion is dominant in

the western part of the country causing a loss of top soil and terrain

deformation in 13 mha (Sehgal and Abrol 1994). Land management practices

are often not geared to check water erosion on slopes and wind erosion on

level lands of dry regions leading to considerable deterioration. Often, it is

neither the environment nor the type of land use that necessarily leads to

degradation, but the standard of land management.

1.4.2 Indirect or Underlying Pressures

Together with an increase in population land shortage in India has also increased

in the already small per capita agricultural lands. As a result of fragmentation,

the numbers of land holdings has increased from 48 million in 1960 to 105

million in 1990 and is still on a continuous rise. Most holdings (> 75%) are less

than 2 ha (small and marginal). While there is virtually no culturable unused

land in the country, the population to be supported from this finite land resource

is growing fast. The direct and indirect causes of land degradation are linked by

a chain of cause and effect, or the causal nexus. The external or driving forces

are: i) limited land resources, and ii) an increase in rural population. They combine

to produce land shortages, resulting in small farms, low production per person

and increasing landlessness whose consequence in term, is poverty. Land shortage

and poverty, taken together, lead to non-sustainable land management practices,

the direct causes of degradation. This has the effect of increasing land shortage,

a vicious cycle of cause and effect.

1.5 PROBLEMS AND IMPACTS OF LAND

DEGRADATION

The major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India include 1) soil

erosion 2) loss of fertility 3) salinity and alkalinity 4) acidity 5) water logging

and 6) deterioration of soil structure. Akin to these, floods and droughts also

contribute to soil degradation. All the major problems are discussed in the

following paragraphs.

1) Soil Erosion: A process by which top soil is detached from land and either

washed away by water, ice or sea waves or blown away by wind. Several

10

Threats factors, which affect soil erosion, can be listed as a) rainfall b) topography

c) vegetation cover d) tillage e) nature of soil f) soil moisture and g) wind

velocity.

a) Rainfall: The quantum, duration, intensity and frequency of rainfall influence

the soil erosion. By the action of falling rain drops on soil, soil granules are

loosened, detached and separated into fine particles. Erosion is particularly

greater, where the rainfall is not only heavy, but concentrated over short

periods.

b) Topography: The topographical features of a particular site decide the extent

of soil erosion. The slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of

the flowing water.

c) Vegetation: The vegetation cover due to its canopy over the soil surface

protects the soil from beating and dispersing action of raindrops. It also acts

as a mechanical obstruction to flowing water, thus reducing its erosive

potential. Plant roots (i) help in building a better structure and (ii) aid in

opening the soil and thereby accelerating water absorption and reducing

surface runoff.

d) Tillage: Proper tillage is known to improve infiltration and permeability of

the soil and reduce the chances of erosion. However, excess tillage is known

for its damaging effects, i.e. it exposes the soil to erosion especially by

wind.

e) Nature of soil: Both physical and chemical nature of soil such as texture,

structure, organic matter, type and level of salts present and presence of

high water table influence erodability of soil.

f) Soil moisture: This has been one of the important factors which induce soil

erosion, when it is in excess and also during scarce periods. Presence of

high water table checks infiltration and permeability, thus allows more flow

of water on the surface and greater erosion. On the other hand, long

continuous dry periods loosen the soil and make it susceptible to wind

erosion.

g) Wind speed: Wind speed is directly proportional to the intensity of erosion

as stronger winds have greater erosive potential.

Erosion by water and wind

Water and wind are two most important factors causing soil erosion. On the

basis of the type and nature of destruction and or loss of soil from surface by

water there are different types of soil erosion by water; i) splash erosion ii) sheet

erosion iii) rill erosion iv) gully erosion v) slip erosion vi) stream bank erosion

and vii) sea shore erosion. Different types of soil erosion by wind can be listed as

i) saltation ii) suspension and iii) surface creep.

Causes of soil erosion

The causes of soil erosion are directly related to anthropogenic activities such as

improper land use and include the following:

• Deforestation: Removal of vegetation cover causes widespread erosion and

some of the affected areas in India are Western Ghats, Uttar Pradesh and

Himachal Pradesh.

11

Land Degradation• Faulty cultivation methods: The opening of land for monoculture plantation

or single crop plantation without undertaking anti-erosion measures like

terracing of slopes result in erosion of land (e.g. cultivation of tuber crops

such as potatoes and ginger in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu). The resultant landslides

become recurring are frequent events at such places.

• Shifting cultivation: This is otherwise known as slash and burn cultivation.

It is an ecologically destructive and uneconomic cultivation method which

is generally practiced in hilly areas of North-eastern states, Chottanagpur,

Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Vast areas in north eastern

states have suffered erosion of soil due to this practice.

• Overgrazing: Overgrazing of grasses and fodder plants by surplus livestock

population is a serious threat for maintaining the physical integrity of soil.

It hardens the soil and prevents new shoots from emerging. This has been a

problem in certain stretches of Aravallis, Punjab, Himachal hills, and

Kachchh region of Gujarat.

• Diversion of natural drainage by railway embankments and roads: Contrary

to the proper way of construction, often road and rail embankments come in

the way of natural channels, which causes water logging on one side and

water loss on the other side of embankment, and these in totality contribute

to erosion in one way or the other.

• Improper surface drainage: lack of proper drainage results in water logging

in low lying areas which loosens the top-soil and makes it prone to erosion.

• Forest fire: They are sometimes natural but often man-made. Forest fires

are very destructive and result in loss of forest cover exposing the soil to

erosion.

Effects of soil erosion

Erosion of soil adversely affects the quality of land qualitatively as well as

quantitatively. Some of the prominent effects are listed as below:

• Loss of soil: Different agents of soil erosion often result in loss of top fertile

soil, formed over millions of soil forming processes. Valuable agricultural

lands are lost due to formation of gullies and ravines.

• Organic matter and soil structure: Loss of top soil, as a result of soil erosion,

decreases the content of organic matter as well as other valuable nutrients

and minerals. Loss of organic matter results in impoverishment in soil

structure, as soil organic matter is known to maintain soil structure.

• Soil capacity and productivity: As a result of loss of top soil, both potential

and plant available minerals and nutrients are lost. In due course of time, as

erosion progresses, the soil gets compacted with reduced infiltration capacity,

and hence the ability of land to supply moisture and essential minerals for

plant growth is curtailed. Moreover, microbial activities are also reduced

resulting in lower yield.

• Loss of agricultural lands: Due to wind erosion, arable and fertile lands get

covered by wind borne sand deposits and hence the land becomes unfertile

and crops are damaged.

12

Threats • Flood: The increasing frequency of floods in India is largely due to

deforestation in the catchment areas, destruction of surface vegetation,

changes in land-use, increased urbanisation, and other developmental

activities. Processes leading to flooding are becoming more common due

to increased sedimentation and reduced capacity of streams and rivers to

carry large volume of water. The intensity of flood is more or less dependent

on the volume of water to be discharged and extent of siltation due to erosion.

Increased gully erosion and ravine formation result in increased run-off and

peak discharge for any given rainfall from watersheds. Increased

sedimentation in streams, canals and rivers reduces their capacity but

increases their width. Satellite imagery of Himalayan torrent shows that

between 1990 and 1997 the width of torrents has increased by 106% and

that of rivers by 36%. Consequently, streams and rivers overflow their banks,

flooding the downstream areas (e.g. Brahmaputra valley in Assam). Most

of the other rivers in India flowing though large hill tracts are also facing

similar problems.

Figure 1.1: Habitat conversions of forests and grasslands globally

Source: Farming: Habitat conversion & loss http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/

agriculture/impacts/habitat_loss/

1.6 MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM IN INDIA

AND SOME EXAMPLES

Of India’s total geographical area of 328.73 million hectare (mha), 304.89 mha

comprise the reporting area and 264.5 mha only is under use for agriculture,

forestry, pasture and other biomass production. Since 1970 / 1971, the net area

sown has remained around 140 mha (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation

1992) and was 142.22 mha during 1998/99. Of 328.73 mha, about 187.8 mha

(57% approximately) of land area has been degraded in one way or the other

(Sehgal and Abrol 1994). It appears therefore, that either most of our land is

degraded or is undergoing degradation or is at the risk of getting degraded.

13

Land DegradationAn area of around 80 mha is exposed to the threat of soil erosion in India, while

43 mha is actually affected. Around 15% of the total land suffers from soil erosion

in states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Punjab. Soil erosion

results in loss of soil fertility 20 times higher than that due to intensive cropping

systems. In India around 145 mha is in need of conservation measures.

Some examples of Soil erosion in India

• Rajasthan and Gujarat: Wind erosion coupled with loss of surface cover in

Aravalis in Rajasthan and Kachchh region in Gujarat is a prime reason for

desertification, one of the most significant ecological problems in India.

• Low and uncertain rainfall areas: Parts of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra

Pradesh and Karnataka experience low, ill-distributed and uncertain rainfall;

sometimes highly erosive rains, undulating topography, high wind velocity

and shallow soils.

• Coastal erosion: Soil erosion is also seen in coastal areas, where sand

movement from the coast could be observed. For e.g. Saurashtra region of

Gujarat, where, once flourishing ports are now covered with advancing sand

dunes.

• Gullies or Ravines: Being one of the most destructive types of soil erosion

by water, Gullies or ravines affect nearly 10 mha. These gullies are known

by different names in different regions in India, e.g. “Khars” in Gujarat,

Maharashtra and Karnataka, “Ravines” in MP, UP and Rajasthan along

Yamaha and Shamble, “Kotar lands” in Gujarat, and “Chos” and landslides

in Hoshiarpur in the Shivaliks.

• Nilgiris: Potato cultivation on steep slopes without proper terracing has

caused widespread erosion in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

1.7 RESPONSES, POLICY GAPS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Responses

Reclamation of the nearly 187 mha of existing degraded land in the country and

concurrent efforts to arrest further degradation, as estimated, are of utmost

importance. Combating further land degradation and investing in conservation

of land for the present as well as future generations will be a major task involving

the promotion of sustainable development and nature conservation. This will be

a major challenge in the coming decades that will involve a paradigm shift from

the purely technical to a more holistic sustainable land management system that

will be environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable.

Existing response

• Watershed management programmes have been taken up extensively in the

recent past. The Soil and Water Conservation Division in the Ministry of

Agriculture has been playing a key role in implementing integrated watershed

management programmes with a plan to cover 86 mha. 26 mha (27 river

valley catchments and 8 in flood prone rivers) are considered highly critical

and have been given a priority under 35 centrally- sponsored projects. Over

30,000 hectares of shifting and semi-stable sand dunes have been treated

with shelter belts and strip cropping (ESCAP, 1995).

14

Threats • The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP)

and the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute

(CSWCRTI), ICAR, have jointly initiated the preparation of soil erosion

maps of different states using the components of Universal Soil Loss

Equation. A similar assessment needs to be carried out for other degradational

processes also. Akin to these, the All-India Soil and Land Use Survey, MoA,

is engaged in generating spatial and non-spatial information on the soils of

India and preparing thematic maps like land capability classification,

hydrological soil grouping, etc. The state governments have also been

working on various aspects of soil conservation following the guidelines of

the centre.

Policy gaps

Land management has been largely unsystematic, arbitrary and, by no means,

sustainable. So far the country has not implemented a well-defined integrated

land use policy. This lacuna has largely been responsible for the current phase of

land degradation. To make things worse, there is no rural fuelwood as well as

grazing and fodder policy at the national level with the result, that grazing is far

beyond the carrying capacity and extraction of fuel and fodder from forests is

also far beyond the sustainable limits, creating enormous negative impacts on

the forests and land.

Policy recommendations

• A well-defined integrated land use policy should be developed at the earliest

which can be implemented well with active participation of all potential

stakeholders. Rural fuel wood and grazing, and fodder policies can also be

framed and implemented to guide management of land and forest

scientifically and sustainably.

• A National Land Use Commission entrusted with the responsibility of laying

down such policies, implementing strategies and monitoring guidelines with

support from the existing All-India Soil and Land Use Survey, National

Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning and the Forest Survey of

India under the stewardship of the Planning Commission will go a long

way to address most of the land related issues.

• To ensure that land is put under right kind of use guarding against any

deleterious effects, it is imperative that it is put to use according to its

capability. For this purpose, guidance from the USDA Land Capability

Classification with modifications to suit Indian conditions may be taken,

which along with scientifically sound land management practices would

address land degradation problems and maintain land quality for sustainable

use.

• Land management in conjunction with water management needs to be the

core of any agenda for national development as the two resources are

absolutely inter-dependent. As far as possible, land should be managed on a

natural watershed basis as it presents an ideal unit for most effective

management and rational utilisation of land and water resources for optimum

production with minimum hazard to the resources.

• Increasing the utilisation of irrigation potential, promoting water conservation

and efficient water management along with expansion of irrigation facilities,

15

Land Degradationespecially in drought-prone areas, need urgent attention to enhance

production without harming land and soil. To ensure sustainability of

production in rainfed areas, in situ soil and moisture conservation on mini-

watershed basis, irrespective of whether they belong to forest department,

private bodies or local communities, should be a major thrust area for

increasing productivity levels.

• A correct assessment of the nature and extent of the existing degraded land

through a rapid inventory using remote sensing techniques and GIS needs

to be carried out on priority with scientifically sound criteria and indicators

with helps from Soil and Terrain Database (SOTER) and Global Assessment

of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD). This will enable the

adoption of measures to counter various types of degradation at the right

time and place.

• Ministries or departments such as the MoEF, MoA, MoRD, MoWR, MoM,

MoI, etc., at both the national as well as state level, are involved in land use

in the country. The Land Use Commission should involve them, NGOs and

other stakeholders to develop a coordinated approach for land use and

management and for resolving related cross-cutting issues.

• Policy issues in sustainable land management may include coordination of

land titling, economic policy, nature conservation policy, and population

policy. Therefore, national strategies for sustainable use of land resources

need to thoroughly harmonise, adapt, and integrate the different strategies

and policies of governments, which are directly or indirectly linked to the

use of land by stakeholders.

• Soil nutrient mining results in serious soil health and ecological problems,

which needs urgent attention. Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS), have

to be adopted to improve fertiliser use efficiency and reduce the potential

danger of pollution from higher nutrient use in agriculture.

• A systematic monitoring mechanism needs to be developed to assess the

balance between input and withdrawal of nutrients to guard against possible

nutrient depletion (Sarkar et al. 1991). Also, there is a need to define the

threshold values for such additions and for promoting a balance with use of

organic manure, chemical fertilisers, bio-fertilisers and agrochemicals to

ensure sustainability and increased production.

• Domestic and municipal wastes, sludges, pesticides, industrial wastes, etc.

need to be used with utmost care to avoid the possibility of pollution of soil

through heavy metals and other toxic substances.

• Shifting cultivation with a short fallow cycle does not allow enough time

for the land to recuperate naturally and is responsible for large-scale (about

4.5 mha) land degradation in several parts of the country. The practice, a

socio-economic outlet, needs to be discouraged and alternatives to the people

engaged in the practice need to be provided in a phased manner for their

livelihood.

• Limited land resources and an increase in rural population, both produce

land shortages through fragmentation of holdings resulting in small farms,

low production per person and increase in landlessness, which leads to

poverty. Land shortages and poverty further lead to non-sustainable land

16

Threats management practices, one of the important causes and effect nexuses of

land degradation. The major challenge in the agriculture sector is to check

the fragmentation of land holdings, which can be achieved by: providing

security of land rights and land tenure; encouraging the efficient use of

marginal lands; developing areas of untapped potential thereby correcting

uneven utilisation of land; and using the irrigation potential efficiently. A

tenure regime should be clear, flexible and secure.

• Implementation of land-related policies is a complex and sensitive task. It

would require government as well as non-governmental sectors such as

communities, private bodies to come to a common platform. Additionally,

the steps, mechanisms and institutional structures for policy implementation

need to be drafted along with a detailed action plan clearly designating

responsibilities and taking into consideration the intrinsic character of land,

the concerned user groups and future possibilities.

• Improvements in sustainable land use and development impinge on the

interests of all stakeholders: both individuals and groups. Therefore, a multi-

level stakeholder approach for the planning process is essential to obtain

socially balanced results in which the economic and ecological objectives

are both given due weightage. All stakeholders such as farmers/

conservationists, owners/ tenants, individuals/communities as well as

administrators, planners, governments, etc. should participate in problem

analysis, express and evaluate their needs, interests and aims, and then

negotiate for options and priorities of action. This approach implies

democratic and, to some extent, formalised procedures, but which are based

on a sound information foundation that includes data on the properties of

the land, the land uses and their functions in the recovery of the ecosystem.

In a multi-stakeholder approach, three principles must converge: good land

husbandry, sustainable land use, and an enabling institutional environment.

Technology transfer and training needs for farmers, especially women, small

and marginal farmers and other disadvantaged sections of rural society are

of paramount importance.

• Failure of land-users and community leaders to recognise or to be educated

about the causes, urgency, seriousness, and full consequences of degradation

often works against any measures to counter degradation. In this context,

the negotiated participatory approach needs to be adopted to mitigate some

of these adverse effects.

• An increase in industrialisation, urbanisation, mining and infrastructure

development is taking away considerable areas of land from agriculture,

forestry, grassland, pasture, etc. resulting in environmental disturbances. To

harmonise such developmental activities and make them compatible with

surrounding land use and guard against any form of land degradation, an

Area-wide Environment Quality Management (AEQM) approach needs to

be adopted.

• The agricultural extension system of the country needs revamping to make

it more efficient and far-reaching and the lab-to-land concept needs to be

translated to practice so that multidisciplinary technical information, viable

land use options and alternatives identified for various agro-ecological and

socio-economic units and crop combinations and crop rotations suitable for

17

Land Degradationthem, as suggested by the ICAR, can be advanced to the land users for more

vigorous and effective land management results.

• Education, training, research, and technology development would enable to

focus on analysing and adapting conditions and principles for sustainable

land use as well as resource conservation technologies and practices.

Research institutes should look for ways of working closely with land users

and communities.

• Informal and formal institutions and organisations – from farmer groups,

local NGOs and communities to ministries, government policies, and

legislations can be sustained, only if they are accepted and supported by

their respective populations. This means that local knowledge systems, norms

and values, must be respected. Negotiation processes among all stakeholders,

which must be a part of good governance and administrative management,

can be enhanced by better information and knowledge about land user’s

visions, options and needs with respect to sustainable land management.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Explain various causative factors of land degradation.

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2) Explain various pressures on land in India.

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3) Discuss about the major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India.

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18

Threats 4) Provide some examples of soil erosion in India.

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5) Discuss about the existing programmes to contain land degradation.

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1.8 LET US SUM UP

• The steady growth of human as well as livestock population and their

respective demands for competing usage are exerting profound pressure on

India’s limited land resources for challenging uses in forestry, agriculture,

pastures, human settlements and industries. This has led to land degradation.

The lowering of land capability is quantitative and/or qualitative in nature,

wherein lands under cultivation face the major problem followed by grazing

land and pastures, forests, barren lands, and uncultivable lands in decreasing

order.

• The negative effects of land degradation are taking a heavy toll on India’s

environment and economy, which are causes of grave concern.

• Deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture and industries have been identified

as major factors of land degradation by FAO.

• Nevertheless, the role of mining sector, urban and infrastructure development,

and modern agricultural practices in causing land degradation cannot be

ignored.

• The major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India include 1)

soil erosion, 2) loss of fertility, 3) salinity and alkalinity, 4) acidity, 5) water

logging, and 6) deterioration of soil structure. Akin to these, floods, droughts

also contribute to soil degradation.

• Around 80 mha is exposed to the threat of soil erosion in India, while 43

mha is actually affected due to the above mentioned factors. The problem is

experienced in almost all the bio-geographical zones in India due to a variety

of practices and problems, most of which are region specific.

• Though, there are several schemes and programmes such as Integrated

Watershed Management Programmes by the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.

of India; preparation of soil erosion maps of different states by NBSS &

LUP and CSWCRTI, ICAR.

19

Land Degradation• Nevertheless, there lies several gaps in the existing policies and responses,

and due recommendations have been made to the Govt. of India from time

to time for implementation during five-year plans.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Soil degradation : It refers to removal/erosion of the top most layer of the

land. A process by which top soil is detached from land

and washed away by water, ice or sea waves or blown

away by wind.

Land degradation : It is the inevitable result of any form of mining,

particularly opencast mining, which thoroughly

disturbs the physical, chemical, and biological features

of the soil and alters the socio-economic features of

the area.

1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS

Purohit, S.S., Shammi, Q.J. and Agrawal, A.K. 2007. Environmental Sciences:

A New Approach. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. 397p.

Purohit, S.S. and Ranjan, R. 2003. Ecology, Environment and Pollution. Agrobios

(India), Jodhpur. 1023p.

Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. 1994. Soil degradation in India: status and impact.

New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. 80p.

Sahay, K.B. 2000. Problem of livestock population. Delhi: The Tribune, 11 April

2000.

MoEF. 1999. National Forestry Action Programme. Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Vol. I, 79p.

1.11 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Your answer must include the following points:

• Deforestation

• Overgrazing

• Agriculture

• Mining

• Industries

2) Your answer must include the following points:

• Human population

• Livestock population

• Deforestation

20

Threats • Firewood extraction

• Shifting cultivation

• Faulty irrigation

3) Your answer must include the following points:

• Soil erosion

• Salinity & alkalinity

• Water and wind erosion

• Overgrazing

4) Your answer must include the following points:

• Wind erosion in arid regions

• Uncertain rainfall areas

• Coastal erosion

• High-altitude plantation

5) Your answer must include the following points:

• Watershed management programmes

• Soil erosion mapping

21

Land Degradation

UNIT 2 DESERTIFICATION

Structure

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Objectives

2.2 The Concept and Definition

2.3 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

2.4 Status of Dry Lands and Desertification in the World

2.5 Major Factors Contributing to Desertification

2.6 Processes of Desertification

2.7 Impacts of Desertification

2.7.1 Impacts on Biodiversity and Depletion of Vegetative Cover

2.7.2 Impacts on Climate Change

2.7.3 Impact of Livestock Population Pressures on Grazing & Forest Land Resources

2.7.4 Impact of Human Population Pressures on Forest Resources

2.7.5 Impacts of Soil Erosion

2.7.5.1 Impact of Wind Erosion

2.7.5.2 Impact of Water Erosion

2.7.5.3 Impact of Erosion on Soil Fertility

2.7.5.4 Impacts of Over-abstraction of Ground Water

2.7.5.5 Impact of Inefficient Water Management

2.7.6 Impacts on Decline in Quality of Life

2.7.7 Impacts on Migration from Rural to Urban Areas

2.8 Combating and Mitigating Desertification

2.9 Opportunities in Dry Lands and its Sustainable Use

2.10 Let Us Sum Up

2.11 Key Words

2.12 References and Suggested Further Readings

2.13 Key to Check Your Progress

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Desertification occurs on all continents except Antarctica and affects the

livelihoods of millions of people, including a large proportion of the poor in dry

lands. Desertification takes place worldwide in dry lands, and its effects are

experienced locally, nationally, regionally, and globally. Desertification is the

degradation of land in any dry land, and is caused by a variety of factors, such as

climate change and human activities. Desertification, one of the most significant

global environmental problems, is a complex process of maladjustment between

interacting forces of physico-biotic environment and their users. This is

particularly true for arid and semi-arid tracts and their margins, where rainfall is

low and evaporation is high causing persistent stress in the soil moisture regime.

These areas, unless used with care and skill, are vulnerable to degradation process

in which the land’s capacity for biological production gradually reduced. Due to

human and livestock population pressures, ill-planned development projects,

22

Threats extension of agriculture to marginal lands, overgrazing and massive biomass

collection, and the degradation of such arid and semi-arid lands is going on

unabated in different parts. The gradual reduction in land productivity takes a

toll on the overall human well-being and more importantly the sustainable

development in any country.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• define the concept of desertification;

• explain the factors responsible for desertification;

• describe the magnitude of the problem in India and elsewhere;

• analyze the approaches in combating desertification; and

• highlight the opportunities in dry lands and how to bring about sustainability

in drylands.

2.2 THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION

Desertification, one of the major global environmental challenges, has drawn

the attention of the international community especially researchers, policy and

decision makers and NGOs. A large part of world’s dry lands are threatened by

this process. The scenario in developing countries like India are further worsening

due to growing population, ever increasing demands for cultivable land, fuel,

fodder, needs for its growing industries and this process very much threatens its

large area within the dry lands. The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and

Development that was held in Rio de Janeiro, defined desertification as land

degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub humid areas resulting from various

factors including climatic variations and human activities. These definitions of

desertification focus on degradation and economic decline in arid and semiarid

regions of the world. About 41% of the Earth’s land surface is classified as

drylands. They are home to an estimated two billion people who experience

relatively low human well-being and development indicators, such as high infant

mortality and low GNP per capita.

Desertification has been described as “the diminution or destruction of the

biological potential of the land, and can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions.

It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems under the combined

pressure of adverse and fluctuating climate and excessive exploitation. Such

pressure has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e. plant and animal

production, for multiple purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed

to support growing populations in quest of development” (Verstraete, 1986).

Desertification produces many changes in the ecosystems of a region.

Desertification is recognized primarily by the physical changes in the

environment: reduction of plant cover, soil loss, loss of soil organic matter,

deposition of sand bodies, increased run-off, etc. (Kassas, 1977). In extreme

cases, desertification can result in marked reduction in vegetative cover and loss

of soil by water and wind erosion. In such areas there is a loss in primary

productivity and in potential productivity. The impacts of desertification are not

evenly distributed among the arid and semi-arid regions of the world.

23

Desertification2.3 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO

COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries

experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa is a

Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through

national action programme that incorporate long-term strategies supported by

international cooperation and partnership arrangements. The Convention, the

only convention stemming from a direct recommendation of the Earth Summit’s

Agenda 21, was adopted in Paris on 17th June 1994 and entered into force in

December, 1996. It is the first and only internationally legally binding framework

set up to address the problem of desertification. The Convention is based on the

principles of participation, partnership and decentralization - the backbone of

Good Governance and Sustainable Development. The convention was opened

for signature by countries on October 14th 1994 and entered into force on

December 26th 1996. It now has 193 country parties to the Convention, making

it truly global in reach. India is a signatory to the UNCCD. The Secretariat of the

UNCCD stands ready to continue its service to Parties through policy advice

and in the consultation and monitoring processes. Thematic Programme Network

1 (TPN-1), on ‘Desertification Monitoring and Assessment’, is one of the six

thematic programme areas identified as part of Asian regional action programme

under UNCCD. Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad has been

identified as the national focal organization to coordinate TPN-1 activities in the

country.

Desertification as a global challenge, together with Climate Change and

Biodiversity, now enjoys the support of a strong coalition of partners. But public

awareness has not kept pace. In relation to the true scope and magnitude of the

problem, Desertification still receives too little attention and is little understood

by the public at large. To draw the attention of public at large for this and to help

publicize the Convention, 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts and

Desertification” but debates have ensued regarding how effective the International

Year was in practice. The UNCCD defines desertification as “land degradation

in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors,

including climatic variations and human activities.” Land degradation is in turn

defined as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity of

drylands.

2.4 STATUS OF DRY LANDS AND

DESERTIFICATION IN THE WORLD

India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s geographical area, yet supports about

16.7% of the world’s human population; it has only 0.5% of the world’s grazing

land but supports 18% of the world’s cattle population. Thus there is tremendous

pressure on our land-based natural resources. India is endowed with a variety of

soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regions. About 50.8 mha land area

(15.8% of the country’s geographical area) is arid, 123.4 mha (37.6%) is semi-

arid and 54.1 mha (16.5%) areas fall in the dry sub-humid region (NBSS & LUP,

2001). All put together, about 228 mha area, i.e. 69% of the geographic area of

the country is dry land (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid). Different categories

of drylands and their present status across the globe are presented in Figure 1.

24

Threats Desertification is the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by variations

in climate and human activities. Drylands, home to a third of the human population

in 2000, occupy nearly half of Earth’s land area. Across the world, desertification

affects the livelihoods of millions of people who rely on the benefits that dryland

ecosystems can provide. In drylands, water scarcity limits the production of crops,

forage, wood, and other services ecosystems provide to humans. Drylands are

therefore highly vulnerable to increases in human pressures and climatic

variability, especially sub-Saharan and Central Asian drylands. Some 10 to 20%

of drylands are already degraded, and ongoing desertification threatens the world’s

poorest populations and the prospects of poverty reduction. Therefore,

desertification is one of the greatest environmental challenges today and a major

barrier to meeting basic human needs in drylands.

Figure 2.1: Present day dry lands and their categories

Source: Desertification: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151708/

In India, the total area under desertification is 81.45 mha. Water erosion (26.21

mha), wind erosion (17.77 mha), vegetal degradation (17.63 mha) and frost

shattering (9.47 mha) are the major processes of desertification. Nearly one third

of the country’s land area (32.07%) is under the process of desertification. There

are about eight major processes active in the country. Water erosion is the most

pronounced process, followed by vegetal degradation and aeolian processes. Total

area under land degradation is 105.48 mha. Area-wise Rajasthan, J&K, Gujarat

and Maharashtra has high proportions of land under various stages of

desertification.

2.5 MAJOR FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO

DESERTIFICATION

Several factors contribute and cause in gradual land degradation in arid and semi

arid areas and lead to completed desertification. An exhaustive checklist of factors

corresponding issues those cause and contribute to desertification can be listed

as below:

i) Unsustainable Agricultural Practices

a) Extensive and frequent cropping of agricultural areas

25

Desertificationb) Excessive use of fertilizers.

c) Shifting cultivation without allowing adequate period of recovery.

ii) Unsustainable Water Management Practices

a) Poor & Inefficient Irrigation Practices

b) Over abstraction of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions

resulting in saline intrusion into aquifers

iii) Conversion of land for other uses

a) Prime forest into agricultural land.

b) Agricultural land for other uses.

c) Encroachment of cities and towns into agricultural land.

iv) Deforestation

a) Unsustainable forest management practices

a) Forest land clearances for agriculture (including shifting cultivation)

b) Other land use changes (Projects- energy, roadways, etc).

c) Overgrazing, excessive fuel wood collection

d) Uncontrolled logging and illegal felling and

e) Forest fires

v) Industrial, mining and other activities without satisfactory measures for

prevention of land degradation and land rehabilitation.

vi) Demographic pressures - human and livestock.

vii) Frequent droughts/failure of monsoon and their link with global climate

phenomena.

• Unsustainable Agricultural Practices: Unsustainable agricultural practices

include excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, frequent cropping patterns,

inappropriate technologies, or choice of crops/ plants, etc. Non-point sources

of pollution are a problem in areas with wide application of fertilizers.

• Unsustainable Water Management Practices: Poor and inefficient irrigation

practices, over abstraction of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions

resulting in saline intrusion into aquifers, etc. are some of major unsustainable

water management practices which has led to problems of desertification in

such regions. Over abstraction of groundwater without compensatory

recharge has led to depletion of groundwater table.

• Land Use Changes: Diversion of land from forestry and agriculture to other

land uses has been one of the principal causes of land degradation Diversion

of forest lands for non-forestry purposes was curtailed with the enactment

of Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with the objective of arresting diversion

of forest land for non-forestry purposes. Wherever diversion of forest land

is unavoidable, for instance for developmental projects (energy,

infrastructure, transportation, etc.) compensatory afforestation on non-forest

land is mandatory. However, loss of prime forests could have an impact in

the long-term stability of the forests. The other land use change is due to

encroachments, through violation of forest boundaries, illegal farming in

26

Threats forests. Due to their illegal status, they are unable to receive extension

services and improve their farming systems, further accelerating land

degradation. The encroachment of forest land, and the socioeconomic

pressure to regularize them, continues to be the most pernicious problem of

forest protection.

• Deforestation and Loss of Vegetative Cover: It is difficult to separate the

causes from the effects of deforestation and forest degradation. Some direct

causes of deforestation are land clearances for agriculture (including shifting

cultivation), other land use changes including unplanned urbanization, land

transfers, different forms of encroachments, over-grazing, uncontrolled and

wasteful logging, illegal felling, and excessive fuel wood collection.

Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation refers to a farming system in which, a

short but variable cultivation phase (on slash-and-burn land) alternates with long

and equally variable fallow periods. With increasing pressure on forest lands,

and shortening on the fallow period, this practice of farming which was once in

balance with nature has become disorderly causing considerable damage to the

regeneration of forests cleared in this manner. Deleterious effects include

deforestation, spread of sterile grassland, soil erosion, and loss of productivity

of forest and agricultural land.

Collection of Fuel wood: Consumption of wood (timber and fuel wood) in India

is considerably (4 to 5 times higher than what can sustainably be removed from

the forests. Much of the rural energy for cooking comes from collection of fuel

wood from forests. In 1990, the estimated removal of fuel wood was about 250

million cm3, which has been estimated to increase to 310 million cm3 by 2000

(NFAP, MOEF, 1999). This contributes to the overall deterioration of the quality,

stocking condition and productivity of the forest ultimately leading to

deforestation and degradation.

Grazing in Forest Land: Forest lands are important sources of grazing. It is

estimated that that over 270 million livestock consisting of over 50% of India’s

livestock graze in the forests (NFAP, 1999). These include traditional ethnic

sedentary village livestock and migratory animals herded by ethnic grazers.

Additionally grazers collect an estimated 175 to 200 million tonnes of green

fodder annually. This results in overgrazing and over-extraction of green fodder,

leading to forest degradation through damages to regeneration and compaction

of soil. A sample survey of FSI estimates that impact of grazing affects 78% of

the country’s forests, of which 18% suffers high incidence and 31% medium

incidence. Grazing occurs even in protected areas. In another survey, 67% of the

national parks and 83% of the wildlife sanctuaries surveyed reported grazing

incidences.

Forest fires: Forest fires, mostly ground fires affect annually about 35 mha of

forest area. The nature and severity of damage depend on the type of forest,

availability of fuel and climatic factors.

• Industrial and Mining Activities:

o Industrial Activities: Industrial effluents and mining are also gradually

emerging as important agents of desertification. In most cases the root

cause of the problem is the mismanagement by land users and poor

27

Desertificationimplementation of pollution control regulations. Industrial effluents

and their discharge into inland waters and irrigation with poor quality

water in many parts of the country are rendering stretches of land in

some of the States as degraded. Industrial effluents from textile, printing

and dyeing industry and their discharge into streams and rivers, which

are non-perennial with no flow during the lean season severely

contaminates them. Use of such waters for irrigation has affected

agricultural land as well. Besides productivity decline or complete loss,

progressive degeneration of bio-diversity is yet another major

consequence of land degradation. In many areas the groundwater has

been polluted. Some of the most affected areas are found in Pali, Jodhpur

and Balotra in Rajasthan due to dyeing industry; Bicchri also in

Rajasthan due to discharge of highly toxic effluents. Large tracts of

land have been rendered unfit in industrial estates such as Vapi,

Ankleshwar in Gujarat; Pattancheru, Bollaram in Andhra Pradesh which

house large a large number of chemical manufacturing units;

Vaniyambadi in Tamil Nadu due to effluents from leather processing

industrial units

o Mining Activities: Mining is another major industry, which is a factor

of desertification in the country. This is especially with unplanned open

cast mining and dumping of mine overburden in the vicinity of

agricultural lands. Despite guidelines and regulations for undertaking

adequate environmental measures during mining operations, open cast

mining of sandstone, limestone, marble, gypsum, and clay is largely

practiced by small scale entrepreneurs who do not take up post mining

operations. Consequently, such areas are gradually turned into

wastelands. China clay, Fuller’s earth, calcite and gypsum generate fine

particles which are washed down the slopes with runoff and get

deposited in the adjoining cultivated fields. This eventually leads to

problems of water logging and salinity. Many of the states in India are

under several pressures due to mining activities due to poor land

management after mining.

• Disposal of Solid & Toxic Wastes onto Land: In many parts of the country

such as Vapi, Ankleshwar, in Gujarat; Pattancheru and Bollaram in Andhra

Pradesh; Pali, Balotra in Jodhpur large tracts of land have been rendered

useless due to disposal of toxic industrial wastes. In some areas, this has led

to ground water contamination as well. The costs for reclamation of such

land, if carried out as per requirements, would be enormous. However, in

recent times the reckless disposal of solid waste by municipal corporations

in the country is also adversely affecting the land productivity and also in

some areas, ground water contamination has been reported.

• Drought: It is often perceived that droughts by themselves cause

desertification, however E.O. Wilson, in his book, The Future of Life,

maintains that while drought is a contributing factor, the root causes are all

related to man’s overexploitation of the environment. Droughts are common

in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought

when the rains return. Continued land misuse during droughts, however,

increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on

marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some less arid areas, local

28

Threats ecosystem is getting disrupted due to nomads moving in and the rate of land

erosion increases as a result. Nomads typically try to escape the desert, but

because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them.

Drought is generally a naturally occurring phenomenon due to deficit of

rainfall in a region. However, drought effects can be exacerbated due to

absence of vegetative cover impacting the hydrological regime. In the recent

years, due to global climate changes and several anthropogenic pressures

on locally available natural resources, the frequency of droughts have

increased considerably, thereby accelerating the process of desertification.

Recurrent droughts lead to decline in biomass production and depletion of

organic carbon (humus) in the soils. It is, therefore, not surprising that

some of the most severely degraded land are found in the chronically drought

prone areas having shallow and light textured soils.

• Demographic pressures (human and livestock): The general problem of arid

areas with large populations is essentially one of human ecology. The

inherently limited resources within arid and semi-arid regions set the ultimate

limit of production. Furthermore, erratic rainfall results in widely fluctuating

production leading to scarcity, which imposes stress on these populations.

In general, the population density of both human and livestock in the arid

region is much higher than the national average. The decennial growth rate

of population during the decade 1981-91 in the desert region was 29% as

against 23% for the country (MOEF, 1996). The livestock population also

increased from 9.4. million in 1951 to 14.4 million in 1961 (53% increase )

and to 15.52 million in 1971 (8% increase). The density of livestock on

grazing lands has consequently increased. The increase of cattle, buffaloes

and camels has been very high in this region. As population increases, the

demand on natural resources is further magnified leading to further intensive

use of land and other natural resources in drier regions. Consequentially, an

imbalance between the human and animal population on the one hand and

plants, water, and land resources on the other does arise. If not checked

timely and effectively, continuous increase in demand for fodder and food

leads to loss of vegetation, leading to loss of biodiversity. The barrenness of

the land affects the hydrological cycle which can affect the rainfall pattern

for the region. In the semi-arid, sub-humid regions of the country also, there

are some areas such as the Gangetic Plains, where the population density is

one of the highest in the world.

2.6 PROCESSES OF DESERTIFICATION

The different processes involved in land degradation include: (i) Wind erosion

(ii) Water erosion (iii) Salinity-Alkalinity and (iv) Water logging. Many of the

processes are described in the unit-1 on land degradation; however, the same are

discussed in detail in this unit.

• Soil Erosion: Soil erosion by water and wind account for 87% of the area

affected by soil degradation. It has been estimated that between 1977 and

1997 the area critically affected by erosion has almost doubled.

• Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is the major process of land degradation in the

hot arid regions of the country affecting 10.46 mha. These include the States

29

Desertificationof Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, and Punjab, covering an area of 28,600

sq.km of which 68% is covered by sand dunes and sandy plains. Wind erosion

is also prevalent in the coastal area where sandy plains dominate and in the

cold desert regions of Leh in Jammu & Kashmir (Prasad & Biswas, 1999).

• Water Erosion: Water or run-off induced soil erosion is the most serious

process of land degradation and desertification in the country affecting about

107.1 mha of the country’s geographical area. In the Indian context, it results

in loss of topsoil and terrain deformation (ravines, gullies, etc.) (MOA, 1985).

The broad types of water erosion are given in Table 5.1. Soil erosion through

accelerated sheetwash and rill / gully development occurs mainly in the

Saurashtra and Kutchh uplands and along the eastern margin of the Thar in

Rajasthan, where the average rainfall varies from 350 mm to 500 mm. The

major reasons are increased cultivation of marginal land with high slopes

and shallow soils, destruction of natural vegetation for fuel and fodder,

overgrazing, and other environmentally destructive uses. In the Aravalli Hill

ranges along the eastern margin of the Thar, the hill slopes are being regularly

denuded of natural vegetation cover for fuelwood, and fodder. Consequently

the soils are being washed out by sheet rill and gully erosion, so much so

that in many areas there is hardly any soil left to start an afforestation

programme. In Kachchh region, the problem is partly related to a slow natural

upliftment of the terrain over the centuries, leading to a change of base level

and increased erosion.

• Soil Salinity-Alkalinity: Vast areas in the otherwise productive Indo-Gangetic

plain cutting across the states of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and some

coastal regions of Gujarat have lost their productivity due to soil salinity–

alkalinity. These soils are characterized by excess soluble salts with sodium

carbonate in substantial quantity. Consequently, the soils accumulate sodium

on the exchange complex thus resulting in poor physical properties including

low infiltration rates. In many areas a layer of calcium carbonate concretion

(kankar pan), which is normally found at a depth of 1 m, acts as a barrier for

root penetration into the soil. The soil pH is high adversely affecting

germination, plant growth, and nutrient availability to plants. The process

of salinization sets in due to (a) irrigation with ground water containing

excess of carbonate and bicarbonate ions (secondary salinization), (b) runoff

from adjoining undrained basins, and (c) rise in ground water table as a

consequence of mismanagement of irrigation command. This is a man-made

problem. In addition, there is natural salinity in depressions in landscaping

of lower elevations.

• Water logging: Water logging is estimated to affect about 8.52 mha of the

land surface. The problem is severe in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command

Area in Rajasthan, where excess irrigation in the soils having gypsum-rich

barriers at shallow depth and wrong drainage planning are the major causes

for degradation in these canal command areas, leading to saline-sodic water

and a salt-rich hard pans. Some areas of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab

under agriculture also have this problem. According to a World Bank study,

India loses 1.2-2.0 million tonnes of food grain production every year due

to water logging (ICAR, 1999).

30

Threats2.7 IMPACTS OF DESERTIFICATION

2.7.1 Impacts on Biodiversity and Depletion of Vegetative Cover

Biodiversity, which plays a role in supporting dry land ecosystems, is seriously

impaired by desertification. Owing to degradation of forests and natural habitats

for expansion of agriculture, river valley projects and industrial and urban

developments, the biodiversity of the country are under threat, some of them for

survival itself. Land use changes are increasingly becoming responsible for

expansion of degraded lands thus adversely affecting the forest and wildlife.

One of the obvious impacts of desertification is the gradual change of ecosystem

through loss/replacement of one species with another, and this is seen in many

parts of Rajasthan. Similarly the permanent pastures and fallows in the high

rainfall zones which once supported a good stand of trees and shrubs now present

a stunted landscape. The common grazing lands around villages have now turned

as some of the severely degraded sites, due to over exploitation and gross neglect.

Encroachment of these village commons for crop production and other non-

farm activities has also led to conversion of these pasturelands to other uses. The

disruption of the interlinked services jointly provided by dryland plant biodiversity

is a key trigger for desertification and the disappearance of habitats for

biodiversity.

2.7.2 Impacts on Climate Change

Unlike other aspects, the impact of desertification on climate is a very complex

phenomenon and is not fully understood. Vegetation is instrumental in soil

conservation and in regulating rainfall infiltration and local climate. The resultant

soil moisture level influences the solar radiation and thus the energy balance of

both the surface and atmosphere of the earth. For example, any change in the

surface albedo (reflection of sunlight) (due to vegetative loss) will affect the

amount of solar radiation absorbed by the surface. Similarly, changes in soil

moisture levels will determine the portion of energy that is used in evaporation

and transpiration processes, which in turn affects the micro-climate. Other factors

such as wind speeds, surface temperatures influence the evapo-transpiration rates.

All plants support primary production that ultimately provides food and fuel

wood that sequesters carbon, thus regulating global climate. Excessive

exploitation of vegetation, therefore, leads to losses in primary production and

hence to reduced carbon sequestration. Dry land soils contain over a quarter of

all organic carbon stores in the world as well as nearly all the inorganic carbon.

As a result of desertification, some of this carbon is released into the atmosphere,

thus affecting the global climate system. As per the Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment Report, an estimated 300 million tons of carbon are released every

year. This disruption of the interlinked services jointly provided by dryland plant

biodiversity is a key trigger for desertification and the disappearance of habitats

for biodiversity. The close interconnections between desertification, biodiversity

loss and climate change illustrate the multiple benefits to be gained from joint

implementation of the UNCCD, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the

Framework Convention on Climate Change.

31

Desertification2.7.3 Impact of Livestock Population Pressures on Grazing and

Forest Land Resources

India’s high livestock population is increasing further. Most livestock farming is

of low productivity. With the steady rise in animal, especially cattle population

in the country, pastures and grazing lands have been subjected to overuse, which

has resulted in loss of vegetation and affected their regeneration potential leading

to slow degradation of grazing land, which eventually become barren. There has

been an increase in the area under pasture and grazing lands being opened up for

agricultural & other purposes. The reduced availability of grazing land has led to

more and more forests being used as grazing grounds.

Livestock production in India is to a large extent dependent on crop residues and

crop by-products. The total supply of feed and fodder in 1993 was straw 398

million tons, green fodder 573.50 million tons, and concentrates 41.98 million

tons (MOEF 1993 estimates). It is estimated that during 1993, the country faced

a deficit of 570 million tonnes green fodder, 276 million dry fodders. The 1995

combined availability of green fodder from permanent pastures, other grazing

lands, agricultural lands and forests was estimated at 434 million tonnes, whereas

the minimum requirement was estimated to be 882 million tonnes. The big gap

has resulted in unlimited and unrestricted grazing in forestlands (SOE 1995).

Forests have been an important source of grazing and for fodder in the absence

of adequate pastureland. It is estimated that about 270 million livestock graze in

forests. Additionally, grazers collect an estimated 175 to 200 million tonnes of

green fodder annually. This further results in overgrazing and over extraction of

green fodder leading to forest degradation through their deleterious effects on

soil compaction and poor regeneration of forests (NFAP, 1999).

Livestock are increasing at a rate of 2% per annum mounting a tremendous

pressure on the limited land resources (ICAR. 1999). There has been a steady

decline in the area and quality and quantity of CPRS, as a result of increase in

population and livestock pressures. About a third of the total feed intake of the

ruminants in India, large and small, is by grazing on common property resources

(CPRs). Overgrazing by herds far larger than what the land can sustain, year

after year, has progressively rendered them into marginal or wastelands, grossly

eroded and changing plant association, making them unsuitable for bovines and

fit only for sheep and goats. It is clearly understood that the cause and effect of

all these retrogressive changes in the common property resources (CPRs) and

more generally on the ecosystem, emanates from the enormous increase in human

population followed by increase in animal populations, far beyond the land’s

ability to sustain and provide for.

2.7.4 Impact of Human Population Pressures on Forest

Resources

In India, population pressures per unit area of forest are one of the highest in the

world. In 1991, the national average density of population per km2 of forestland

was 1320 and ranged from 2860 in the north western States to 191 in the north

eastern region. Consumption of wood (timber and fuelwood) in India is

considerably (4 to 5 times) higher than what can sustainably be removed from

the forests. In 1990, the excess removal of fuel wood was estimated to be about

250 million m3 with an expected increase to 310 million m3 by 2000 (NFAP,

MOEF, 1999). These are steadily adding to forest degradation and deforestation.

32

Threats 2.7.5 Impacts of Soil Erosion

These can be further classified into impacts of wind erosion, impacts of water

erosion, impacts of erosion on soil fertility, impacts of over-abstraction of ground

water, impacts of inefficient water management.

2.7.5.1 Impacts of Wind Erosion

Sand dunes and other sandy land forms in any desert are most vulnerable to

wind erosion/deposition due to their instability and vulnerability. This is especially

due to the decreasing rainfall and increasing gradient in the wind velocity. In

Thar desert of India, the threshold velocity for initiating wind erosion has been

estimated to be around 10 km/hr. However, wind velocities of as much as 30

km/hr are common, leading to loss of topsoil and terrain deformation in the

affected regions. Destruction of natural plant cover in the sandy terrain for fuel

and fodder, opening up of sandy tracts and higher slopes of sand dunes for

agriculture also accelerate the aeolian process. Large-scale introduction of tractor

ploughing in the in Haryana and Rajasthan increases the sand load manifold for

aelian processes, and is threatening more areas through new sand dune formation

and advancement of old dunes.

2.7.5.2 Impacts of Water Erosion

The estimated national average of rate of soil erosion, based on existing soil loss

data, is 16.35 t/ha/yr, leading to an annual total soil loss of about 5.3 billion

tonnes, where, the Shivaliks, Western Ghats and the north-eastern States contribute

to 64% of the erosion. Of the eroded soil, nearly 29% are permanently lost to the

sea, 10% end up in reservoirs and about 61% transferred from one place to another.

An annual reduction of the storage capacity by 1-2 % in reservoirs is witnessed

due to the transfer of eroded soil into them. The data on river valley projects on

17 medium and small reservoirs in India have shown that the rate of inflow of

sediment is about 3 times (9.17 ha-m/100 km2/annum) compared with the design

rate of (2.93 ha-m/100 km2/annum), rendering their life expectancy and the

hydroelectric power generation to 1/3rd the planned capacity. The annual water

erosion rate has been estimated to range from less than 5 t/ha/yr (for dense forests,

snow clad mountains and arid desert regions) to more than 80 t/ha/yr in the

Shivalik Hills. An annual top soil loss exceeding 40 t/ha/yr has been observed in

the north-eastern region (which practice shifting cultivation).

2.7.5.3 Impacts of Erosion on Soil Fertility

Soil erosion is directly linked to deterioration of soil health which in turn affects

crop productivity and sustainability. Erosion also takes away with it 14 million

tonnes of such major nutrients as N, P, and K from the country’s soils annually.

Red and lateritic soils are particularly prone to this problem. Intensive cropping

has further hastened the process of nutrient removal. The eastern part of Jammu

and Kashmir is the worst affected with respect to loss of soil organic matter

(SOM) besides parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Government of India has not

estimated the economic losses due to impacts of all the factors and processes of

land degradation. According to The Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi,

the economic losses caused by lower crop yields, and reduced reservoir capacity

has been estimated to be in the range of Rs. 89-232 billion, as a result of loss of

11-26% of agricultural output (TERI- GREEN India- 2047).

33

Desertification2.7.5.4 Impacts of Over-abstraction of Ground Water

The excessive pumping of groundwater for irrigation purposes in intensively

cultivated areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh has caused the

lowering of ground water table in certain pockets. Currently eight Indian states,

that are agriculturally important overexploit groundwater, each with a net irrigated

area of over 0.3 million hectares. During the past decade, ground water table has

dropped at a rate of 0.5-0.8 metre per year in Haryana and 0.2-1.0 m per year in

Punjab. Major metros such as New Delhi, Chennai have over exploited their

ground water and the levels have dropped drastically. The overexploitation of

groundwater in some areas has made its extraction increasingly expensive and

not viable and small and marginal farmers are particularly the victims of such

high costs. In Kachchh region of Gujarat, over extraction of ground water has

led to saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers resulting in deterioration of

water quality. Reclamation of saline ground water is one of the most difficult

problems of reclamation of degraded lands. Present day policy decision “free

electricity to farmers” by different political parties in several Indian states such

as Tamil Nadu also contributes to over-extraction of this precious underground

resource.

2.7.5.5 Impacts of Inefficient Water Management

Inefficient water management is observed at all levels - city, province, and village

leading to drought-like situations. In places of acute water scarcity, long hours

are spent for collection of water which affects the quality of life and is a direct

loss to the economy. The per capita availability of renewable freshwater resources

in India has fallen from 6000 m3 to about 2300 m3 in a span of five decades

(1947-1997). The temporary/long-term fall of water logging are on adverse affects

on the ecology, reduced agricultural output, limited choice of crops, and

deteriorating socioeconomic conditions of the affected region.

2.7.6 Impacts on Decline in Quality of Life

Food security, water security, sustained availability of fuel and fodder and adequate

income generation are some of the key parameters that decide the quality of life

of rural communities. Responsibility of collection of fuel wood, fodder and water

requirements of the family in many rural areas rests with the womenfolk. The

quality of life of women particularly in the severely affected regions of the country,

especially belonging to the backward communities, is extremely hard as many

of them spend a life of slog spending large amount of their daily time for collection

of fuel wood, food, fodder and water needs of the family. Increase in collection

time is an indication of progressive degradation of the land and a corresponding

decline in quality of life of people in such regions. Many areas experience the

men migrating to cities and the women being the de-facto heads of families

looking not only after children but also responsible for all aspects of running the

household and their livelihood. The contribution and importance of women in

the development of the family unit as well as to the local community and to the

economy draws due attention for preventing further decline in life quality.

2.7.7 Impacts on Migration from Rural to Urban Areas

Economic factors, social factors, degraded security conditions, and environmental

factors are amongst the root causes of migration. In developed countries,

urbanisation is mostly driven by industrialization and results in migration of

34

Threats people from rural to urban areas. On the contrary, urbanisation in developing

countries is the result, in most cases, of pressures from declining quality of life

in rural areas. As per the 1991 census, 26% of the India’s population (217 million)

live in urban areas. This is expected to be about 300 million in 2001 and is

expected to rise to 590 million by 2025 (Report of GOI to CSD, 1994). Twenty

three metropolitan cities account for 32.5% of the urban population in the country.

The cause-and-effect relationship between desertification and migration has only

recently been recognized by different stakeholders, and empirical evidence is

becoming available from UN, intergovernmental, research and policy institutes.

For example, land degradation has been indicated as an important contributing

factor to rural-urban migration in Mexico and to Mexico-U.S. migration streams

where 700,000 to 900,000 migrate from Mexico’s dry lands annually (Source:

FAO). Studies from Africa, including Egypt, Morocco, Niger, Mali, and Burkina

Faso indicate that land degradation and desertification contribute to human

mobility, and worsening living conditions for both those who leave and those

who remain behind (Source: UNUEHS).

Desertification, per se, is not the only reason for migration to cities and nor is

migration the only source of urban growth. In fact with the advent and expansion

of the electronic media, the hopes and aspirations of people have increased

enormously and this is also one of the contributing factors to migration to cities

and urban sprawl. There is a well-established correlation between desertification

and migration from rural areas. Desertification induced forced migration to urban

areas leads to an inability to adjust to exigencies of urban living and results in

creation of slums and the associated social stress (UNCCD, 1997). This in most

of the developing countries, including India, is the sole reason why many of the

urban plan programmes fail, and citizens are not provided with basic amenities.

Increased pollution and environmental degradation and the consequent decline

in the quality of life are the ultimate resultants.

2.8 COMBATING AND MITIGATING

DESERTIFICATION

One means by which desertification can be avoided is by turning to alternative

livelihoods that do not depend on traditional land use, yet provide sustainable

income. Most dry lands indeed offer tangible economic opportunities to alleviate

the currently prevailing poverty. These include dry land aquaculture for the

production of fish, greenhouse agriculture and tourism-related activities.

Desertification can further be avoided by creating economic opportunities in dry

land urban centres through commercialization of agricultural products and a

decentralized food processing infrastructure. This is particularly relevant when

considering that the urban section of dry lands is projected to increase to around

52 percent by 2010 and to 60 percent by 2030.

Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries

have developed various issue specific action plans to counter its effects,

particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. A number

of methods have been tried in order to reduce the rate of desertification; however,

most measures treat symptoms of sand movement and do not address the root

causes of land modification such as overgrazing, unsustainable farming and

deforestation. In developing countries under threat of desertification, many local

35

Desertificationpeople use trees for firewood and cooking which has increased the problem of

land degradation and often even increased their poverty. In order to gain further

supplies of fuel the local population add more pressure to the depleted forests;

adding to the desertification process.

The issue of desertification, as has been illustrated, is not a fatality. Technical

solutions do exist, and response policies have been also been identified. The

need of the hour is greater consciousness and political will. In this regard, the

IYDD and the programs and initiatives have helped in raising the visibility of

the issue on the international agenda. Desertification is an issue, as it is largely

man-made, which directly or indirectly, affects us all and just it is within the

domain of human capacity to manage and contain it. Several techniques and

approaches are made in last couple of decades to contain the further spread of

dry lands and deteriorating conditions, and some of them are as below:

• Provisioning of water (e.g. by wells and energy intensive systems involving

water pipes or over long distances) and fixating and hyper-fertilising soil.

• Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts (as practised

in Thal, Pakistan), woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from

trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapo-transpiration:

a mitigatory measure.

• Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants.

Of these, the Leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and

fixes it in the soil, and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are

the most important.

• Solar ovens and efficient wood burning cook stoves are advocated as a means

to relieve pressure upon the environment so as to reduce the extent of tree

cutting. However, these techniques are generally cost prohibitively in the

very regions where they are needed.

• Sand fences are used throughout the Middle East and the US, in the same

way snow fences are used in the north. Placement of straw grids, each up to

a square meter in area, will also decrease the surface wind velocity.

• Oases and farmlands in windy regions are often protected by planting tree

fences or grass belts in order to reduce erosion and walking dunes. Oases

often section their plot of land by placing a barrier of thorny bushes or other

obstacles to keep grazing animals away from the food crops, and alternatively

water provisioning (e.g. from a well) is made outside this barrier mainly to

accommodate the animals of travellers (e.g. camels).

• Sand that manages to pass through the grass belts can be caught in strips of

trees planted as wind breaks 50 to 100 meters apart adjacent to the belts.

Small plots of trees may also be scattered inside oases to stabilize the area.

On a much larger scale, a “Green Wall of China”, which will eventually

stretch more than 5,700 km in length, nearly as long as the Great Wall of

China, is being planted in north-eastern China to protect “sandy lands” –

deserts created by human activity.

• Dry lands in Kachchh region of Gujarat and some areas in Rajasthan are

planted by exotic species such as Prosopis juliflora (here in after to be

referred as Prosopis). Vast tracts of this species are grown in Kachchh region

36

Threats of Gujarat to prevent desert encroachment and salinity ingression from sea.

However, it has drawn the attention of various stakeholders for both the

beneficial and adverse role for ecosystem including native human

community. The details are described in the next section.

2.9 OPPORTUNITIES IN DRY LANDS AND ITS

SUSTAINABLE USE

Dry lands are often considered as synonymous with wastelands. However, one

has to recognize the actual potential of dry lands in terms of its unique biodiversity

and the ecological services it provides. Several human communities have lived

for centuries in the arid and semi-arid dry lands across the globe and have been

living sustainably utilizing the resources and opportunities it provides. To cite

an example in this regard is arid dry lands in Rajasthan and Gujarat state in

India. The dry lands have been infested by exotics such as Prosopis, and this

species, among all other exotic species, attracts highest level of attention from

diverse groups like researchers, forest managers, policy makers and even general

public due to its economic advantages and ecological disadvantages. Prosopis is

a shrub/tree species, indigenous in dry lands of western South America, which

was intentionally introduced to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Since its introduction

some 140 years ago, driven by concerns of desert encroachment and for dry land

livelihoods, Prosopis has rapidly spread, currently inhabiting most dry lands,

thus covering more than 40% of the land of India. This spread has brought about

significant changes in the structure and function of India’s dry land ecosystems

and in the benefits people derive from these ecosystems (namely “ecosystem

services”). Some services have been regionally or locally augmented, such as

soil conservation and firewood provision, and others have been degraded, such

as livestock forage provision and the support of biodiversity.

There have been several discussions in managing this species, which is the result

of an intentional introduction followed up by an unintentional spread in these

two states. Researchers from Central Arid zone Research Institute (CAZRI) at

Jodhpur, Rajasthan has demonstrated successfully that this species could be a

boon to the local community. Different organs of this species can be put into

different uses: such as wood is used for making furniture, pod is used for making

biscuits etc. this, not only, contains the spread of the species, but also provides

alternate livelihood options for the local community. Similarly, there are several

examples across the globe, where native people have made use resources, which

are once considered as a nuisance and sometimes the cause of desertification

and some of them are as below:

• Green revolution in Sahel: increased production without increased external

inputs in dry lands agriculture in Sahel dry land and other arid lands in

Africa

• Increasing involvement of Tunisian women in sustainable management of

biodiversity in north Africa

• Multiple use of dry lands in Jordan – boosting prosperity of the region

(grazing, rain fed agriculture, urbanization, nature conservation). Ecotourism

has emerged as one of the potential livelihood alternative for native denizens.

• Grassland management in Kachchh region of Gujarat – fodder and livestock

management.

37

Desertification• Sustainable community water management in village Chiradia, Barmer

district, Rajasthan – rejuvenating old and traditional water holding and water

harvesting structures and practices.

To cite aptly, after having these elaborative discussion as in the previous

paragraphs, drylands are diverse ecosystems and provide diverse opportunities

and solutions to achieve sustainability in the area where resources are limited.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Brief on UNCCD and define the term desertification.

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2) Describe the global status of dry lands and desertification.

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3) Discuss about the major contributing factors of desertification.

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4) Provide a brief on different processes involved in desertification.

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38

Threats 5) Discuss the impacts of desertification different ecosystem components.

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6) Discuss about the options for combating and mitigating desertification

process.

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2.10 LET US SUM UP

• Desertification is a result of a long-term failure to balance demand for and

supply of ecosystem services in dry lands. The pressure is increasing on dry

land ecosystems for providing services such as food, forage, fuel, building

materials, and water for humans and livestock, for irrigation, and for

sanitation.

• This increase is attributed to a combination of human factors and climatic

factors.

• The climatic factors of concern include droughts and projected reduction in

freshwater availability due to global warming.

• Since this process is experienced in various bio-climatic realms, the

magnitude and impacts of desertification vary greatly spatially and

temporally. This variability is driven by the degree of aridity combined with

the pressure people put on the ecosystem’s resources.

• There are, however, wide gaps in our understanding and observation of

desertification processes and their underlying factors. A better delineation

of desertification would enable cost-effective action in areas affected by it.

• Desertification can also be avoided by reducing the stress on dry land

ecosystems, which can be achieved in two ways. First, by introduction of

alternative livelihoods those have lesser impact on dry land resources.

Secondly, by creation of economic opportunities in urban centers and areas

outside dry lands can be beneficial. The popular notion of “prevention is

better than cure” is applicable in this case, as the challenges lie in finding

opportunities from the process of desertification and sustainable

utilization of dry land resources so as to obtain optimum ecosystem goods

and services.

39

Desertification2.11 KEY WORDS

UNCCD : The United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification

Desertification : Desertification has been described as “the

diminution or destruction of the biological

potential of the land, and can lead ultimately to

desert-like conditions.

Shifting Cultivation : Shifting cultivation refers to a farming system in

which, a short but variable cultivation phase (on

slash-and-burn land) alternates with long and

equally variable fallow periods.

2.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS

Ajai, A.A., Dhinwa, P.S., Pathan, S.K. and Ganesh, Raj, K. 2009. Desertification/

land degradation status mapping of India. Current Science. 97 (10): 1478 – 1483.

Batterbury, S.P.J. and Warren, A. 2001. Desertification. In N Smelser and P Baltes

(eds.) International Encyclopædia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier

Press. pp. 3526–3529.

NBSS and LUP 2001. Agro-ecological subregions of India for planning and

development. NBSS & LUP Publication, ICAR, Nagpur, 2001.

Purohit, S.S. and Ranjan, R. 2003. Ecology, Environment and Pollution. Agrobios

(India), Jodhpur. 1023p.

Purohit, S.S., Shammi, Q.J. and Agrawal, A.K. 2007. Environmental Sciences:

A New Approach. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. 397p.

Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. 1994. Soil degradation in India: status and impact.

New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. 80p.

2.13 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Your answer must include the following points:

• UNCCD

• Year of the conference

• Member countries

2) Your answer must include the following points:

• Geographical area

• Dry land area

• Areas under different bio-climatic realms

3) Your answer must include the following points:

• Unsustainable Agricultural Practices

40

Threats • Unsustainable Water Management Practices

• Land conversion for other uses

• Deforestation

• Industrial and mining activities

• Demographic pressures - human and livestock

4) Your answer must include the following points:

• Wind erosion

• Water erosion

• Salinity-Alkalinity

• Water logging

5) Your answer must include the following points:

• Biodiversity and depletion of vegetative cover

• Climate change

• Human & Livestock Population Pressures

• Soil Erosion

• Soil Fertility

• Over-abstraction of Ground Water

• Inefficient Water Management

• Decline in Life Quality

• Migration: Local, regional and national

6) Your answer must include the following points:

• Provisioning of water

• Fixating the soil

• Soil and restoration

• Alternate livelihood options

• Integrated Watershed management programmes

• Multiple use of dry land resources

41

Desertification

UNIT 3 DISASTERS

Structure

3.0 Introduction

3.1 Objectives

3.2 Disasters: Definition and Types

3.2.1 Natural Disasters

3.2.2 Man-made Disasters

3.3 India’s Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters

3.4 Effects of Major Disasters

3.5 Fundamental Aspects of Disaster Management

3.6 Enhancing Resilience and Reducing Vulnerability to Disasters

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Key words

3.9 References and Suggested Further Readings

3.10 Key to Check Your Progress

3.0 INTRODUCTION

A natural hazard is a geological, meteorological, hydrological, volcanic or seismic

phenomenon, or other processes that occur in the natural environment. Disaster

is the effect of hazards such has floods, cyclones, earthquakes, disease outbreaks

etc. They affect the environment, threaten social health and lead to physical,

social and economical losses depending upon the resilience and the capacity of

the population to resist the disaster. Natural and man-made disasters have impacted

on people since early civilization. They have influenced, shaped and modified

human behaviour towards environment. Thereby, changing the way people live

and respond to the ongoing event in their immediate surroundings.

India has been traditionally vulnerable to the geophysical and hydro-

meteorological disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions and

particularly long coastline, about 7600 km. Moreover, the floods, droughts,

cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena in India.

More than 30 million people are affected by disasters every year in India. It is the

poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected by disasters particularly

due to their locational disadvantage and economic defenselessness. Their

resilience to bounce back to pre-disaster level of normality is highly limited. The

imminent threat, however, is from a vicious spiral among environmental

degradation, poverty and natural disasters interacting in a mutually reinforcing

manner. These, in turn, retard sustainable development, and also wipe out any

small gains made thereof (Kesavan and Swaminathan, 2006). Disaster

management occupies an important place in India’s policy framework particularly

to support preparedness, provide relief in case of emergency, and implement

strategies to reduce disaster losses.

42

Threats3.1 OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this unit you should be able to:

• define natural and man-made disasters;

• explain the immediate, short and long term effects of major disasters;

• describe the different components of disaster management;

• analyze important strategies for disaster reduction; and

• highlight preparedness and resilience building for working of a sustainable

system.

3.2 DISASTERS: DEFINITION AND TYPES

A disaster is an ecological disruption located in time and space which produces

conditions whereby, the continuity of structure and process of social units becomes

problematic. It is an event or series of events which seriously disrupts normal

activities. It occurs when hazard meets vulnerability. It adversely impacts human

and environment on an overwhelming scale and require outside support to restore

normalcy. WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence that causes damage,

ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health

services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside

the affected community or area”. In this respect, proper strategies of preparedness,

mitigation and prevention of disasters are necessary to be implemented in order

to reduce adverse environmental impacts and loss of life and property.

Disasters are classified in various ways such as natural and man made sudden

disasters and slow onset disasters, one time extreme disasters and disasters in

day to day life (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Classification of Environmental Disasters.

Environmental Hazards and Disasters

Natural Disasters Man-induced Disasters

Planetary Disasters Extra Planetary Disasters Physical Disasters

Chemical Disasters

Biological Disasters

Terrestrial or Endogenous hazards

Atmospheric or Exogenous hazards

Volcanic eruptions

Earthquakes

Landslides

Earthquakes Landslides Soil erosion

Release of toxic chemicals

Nuclear Explosions

Pandemics Epidemics, disease outbreaks

Abnormal or Infrequent Events

Cumulative Atmospheric Disasters

Floods Droughts Cold Waves Heat Waves

Cyclones Hailstorms Lightning

Social Disasters

Terrorism and war

43

Disasters3.2.1 Natural Disasters

Natural disasters refer to the geological or weather related event caused by natural

forces that often has a significant effect on human populations. Natural disasters

can further be categorized under planetary disasters and extra-planetary natural

disasters. Examples of such events are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,

floods, forest fires, droughts etc.; all these can devastate human lives, property

and environment. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to

endure or resist the disaster, and their resilience.

• Landslides and avalanches: Landslides and avalanches are defined according

to the size or type of debris generated, distance moved, speed of flow and

underlying geology. They refer to the discrete down slope movement of

rock and soil masses under gravitational influence along a failure zone.

Movement caused by gravity may be gradual, which may lead to the tilting

of trees, poles etc. Landslides usually occur in mountainous areas. Although

the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur,

there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.

Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions

that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often

requires a trigger before being released. A landslide may move soil in amounts

ranging from a few cubic meters to several cubic kilometers, which may

block a stream, creating a new lake, or cover a small town or highways.

Example: Landslides in August 1999 buried scores of people in Rudraprayag,

Ukhimath and parts of Dehradun. Mappa village in Pithoragarh district was

completely wiped. Death due to landslides is reported from hilly and

mountainous areas regularly, e.g. landslides disasters met by the pilgrims

on the annual trek to Kailash mansarovar.

• Earthquakes: Stress in the earth’s crust can cause solid rock to deform

elastically until it suddenly fractures and is displaced along the fracture,

producing a fault. The faulting or a later abrupt movement on an existing

fault is an earthquake that causes the ground to vibrate or shake. Earthquakes

set up shock waves that radiate out from the centre of movement. The focus

is the point of initial movement and the epicenter is the point on the surface

directly above the focus. The primary effects of Earthquakes include shaking

and sometimes permanent vertical or horizontal displacement of the ground.

These effects may have serious consequences for people and properties.

Secondary effects of Earthquakes include various types of mass wasting,

urban fires, and flooding due to subsidence of land. Earthquakes can cause

extensive damage. An Earthquake’s impact cannot be predicted, it depends

on its magnitude, intensity, duration, ground movement frequency, geological

and soil conditions and the time of occurrence, it also depends on the factors

like local population density and quality of structures. Example: The

devastating earthquake of Gujarat in 2001, registering 7.9 on the Richter

scale, killed more than 20,000 people, injured 167,000 and left 600,000

homeless. It was the second largest recorded earthquake in India, the largest

being in 1737, and was the worst natural disaster in India in more than 50

years.

• Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruption is another example of natural terrestrial

disaster. Volcanoes are vents or openings, in Earth’s surface through which

melted rock, called magma and gases are expelled. Volcanic eruptions can

44

Threats be disasters and damage the ecosystems of the surrounding area extensively

because they destroy human settlements, agricultural farms, kill people and

animals and destroy property. Enormous quantities of dust and ashes emitted

into the sky during volcanic eruptions have been associated with weather

and climatic changes at regional and global levels. It is also believed that

volcanic eruptions and fallouts of dusts and ash and accompanying acid

rain cause large scale destruction of plants and animals and also extinction

of a few. On the other hand volcanic eruptions can also be boons to human

settlement as they provide rich soils for agricultural purposes. Today, there

are more than 600 active volcanoes around the world. Most of these are

located in an area called “The Ring of Fire”. The Ring of Fire forms a ring

like pattern of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean.

• Floods: Flooding is the inundation of extensive land area with water for

several days in continuation. Flood is an attribute of physical environment

and this is a component of hydrological cycle of a drainage basin. It is a

natural phenomenon and is a response to rainfall but it becomes a disaster

when it causes colossal loss to human lives and property. Floods are also

aggravated by human activity and thus flood disaster is both natural as well

as man induced rather than man accentuated phenomenon. Heavy rainfall

for long period in continuation is the root cause of river floods. Blocking of

natural flow of the rivers by landslides caused by earthquakes, and other

natural and anthropogenic factors and clearance of such blockades causes

sudden severe flash floods in the downstream sections of the river. Similarly,

breaches in the dams constructed across the river also cause devastating

floods downstream. The most notorious rivers of the world in terms of

devastating floods and resultant damage to natural environment and loss of

human lives and property are the Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi,

Krishna, Godavari, Narmada, Luni, Mahi etc.

• Tsunamis: Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “Harbor Waves”. They are

Ocean waves produced by Earthquakes or underwater landslides. It is actually

a series of waves that can travel at speeds from 400-600 mph in the open

ocean. Unusual wave heights of 10-20 ft high can be very destructive and

cause many deaths and injuries. Most deaths caused by Tsunamis are because

of drowning. The areas of greatest risks to Tsunamis are the low lying areas

i.e. less than 25 feet above sea level and those within 1 mile of the shore

line. Apart from loss of lives, other associated risks to Tsunamis include

flooding, contamination of drinking water, fires from ruptured gas lines and

tanks and loss of vital community infrastructure. Additionally, adverse

environmental conditions left by the Tsunamis may contribute to the

transmission of the diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis,

typhoid, malaria, plague etc. from contaminated food and water as well as

from disease vectors. Recent example from India is the Tsunami of 26th

December 2004, in which about 17,000 people lost their lives.  

• Cyclonic Storms: The term “cyclone” refers to all classes of storms with

low atmospheric pressure at the centre, are formed when an organized system

of revolving winds, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, anti-clockwise

in the Northern Hemisphere, develops over tropical waters. Tropical cyclones

are variously called in different parts of the globe as Hurricanes in the North

Atlantic Ocean, Typhoons in the North Pacific Ocean, Cyclones in India

and Bangladesh and Willy Willy in Australia. Cyclones are classified on the

45

Disastersbasis of the average speed of the wind near the centre of the system as

tropical depression with wind speed upto 61 km/hr, Tropical storm when

the wind speed is between 61 km/hr - 115 km/hr and Hurricanes when the

wind speed is greater than 115 km/hr. A hurricane is a low pressure, large

scale weather system which derives its energy from the latent heat of

condensation of water vapor over warm tropical seas. A mature hurricane

may have a diameter ranging from 150 to 1000 km with sustained wind

speeds often exceeding 180 km/hr near the centre with still higher gusts. A

unique feature of a hurricane is the Eye. The eye provides a convenient

frame of reference for the system, and can be tracked with radar, aircraft or

satellite. The Saffir/Simpson1 scale is often used to categorize hurricanes

based on their wind speed and damage potential. Five categories of hurricanes

are recognized - Minimal, Moderate, Extensive, Extreme and Catastrophic.

The destructive potential of a hurricane is significant due to the high wind

speeds, accompanying torrential rains which produce flooding, and storm

surges along the coastline. Example: The strongest and most notorious

cyclone it the Andhra coast on May 9, 1990. It was 25 times stronger and

more disastrous than the deadliest cyclone of November 1977, which claimed

the lives of thousands of people.

• Droughts and Famine: Droughts are more deadly natural environmental

disaster as it is directly related to the basic essentials for supporting life –

water - and indirectly related to food because crops and other plants and

animals exclusively depend upon water. Droughts are periods when less

rainfall occurs than in the average year and they are parts of the natural

weather cycle in many parts of the world. A Drought exists when rainfall is

70% below average for at least 21 days. Droughts resulting from

accumulative effects of water scarcity cause extensive and enormous damage

to agriculture and natural vegetation and therefore cause famine and

starvation of human and animal population of the affected region. Droughts,

apart from being a natural event can also be caused by human activities.

Overgrazing and deforestation can decrease rainfall in downwind areas.

Global climatic changes also affects rainfall pattern. This in turn creates

excessive flooding in some areas and Droughts in others. The various effects

of droughts are: (i) decrease in stream flow, (ii) drop in the ground water

table, lakes, streams and reservoirs, (iii) loss of agricultural crops, (iv) loss

of wild life, especially aquatic organisms, (v) increased forest fires and (vi)

considerable human discomfort and life loss. Drought affects 67 districts,

25 percent of the total cropland and 12 percent people of India. The zones

worst affected by severe droughts includes larger tracts in the states of

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and

southern Uttar Pradesh.

3.2.2 Man made Disasters

Any environmental degradation induced by man becomes hazard and disaster

when it assumes alarming proportion and causes irreparable loss to human society.

1 The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS), or the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

(SSHWS), classifies into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained

winds. To be classified as a hurricane, Category 1, a tropical cyclone must have maximum

sustained winds of at least 74 mph. The highest classification in the scale, Category 5, is

reserved for storms with winds exceeding 155 mph.

46

Threats Man made disasters is caused through variety of human activities both of

intentional and unintentional character.

• Fire and accidents: Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally

started by lightning, but fire accidents can also be caused due to human

negligence or criminal intention to cause damage (arson). They can burn

extensive areas and kill people. If a fire intensifies enough to produce its

own winds, it will form into a firestorm. A good example of a mine fire is

the one near Centralia, Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town

and continues to burn today. Jharia coal mines in Jharkhand/India, is still

burning. Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial

cause, can be aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such

hazards as a lack of accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes,

or improperly maintained fire extinguishers may result in many more deaths

and injuries than might occur with such protections. Accidents, including

road, rail and aviation mishaps turn disastrous when it involves substantial

loss of life and property. One of the more devastating events occurred in

1977 on the island of Tenerife of the Canary Islands, when

miscommunications between and amongst air traffic control and an aircrew

caused two fully loaded jets to collide on the runway, killing over 500

passengers. The most devastating is the disaster of 2001, when two separate

United Airlines planes hit the World Trade Center minutes apart. The total

number of fatalities includes passengers and crew on both planes and those

killed on the ground tolled to 2907 people. A railroad disaster is an occurrence

associated with the operation of a passenger train which results in substantial

loss of life. One of the most devastating rail disasters occurred in 2004 in

Sri Lanka when 1,700 people died in the Queen of the Sea train accident.

Other notable rail disasters in India are the 1981 Bihar train disaster, where

more than 500 people died when a train falls into a river. In the Firozabad

rail disaster of 1995, where 350 people were killed as Delhi-bound

Purushottam Express rammed into the stationary Kalindi Express.

• Chemical and nuclear mishaps: Dumping of toxic chemical substances in

the ground may become hazardous to subsequent colonization of the area.

Spilling of immense quantity of crude oil from oil tankers into sea water

cause rapid rate of spreading of oil slicks which create havoc for marine

organisms and the human population faces the shortage of food supply. A

great marine disaster was created because of leakage of 100,000 tons of

crude oil from a huge oil tanker which struck the Spanish coast near the

port of La Coruna and exploded on May 12, 1976. The oil slicks killed most

of the sea organisms meant for human food such as mussels, oysters and

clams and the oil slicks were carried as far away as the Caribbean Sea by

ocean currents. Another incident of leakage of crude oil occurred on June,

24, 1989, when 5,000,000 tones of crude oil leaked from an oil tanker into

Atlantic Ocean. When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment

systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles (nuclear

fallout) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Not only is it deadly, but it also

has a long-term effect on the next generation for those who are contaminated.

Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of

the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. During World War

II, United States troops dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As a result, the radiation fallout contaminated the

47

Disasterscities’ water supplies, food sources, and half of the populations of each city

were stricken with disease. The Soviet republics of Ukraine and Belarus are

part of a scenario like this after a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power

plant suffered a meltdown in 1986. To this day, several small towns and the

city of Chernobyl remain abandoned and uninhabitable due to fallout. The

Bhopal gas poisoning is an extreme example of chemical mishap where

over 30,000 people were killed and the ill effects are still persisting.

• Epidemics and Pandemics: Epidemic is an outbreak of an illness or disease

in which the number of individual cases significantly exceeds the usual or

expected number of cases in any given population. Epidemics are also

aftereffects of natural disasters like earthquake, cyclone, droughts and famine.

In 1994, a pneumonic plague epidemic broke out in Surat, Gujarat, where it

resulted in 52 deaths and a large internal migration of about 300,000

residents, who fled fearing quarantine. A combination of heavy rainfall and

clogged sewers creating unhygienic condition further aggravated the problem

and precipitated the epidemic. The early 2009 hepatitis-B outbreak was an

epidemic that spread in Modasa, northern Gujarat owing to the negligence

of medical doctors, who were accused of re-using syringes, which had been

contaminated with hepatitis-B virus, to treat other patients. Over 125 people

were infected and up to 49 people were killed in that epidemic. A pandemic

is an illness or disease outbreak of global proportions. It happens when a

novel virus emerges among humans - it causes serious illness and is easily

human transmissible (spreads easily from person-to-person). As people today

are highly internationally mobile, the pandemic virus would spread rapidly

around the world. Moreover, several months would be needed before any

vaccine became available because pandemic viruses are new ones.

Additionally, there would be sudden and potentially considerable shortages

of personnel to provide vital community services as the illness became

widespread threatening life. An excellent example of a disease which has

reached pandemic proportions is the outbreak of swine Influenza in 2009

and AIDS/HIV virus in 2008 till date. Human obesity, certainly less fatal

but causes numerous health problems, has risen so drastically worldwide

that it is now being considered a pandemic.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) Explain with example the difference between hazard and disaster.

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48

Threats 2) What is natural Disaster and explain India’s vulnerability to them?

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3) Briefly explain man made disaster and give an example from India.

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3.3 INDIA’S VULNERABILITY TO HAZARDS AND

DISASTERS

Natural disasters, particularly of geophysical and hydro- meteorological origin

such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones and cloud bursts have been

recurrent phenomena in India, which affects about 3 crore people every year.

About 60% of the landmass in India is prone to earthquakes of various intensities;

over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to

cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.

On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, India can be divided

into five zones according to its disaster proneness to natural events;

1) Northern mountain region including foot hills - this region is prone to strong

snow storms leading to Land-slides and strong cold waves and also is

Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean volcanic activity

2) Indo-Gangetic plains - heavy rains during monsoon make these plains

vulnerable to Floods

3) Deccan plateau - a Drought prone area

4) The western desert - a Drought prone area

5) Coastal areas - they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones and Tidal waves

3.4 EFFECTS OF MAJOR DISASTERS

Disasters throughout history have had significant impact on the environment,

numbers, health status and life style of populations of the affected region. Disasters

have immediate, short and long term effects. Immediate and short term effects

are usually the Tangible impacts that include direct financial costs due to the

damages, whereas the long term effects which are more long lasting includes

also includes the Intangible impacts which are more abstract such as stress, loss

of photographs and other memorabilia. Current research indicates that the

intangible impacts are often of greater concern than tangible impacts, even though

tangible impacts can be very costly.

49

DisastersSome of the common effects of all disasters include:

• Deaths

• Severe injuries, requiring extensive treatments

• Increased risk of communicable diseases

• Damage to the health facilities

• Damage to the water systems

• Food shortage

• Population movements

The health problems common to all disasters are:

• Social reactions

• Communicable diseases

• Population displacements

• Climatic exposure

• Food and nutrition

• Water supply and sanitation

• Mental health

• Damage to health infrastructure

Natural disasters will continue to occur. However, human efficiency and

carefulness can be effective in reducing the man induced disasters. Moreover,

proper management of an economy racked by disasters of either nature is essential

to reduce the misery of affected population which mostly includes the poor and

under privileged.

3.5 PHASES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster Management includes all the activities, strategies, programmes and

measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the

purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses. The four

fundamental aspects of disaster management are preparedness, response, recovery

and mitigation (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Major Aspects in Disaster Management Cycle.

50

Threats These aspects correspond to the three phases in the Disaster Cycle, which are:

a) The Pre-Disaster phase - involving activities for risk reduction before a

Disaster occurs;

b) The Disaster Occurrence phase - involving relief activities undertaken during

an emergency and;

c) The Post-Disaster phase involving recovery activities undertaken in response

to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early resurgence and rehabilitation of

the affected communities.

• Preparedness: The objectives of the disaster preparedness is to ensure that

appropriate systems, procedures and resources are in place to minimize loss

of life, disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs

and to provide prompt, effective assistance to disaster victims, thus

facilitating relief measures and rehabilitation services. Disaster preparedness

is an ongoing process to carry out the following activities; (i) evaluate the

risk of the country or particular region to disasters, (ii) adopt proper safety

standards and regulations, (iii) organize communication, information and

warning systems, (iv) ensure coordination and response mechanisms, (v)

adopt measures to ensure that financial and other resources are available for

increased readiness and can be mobilized when disaster occurs, (vi) develop

public education programs, (vii) co-ordinate information sessions with news

media, (viii) organize disaster simulation exercises that test response

mechanisms and (ix) organize health sectors disaster preparedness plan and

outline clear mechanisms for coordinating with other sectors and

internationally. Pre-disaster preparedness and efforts to minimize

environmental damage is the key to poverty reduction, ecological security

and mitigation and management of weather- and water-related natural

disasters. This in turn supports sustainable development by reducing the

impact of human activities on environment.

• Response: Disaster response includes the mobilization of the necessary

emergency services and first responders in the disaster area. This is likely to

include a first wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police

and ambulance crews. It may commence with search and rescue but in all

cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs

of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or

international agencies and organizations. A well rehearsed emergency plan

developed as part of the preparedness phase enables efficient coordination

of rescue and relief. On a personal level the response can take the shape

either of a shelter in place or an evacuation, either by automobile or on foot.

Organizational response to any significant disaster - natural or human

induced- is based on existing emergency management organizational systems

and processes. There is a need for both discipline (structure, doctrine, process)

and agility (creativity, improvisation, adaptability) in responding to a disaster.

Combining that with the need to onboard and build a high functioning

leadership team quickly to coordinate and manage efforts as they grow

beyond first responders indicates the need for a leader and his or her team to

craft and implement a disciplined, iterative set of response plans. This allows

the team to move forward with coordinated, disciplined responses that are

vaguely right and adapt to new information and changing circumstances

51

Disastersalong the way. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial,

particularly when many organizations respond and local emergency

management agency (LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or

diminished by the disaster itself.

• Recovery: The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its

previous state and it starts after the immediate threat to human life after the

disaster, has subsided. Recovery activities differ from the response activities

in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that

must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are

primarily concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property,

rehabilitation, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure.

Efforts should be made to “build back better”, aiming to reduce the pre-

disaster risks inherent in the community and infrastructure. An important

aspect of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a ‘window of

opportunity’ for the implementation of mitigation measures that might

otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affected area are more likely to

accept more mitigation changes when a recent disaster is in fresh memory.

• Mitigation: It is virtually impossible to prevent occurrence of most Natural

Disasters, but it is possible to minimize or mitigate their damage effects.

Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard

and the vulnerability in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore

mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements

exposed to the threat. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases

because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk.

Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water

management in drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard

prone areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard

occurs. In addition to these physical measures, mitigation also aims at

reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters. The

implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered a part of the

recovery process if applied after a disaster occurs. Mitigation measures can

be structural or non-structural. Structural measures use technological

solutions, like flood levees. Non-structural measures include legislation,

land-use planning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks to be

used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the most cost-efficient

method for reducing the impact of disasters; however it is not always suitable.

Mitigation does include providing regulations regarding evacuation,

sanctions against those who refuse to obey the regulations (such as mandatory

evacuations), and communication of potential risks to the public. Some

structural mitigation measures may have adverse effects on the ecosystem.

The Mitigation Program will direct the following activities: (i) identify areas

exposed to Natural Hazards and determine the vulnerability of key elements

- health facilities and water systems etc., (ii) co-ordinate the work of Multi

Disciplinary teams in designing and developing safety standards etc., (iii)

hospitals must remain operational to attend to disaster victims and have

additional space to manage the high number of medical casualties, (iv)

include Disaster Mitigation Measures in the planning and development of

new facilities, (v) identify priority hospitals and critical health facilities that

comply with current building codes and standard, (vi) ensure that mitigation

measures are taken into account in a facility’s maintenance plans, (vii)

52

Threats inform, sensitize and train those personnel’s who are involved in planning,

administration, operation, maintenance and use of disaster mitigation

facilities and (viii) promote the inclusion of Disaster Mitigation in the

curricula of Professional training institutes.

3.6 ENHANCING RESILIENCE AND REDUCING

VULNERABILITY TO DISASTERS

Vulnerability is a product both of physical exposure to hazards and of a

community’s capacity to cope with and recover from its impacts i.e., its resilience.

For the poor and marginalized social communities, access and control over

resources are important determinants of vulnerability and resilience, shaping

both their exposure to hazards and their capacity to cope with and recover from

disasters. Resilience means being able to bounce back to normalcy after disaster.

It is surely not just absence of vulnerability. It refers directly to the ability to

function with the spectrum of risks and indirectly to the capacity of people,

communities, agencies, in the first place to prevent and mitigate losses and then

secondly, if damage occur to maintain normal living conditions as far as possible

and manage recovery from the impact.

Holling, 1995, rightly expressed the relation between vulnerability and resilience

in the terms “vulnerability comes from loss of resilience”. Resilience depends

on, among other things, the effectiveness of the risk response and the capability

to respond in the future. Although the capacity to response is clearly an attribute

of the system as a whole that exists prior to the event, it gets operational or

functional only when the event strikes or the stress exceeds tolerance. Responses

then are needed for coping with the contingencies and improving the condition

itself as well as for enhancing their capacity to respond in future. Good

governance, diverse option availability and accessibility, awareness, education

and communication at regional level, local coping strategies, positive social

networking, and sustainable economy are all elements to enhance capabilities

and thereby strengthen resilience.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the common effects of all disasters and which type of preparedness

activities can be helpful in reducing them?

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53

Disasters2) Discuss the different phases in disaster management cycle with suitable

example.

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3) Explain the meaning of resilience and its importance in reducing vulnerability.

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3.7 LET US SUM UP

• Rapid growth of population and its increased concentration often in marginal

areas and hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and

severity of natural and man-made disasters. Apart from the anarchic

population growth, the major and complex emergencies are closely linked

to unplanned population settlement and poverty.

• Lack of preparedness, insufficient minimum health services and lack of basic

health education are aggravating factors that can make a disaster out of a

hazard or an emergency and a complex emergency out of social tension.

• Natural hazards such as hurricanes, tsunamis and earthquakes can lead to

disasters when they strike vulnerable communities. Disasters results in

significant morbidity, mortality and economic loss.

• Disaster management involves eliminating the preventable consequences

of the disaster, reducing losses to life and property and restore normalcy in

the affected area as soon as possible.

• Pre disaster preparedness is highly needed in all possible cases of extreme

events in order to reduce losses. E.g. preparedness to take advantage of

good monsoons for agricultural production and developing alternate

contingencies for aberrant monsoons are also important to reduce the losses

that are caused by famine.

• There is a strong need for a paradigm shift from post-disaster relief to pre-

disaster preparedness through technological and knowledge empowerment

of the vulnerable social group. Furthermore, disaster preparedness must be

integrated with elements and pathways of sustainable development in a

‘bottom-up’ and participatory manner.

54

Threats3.8 KEY WORDS

Disaster : WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence that causes

damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life,

deterioration of health and health services, on a scale

sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from

outside the affected community or area”.

Flooding : It is the inundation of extensive land area with water

for several days in continuation.

Tsunamis : They are Ocean waves produced by Earthquakes or

underwater land-slides.

Man-made disasters : Any environmental degradation induced by man

becomes hazard and disaster when it assumes

alarming proportion and causes irreparable loss to

human society.

3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS

Alexander, D. 1993. Natural Disasters, Research Press, New Delhi: 619p.

Bryant, E.A. 1991. Natural Hazards, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge:

294p.

Chapman, D. 1994. Natural Hazards, Oxford University Press, Melbourne: 174p.

Smith, K. 1996. Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster,

2nd edition, Routledge, London; 389p.

Kesavan, P.C and Swaminathan, M.S. 2006. Managing extreme natural disasters

in coastal areas. In: Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 364, 2191-2216.

Kesavan, P.C and Swaminathan, M.S. 2011. Sustainable Rural Development for

Disaster Risk Reduction. In: Anil K. Gupta and Sreeja S. Nair edited

“Environmental Knowledge for Disaster Risk Management”. Natl. Inst. Disaster

Management, ekDRM Secretariat, IIPA campus, New Delhi.

3.10 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Your answer should include the following points:

• Definition of natural hazards and disaster

• Relation between hazard and disaster

2) Your answer should include the following points:

• Definition of natural disaster

• India’s proneness to natural disaster

3) Your answer should include the following points:

• Definition of man-made disaster

55

Disasters• Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Check Your Progress 2

1) Your answer should include the following points:

• Tangible and intangible effects of major disasters

• Disaster preparedness activities

2) Your answer should include the following points

• Phases of Disaster Management Cycle

• Preparedness

• Response

• Recovery

• Mitigation

3) Your answer should include the following points:

• Vulnerability

• Resilience

• Coping capabilities

56

Threats

UNIT 4 BIOPIRACY

Structure

4.0 Introduction

4.1 Objectives

4.1.1 Biological Invasion/Invasive Alien Species

4.1.1.1 Ecological and Economical Impacts

4.1.1.2 Few Examples

4.1.2 Biological/Germ Warfare

4.1.3 Biological Terrorism

4.1.4 Biopiracy

4.1.4.1 Indigenous Ecological Knowledge / Ttraditional Knowledge System and

Biopiracy

4.1.4.2 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

4.1.4.3 Some Examples of Biopiracy of Traditional Knowledge

4.1.4.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Provisions

4.1.4.5 Indian Rules and Regulations Regarding Biological Resources and

Biopiracy

4.1.4.6 Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

4.2 Let Us Sum Up

4.3 Key Words

4.4 References and Suggested Further Readings

4.5 Key to Check Your Progress

4.0 INTRODUCTION

Biological threats or biothreats, a source of hazard to humankind and political

stability, involve various aspects such as biological invasion / invasive alien

species, bioterrorism, biological weapons, biological warfare, biopiracy, etc. The

impacts of each of these aspects on the environment are multifarious and are at

times interrelated. Of these threats, bioterrorism came into general public view

after the 2001 attack on the United States by the usage of anthrax. Communities

such as arms control, defence, scientific, law enforcement, public health, medical

and industry are on the front lines in combating biological threats. These

communities have different cultures, assumptions, priorities, and even languages.

Thus, biothreats (biowarfare agents and bioterrorism) need to be identified on

the spot. Now there are quite a few tools perform such functions and identify the

encountered suspect materials. For e.g. sandwich immunoassay employed at the

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and BioPen (Lab-in-a-Pen)

by Ben Gurion University, Israel. Each subsection below describes and elaborates

about various categories of biothreat.

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you should be able to:

• describe the various aspects of biothreats;

• explain invasive alien species its threat to India’s biodiversity and sustainable

development;

57

Biopiracy• highlight the biological weapons and their ecological impacts; and

• analyze the importance of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).

4.1.1 Biological Invasion/ Invasive Alien Species

The most frequently used definition for invasive species implies to the non-

indigenous, non-native, alien species of plants or animals that adversely affect

the habitats. These species occur outside their natural adapted ranges and dispersal

potential. In general, species that are not the native ones are known as invasive /

alien species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources (IUCN) defines Alien Invasive Species as an alien species that becomes

established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, an agent of change,

and threatens native biological diversity. Species become invasive when they

are introduced outside their natural habitat intentionally or unintentionally where

they express themselves, get established, invade and outcompete native species

thus resulting into biodiversity loss, disfunctioning of ecosystem, etc.

Invasion is one of the major factors for the decline in global biodiversity. Alien

invasive species introduced into the country whether by design or default can

cause catastrophe to native species, water bodies, etc. Even though an invasive

species is defined as an introduced species, some of the native species also may

increase in number due to natural events or alterations thus becoming invasive.

Apart from plants, insects, pest and mammals are also known to invade the

agricultural/ crop fields, leading to habitat alteration and destruction. Nevertheless,

plants, mammals and insects comprise the most common types of invasive alien

species in terrestrial environments. On the contrary, many alien / exotic species

support agriculture and forestry system.

Alien invasive species may affect and invade the region economically,

environmentally, and/or ecologically. Due to the differences in resource utilisation

pattern between native and exotic plant species, these species may change soil

structure, decomposition, nutrient status, etc. The invasion by these species is at

a large scale that ultimately suppresses the growth of other existing species. The

species then eventually gets spread invaded all over the area. The suppression in

growth of other existing species may be due to the production of allelopathins.

For e.g. leaves and pericarp of Prosopis juliflora, an invasive alien species, is

known to show allelopathic effect thus, resulting in loss of plant diversity. The

leaves and pericarp of this species are known to contain water-soluble

allelopathins, which are capable of inhibiting seed germination thus retarding

growth of the associated species. The species is also known to contain phenolic

compounds, which after senescence does not promote the growth of other species.

Invasive species also have specific traits, which are in such a combination that

promote / allow the species to compete with the existing native species. Certain

species due to their capability of relatively fast growth, coppicing ability,

widespread habitat, adaptability, dispersal ability and reproduction to native

species become invasive in nature. Invasive species can outcompete native species

for nutrients, light, space / niche overlap, water or food.

4.1.1.1 Ecological and Economical Impacts

Ecological impacts of invasion by either floral or faunal species are manifolds.

Already disturbed habitats are more prone to invasions thus leading to adverse

58

Threats effects / impacts on the ecosystem and its functioning. The best example of this

is that of Eichhornia crassipes, water hyacinth, an aquatic plant species that

proliferates twice within 2-3 days under the suitable climatic conditions. This

wetland species is considered as a pest in wetlands of several countries. In India,

the species was found in mass in wetlands of Keoladeo National Park (KNP),

Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The wetland was dominated by this species, which in the

later stage affected the fauna as well as flora in the aquatic area. The species

formed thick mats over the water surface thus hampering the penetration of

sunlight required for the organisms in water. In the same wetland one invasive

fish species, Clarias gariepinus, Thailand Magur, was also recorded which fed

on other small fishes in the park’s wetland. Later both the species were cleared /

removed manually from the wetland in order to avoid ecosystem imbalance and

maintain the importance of this world heritage site.

The unwanted, weed plants, directly influence the yield due to its impact on

nutrients, etc. On the other side, the unintentional introduction of forest pest

species and plant pathogens can alter forest ecology and affect the timber industry

negatively. For example the Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora

glabripennis), introduced into U.S. during 1996, infected and damaged millions

of acres of hardwood trees. Other examples are plant pathogens such as the

Chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease

(Ophiostoma novo-ulmi) which seriously affect the forest health. Invasive species

are also likely to have much impact on recreational activities. On the other hand,

by and large, the economic benefits of invasive alien species are numerous which

is many a time ignored and only their negative impacts / effects are taken into

account. E. crassipes even though leads to drastic changes and losses in wetland

ecosystem functioning is a well known plant species in the science of remediation.

The species is helpful in the removal of heavy metals from the sediments. Many

of the invasive plant species thrive very fast and are resistant to diseases. Their

large biomass makes them an important source of fuel generation. For many

invasive species, there are commercial benefits, either existent or capable of

being developed. Lantana camara is an invasive plant species, which is used for

making furniture, fruit / flower / vegetable baskets, etc. Prosopis juliflora is

another invasive species, which has enormous potential to provide livelihood

options to communities. Different parts of this plant offer different services and

benefits, and hence can be put into a different type of use. Its pods can be used to

make biscuits; main trunk can be used for making furniture; branches can be

used as fodder; whole plant can be used for making charcoal, as it offers high

calorific value charcoal.

4.1.1.2 Few Examples

• Eichhornia crassipes: The species originated from South America, one of

the worst aquatic weeds in the world, is a very fast growing plant. The plant

has large, purple and violet flowers, which make it a popular ornamental

plant for ponds. As discussed in section 4.1.1.1. E. crassipes (water hyacinth)

blocks the water flow and forms thick mats over the water surface under

adequate climatic conditions. Thus, it prevents the sunlight to pass through

the water and formation of oxygen for the fishes, submerged plants, insects,

etc. Thus, it affects the biodiversity of the region and results in mass mortality

of fishes, etc.

59

Biopiracy• Chromolaena odorata: It is a fast-growing perennial shrub, native to South

America and Central America. The species was introduced into the tropical

regions of Asia, Africa and the Pacific. It forms dense stands thus competing

with the establishment of other plant species. The species is very aggressive

and known to have allelopathic effects.

• Prosopis juliflora: It is a shrub / small tree indigenous in dry lands of western

South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, and has become established as

a weed in Asia, Australia and elsewhere. In India, it was intentionally

introduced to Rajasthan and Gujarat some 140 years ago, driven by concerns

of desert encroachment and for dry land livelihoods. Since then Prosopis

has rapidly spread currently inhabiting most dry lands, thus covering some

40% of the land of India. This spread has brought about significant changes

in the structure and function of India’s dry land ecosystems and in the benefits,

people derive from these ecosystems (namely “ecosystem services”). Some

services have been regionally or locally augmented, such as soil conservation

and firewood provision, and others have been degraded, such as livestock

forage provision and the support of biodiversity. It finds use as forage, wood

and environmental management. It shows vigorous coppicing growth and

its root penetrate the soil deeply for water. The species if managed properly

is a good source of fuel. The pods of this species are rich in sugar out of

which biscuits are made. P. juliflora in India is both an Invasive Alien and a

Cultivable species, and this duality apparently calls for a concern. Article

8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), of which India is a

contracting Party since 1994, directs that “Each contracting Party shall, as

far as possible and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or

eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or

species”. Cultivation of an alien species is thus incompatible with controlling

and eradicating it. However, the large swaths of areas and ecosystems

inhabited and inhabitable by Prosopis are not uniform, neither with respect

to the ecosystem services degraded by Prosopis, nor with respect to those

services it has already promoted and/or it is projected to promote. Since

“ecosystem services” are benefits people derive from ecosystems, and since

these benefits contribute to their well-being, it is proposed that depending

on the ecosystems and depending on the people that depend on them,

Prosopis would be treated either as an invasive alien species or as a cultivable

one, and will be accordingly managed, to achieve either eradication, control,

or cultivation.

4.1.2 Biological/Germ Warfare

Biological / germ warfare implies to the use of disease-causing biological agents

(e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses, etc.) intentionally in order to kill or harm humans,

other animals or plants. These live germs refereed as biological weapons or bio-

weapons reproduce within the host and are of various categories depending upon

the requirement and target group size (an individual, group or population). Some

of these germs warfare may be lethal or non-lethal and they may be developed,

acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. The

use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of

both the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention.

Hence, many a time’s both (biological warfare and chemical warfare) are

considered as one. However, these toxins unlike the biological germs do not

reproduced within the host.

60

Threats Based on the requirement the biological weapon needs to have certain

characteristics. Below given are some of the characteristics of biological weapons.

• Anti-personal: Such a bio-weapon need not be individual specific and targets

a bigger group. Hence, the major characteristics of anti-personal biological

weapons targeting humankind are high infectivity, potency, no vaccination,

and aerosol. The well known example of such a bio-weapon is anthrax,

which forms hard spores fit for dispersal as aerosols. Contrary to this the

second pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax generally does not cause

secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually

confined to the target. The details about anthrax are being discussed in

bioterrorism.

• Anti-agriculture: These types of bio-weapons specifically target / destroy

the plant species or defoliate vegetation. These species are likely to attack

the animals around the area thus intended to eliminate animal resources for

transportation and food. The Agent Orange was used by U.S. and Britain

army during the Second World War in order to attack and destroy the livestock

and farmland of the opponent. Herbicides based on plant growth regulators

(herbicides) are also sometimes considered as biological germ warfare and

were much used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter protection.

• Biodefence: All the bio-weapons involve animal virus, etc. with an exception

of smallpox, which is a source of disease in humans. Thus, in use of biological

weapons, it is very likely that animals will fall ill either simultaneously

with, or perhaps earlier than humans. The goal of bio-defence is to integrate

the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public

health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities.

4.1.3 Biological Terrorism

Bioterrorism is a term, which means deliberate dissemination of biological agents

such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins, that may be occurring naturally or in a human

modified form and can be used in biological warfare. Bioterrorism is a sort of

biological weapon that is much cheaper and widespread. Biological terrorism,

eventually becoming a threat is one amongst the various biological warfare agents.

Of these agents, biological toxins are fast acting with no incubation period for

manifestation of toxic effects. In the recent past such weapons have been used in

various sectors however, in the military, bioterrorism has certain reservations

due to its characteristic of mass disturbance. Hence, they cannot be restricted to

the target alone. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus is one amongst so many

biological weapons, which affects the economy and not the person in general.

Based on the requirements these bio-weapons / agents of bioterrorism can be of

three types as discussed below

• Category A: These agents impose risks of high priority, easy to be transmitted,

with high mortality rate, cause major health impact. Such agents cause high

panic in the public with special attention for public health. To quote a few

examples are Taluaremia, anthrax, smallpox, botulinum toxin, etc. Anthrax

is non-contagious, caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis.

It was firstly used during 1916 as a modern biological warfare by

Scandinavian “freedom fighters” supplied by the German General Staff

against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland. However, during 1993 the

61

Biopiracyattempt of using the anthrax failed. Later during 2001, anthrax was used in

a series of attacks on the offices of several United States Senators in a

powdered form and delivered by the post.

• Category B: Agents of this category are easier to disseminate with low

mortality rates. Few examples are Brucellosis (Brucella species), Melioidosis

(Burkholderia pseudomallei), Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci), Q fever

(Coxiella burnetii), Ricin toxin from beans of Ricinus communis, Abrin

toxin from Abrus precatorius, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B, Typhus

(Rickettsia prowazekii), Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses, e.g. Venezuelan

equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis),

Water supply threats (by Vibrio cholera, Cryptosporidium parvum).

• Category C: These are the pathogens, which have not yet been discovered

fully and are under emergence with high mortality or a major health impact,

easy to produce and disseminate. Examples of Category C type of

bioterrorism agents are Nipah virus and Hantavirus.

4.1.4 Biopiracy

Science and invention are the two sides of a coin, which can never be segregated.

Human being has always nurtured, modified and passed on the cultural knowledge

from one generation to the next as a part of their moral responsibility thus keeping

the culture always alive for ages. Traditional knowledge has an important role in

day-to-day need thus making it important from cultural identity point of view.

Knowledge about the use of plant and animal species in treatment of diseases

remains a mile-stone in the medicinal field. Noble inventions in science have

always been welcomed and encouraged as in return the inventor receives a reward

for the noble discovery and information. This led to the introduction of patent

system by several countries so as to encourage and motivate the inventors for

inventing useful and innovative products for the benefit of the society.

All these patents seem to be in vein as many provisions are being modified in

their implementation at the request of multinational companies (MNCs). Even

the information which is not innovative and does exist previously are being

granted patent in many countries. The changes in rules have been made just to

satisfy the economic aspirations of big MNCs. However, we forget that the MNCs

have always been in a hurry to get control of valuable bio-products and are seeking

patents on everything. This has implications for biopiracy because the US patent

system allows the grant of patents on products derived from indigenous

knowledge. Thus, biopiracy is the name given to the unauthorized use of biological

material and indigenous knowledge. Biopiracy “refers to the use of intellectual

property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological

resources and biological products and processes that have been used over centuries

in non-industrialized culture”. It is an imitation of indigenous knowledge, by the

striking similarity between their traditional use and the modern patented use.

Thus, the patented uses are not new rather mere replication of existing indigenous

knowledge.

4.1.4.1 Indigenous Ecological Knowledge/Traditional Knowledge System

and Biopiracy

The use and continuous development of plant varieties by local farmers, their

sharing and diffusion, and the knowledge associated with them, play an essential

62

Threats role in agricultural systems in developing countries. Traditional knowledge is

essential to the food security and health of millions of people in the developing

world. Additionally, knowledge of the healing properties of plants has been the

source of many modern medicines. The traditional knowledge about indigenous

species and their use in treatment of diseases has lead to miraculous researches/

information in biologically active molecules. With the use of this traditional

knowledge, several diseases can be cured. However, on the sadder part the ideas

and the traditional knowledge are becoming more and more susceptible to

exploitation, it becoming easily accessible. Traditional knowledge includes both

the codified (documented) as well as non-codified information (not documented

but may be orally transmitted). The stealing of this knowledge is much easier as

the information is available mostly in regional language, which becomes a barrier

for the patent offices to search the information prior to granting patents thus,

leading to biopiracy. The reliability of the traditional medicine systems coupled

with the absence of such information with patent offices, provides an easy

opportunity for interlopers for getting patents on these therapeutic formulations

derived from traditional medicine systems. The grant of patents on non-patentable

knowledge (related to traditional medicines), which is either based on the existing

traditional knowledge of the developing world, or a minor variation thereof, has

been causing a great concern to the developing world. In many of these cases,

the country had to fight for revocation of the granted patents, which is not a

feasible option possible as it involves huge money and time.

4.1.4.2 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

India has faced several threats of biopiracy for e.g. turmeric, neem and basmati

rice. In 1999, following the ultimately successful, but expensive, Indian challenge

of the turmeric and basmati patents granted by United States & Patent Office

(USPTO), it was agreed that the Indian National Institute of Science

Communication (NISCOM) and the Department of Indian System of Medicine

and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) would collaborate to establish a Traditional

Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL). Patent examiners, in the international patent

offices, while examining the patentability of any claimed subject matter, use

available resources for searching the appropriate non-patent literature sources.

Patent literature, is usually present in several distinctive databases and is easily

searched unlike the non-patent literature Therefore, a need was felt to create

more easily accessible non-patent literature databases on traditional knowledge

in India. Hence, Government of India has taken an initiative of translating and

publishing ancient manuscripts regarding traditional knowledge in electronic

forms. Thus, during 2001 the TKDL was set up with an aim of protecting India’s

heritage from exploitation by foreign companies. This includes about 1200

formulations of various systems of Indian medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani

and Yoga) available in public domain which are being recorded from Arabic,

Persian, Sanskrit, Tamil and Urdu. They are available in digitized format in various

languages: English, French, German, Japanese and Spanish. Yoga poses also

remain a part of its giant collection. The library has also signed agreements with

leading international patent offices such as European Patent Office (EPO), United

Kingdom Trademark & Patent Office (UKPTO) and the United States Patent

and Trademark Office to protect traditional knowledge from biopiracy as it allows

patent examiners at International Patent Offices (IPO) to access TKDL databases

for patent search and examinations purposes. Traditional Knowledge Resource

Classification (TKRC), an innovative structured classification system for the

63

Biopiracypurpose of systematic arrangement, dissemination and retrieval was evolved for

about 5,000 subgroups against few subgroups available in International Patent

Classification (IPC), related to medicinal plants. The information is being

structured under section, class, subclass, group and subgroup as per the

International Patent Classification (IPC) for the convenience of its use by the

international patent examiners. Information comprising about two lakh

formulations has been transcribed for realizing the objective of TKDL Project.

In TKDL, digitized format the Slokas are saved in the database and each one is

read and converted into a structured language using TKRC by subject experts.

The codes are then filled into the data entry screen. The translated version of all

the TKRC codes is ported in the database. The codes once saved in Meta data

directory are converted in different languages based on Unicode technology. The

converted format of the formulation is readable and can be understood by a

layman though it is targeted towards a patent examiner. Software also converts

traditional terminology into modern terminology, for example, Jwar to fever,

Turmeric to Curcuma longa, Mussorika to small pox etc. TKDL includes a search

interface providing full text search and retrieval of traditional knowledge

information on IPC and keywords in multiple languages. The search features

include single or multiple word searches, complex Boolean expression search,

Proximity search, Field search, Phrase search, etc in the form of simple and

advance search options. Simple search lets the user search a combination of

keywords. TKDL thus acts as a bridge between formulations existing in local

languages and a Patent Examiner at a global level, since the database will provide

information on modern as well as local names in a language and format

understandable to Patent Examiners.

4.1.4.3 Some Examples of Biopiracy of Traditional Knowledge

Few very common examples of biopiracy of traditional knowledge are discussed

below:

• Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.): The rhizomes of turmeric are used as a

spice in Indian kitchens. The species can be used effectively in medicines,

cosmetics and dyes and has been traditionally used to heal wounds and

rashes. In 1995, two expatriate Indians at the University of Mississippi

Medical Centre were granted a US patent on use of turmeric in wound

healing. The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), India, New

Delhi filed a re-examination case with the USPTO challenging the patent

on the grounds of existing of prior art. CSIR argued that turmeric has been

used for thousands of years for healing wounds and rashes and therefore its

medicinal use was not a novel invention. Their claim was supported by

documentary evidence of traditional knowledge, including ancient Sanskrit

text and a paper published in 1953 in the Journal of the Indian Medical

Association. The US Patent Office revoked this patent in 1997, after

ascertaining that there was no novelty; the findings by innovators having

been known in India for centuries.

• Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.): Neem extract is known for its anti-pest

and anti-fungal properties. The neem oil extracted from its seeds can be

used to cure cold and flu. In 1994, European Patent Office (EPO) granted a

patent to the US Corporation W.R. Grace Company and US Department of

Agriculture for a method for controlling fungi on plants by the aid of

64

Threats hydrophobic extracted Neem oil. In 1995, a group of international NGOs

and representatives of Indian farmers filed legal opposition against the patent.

Thus, the patent granted on Neem was revoked by the EPO in May 2000.

• Basmati Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.): Rice Tec. Inc. had applied for registration

of a mark “Texmati” before the UK Trade Mark Registry. One of the

documents relied upon by Rice Tec as evidence in support of the registration

of the said mark was the US Patent granted by US Patent Office to Rice Tec.

This US utility patent was unique in a way to claim a rice plant having

characteristics similar to the traditional Indian Basmati Rice lines and with

the geographical delimitation covering North, Central or South America or

Caribbean Islands. Evidence from the IARI (Indian Agricultural Research

Institute) Bulletin was used against these claims. The evidence was backed

up by the germplasm collection of Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad

since 1978. CFTRI (Central Food Technological Research Institute) scientists

evaluated the various grain characteristics and accordingly the claims were

attacked based on the declarations submitted by CFTRI scientists on grain

characteristics. Eventually, a request for re-examination of this patent was

filed during 2000. Soon after filling the re-examination request, Rice Tec

chose to withdraw claims. Biopiracy of traditional knowledge is not limited

to India alone. In fact, there have been several examples from other countries

where traditional knowledge biopiracy has become a concern. Some of these

examples are given below:

• Kava (Piper methysticum Forster): Kava is an important cash crop in the

Pacific and is valued as an important beverage. In North America and Europe,

Kava is now promoted for a variety of uses. French company L’Oreal - a

global giant with US $10 billion a year in sales - has patented the use of

Kava to reduce hair loss and stimulate hair growth.

• Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi Mort.): For generations, Shamans of

indigenous tribes throughout the Amazon basin have processed the bark of

B. caapi Mort. to produce a ceremonial drink known as Ayahuasca. The

Shamans use Ayahuasca to diagnose and treat illness, meet with spirits, and

divine the future. American, Loren Miller obtained US Plant Patent, granting

him rights over an alleged variety of B. caapi Mort., which he had collected

from a domestic garden in Amazon and had called “Da Vine”, and was

analyzing for potential medicinal properties. The patent claimed that Da

Vine represented a new and distinct variety of B. caapi Mort., primarily

because of the flower colour. The Coordinating Body of Indigenous

Organisations of the Amazon Basin (COICA), which represents more than

400 indigenous tribes in the Amazon region, along with others, protested

about a wrong patent that was given on a plant species. On re-examination,

USPTO revoked this patent. However, the inventor was able to convince

the USPTO, the original claims were reconfirmed and the patent rights

restored to the innovator.

• Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii (Masson) Sweet ex Decne): The Hoodia, a

succulent plant, originates from the Kalahari Desert of South Africa. For

generations it has been known to the traditionally-living San people as an

appetite suppressant. In 1995, South African Council of Scientific &

Industrial Research (CSIR) patented Hoodia’s appetite-suppressing element

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Biopiracy(P57) and hence, its potential cure for obesity. The San people eventually

learned of this exploitation of their traditional knowledge, and in 2001,

launched legal action against South African CSIR and the pharmaceutical

industry on grounds of biopiracy. They claimed that their traditional

knowledge has been stolen, and the South African CSIR had failed to comply

with the rules of the Convention on Biodiversity, which requires prior

informed consent of all stakeholders, including the original discoverers and

users. The South African CSIR claimed that they have planned to inform

the San of the research and share the benefits, but wanted to make sure that

the drug proved successful. The two sides entered into negotiations for a

benefit-sharing agreement, despite complications regarding who should be

compensated: the person who originally shared the information, their

descendants, the tribe, or the entire country. However, during 2002, a

landmark was reached in which the San would receive a share of any future

royalties.

4.1.4.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Provisions

Drafting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was initiated in 1980s

and finalized at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. In all 150 government leaders signed

the Convention on Biological Diversity during 1992. In order to safeguard the

biological diversity the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

convened the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity during

1988 to explore the need for an international convention on biological diversity.

The experts were to take into account the need to share costs and benefits between

developed and developing countries as well as ways and means to support

innovation by local people. This work was over during 1992 with the Nairobi

Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological

Diversity. The Convention was opened for signature from 5 June 1992 until 4

June 1993 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

(the Rio “Earth Summit”). In this duration, the Convention was signed by 168

signatory. The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993, which was

90 days after the 30th ratification. The first session of the Conference of the

Parties was scheduled for during 1994 in the Bahamas.

The Convention recognizes that biological diversity is about more than plants,

animals and micro-organisms and their ecosystems – it is about people and our

need for food security, medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and

healthy environment in which to live. It deals with the conservation and

sustainable use of biodiversity, and with access to biological diversity and sharing

of the benefits arising from this access. National policies development, plans

and legal regimes designed to protect a country’s genetic heritage as well as the

exploitation of biotechnologies were included. CBD states (inter alia) that nations

have sovereign rights over their genetic resources and these can only be removed

subject to prior informed consent.

4.1.4.5 Indian Rules and Regulations Regarding Biological Resources and

Biopiracy

India is a major biodiversity country with: Two hotspots (the Western Ghats and

the Eastern Himalayas); ten biogeographic regions; two realms (Paleoartic and

Indio-Malayan); and three biomass (tropical humid forests, tropical dry/deciduous

forests, and the warm deserts and the semi-arid deserts). Thus, from the

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Threats patentability point of view India holds much more important micro-organisms.

The country covers 2.4% of the world’s land area accounting for 7.3% of the

global fauna. The country is considered the origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties

of crops and holds 5 world heritage sites and 12 biosphere reserves. The Indian

Parliament has passed on a biodiversity law that seeks to make it more difficult

for foreign companies to exploit India’s biological resources. The government

has made a three-level regulatory structure that provides important safeguards

against misuse of India’s biological resources by multinational corporations thus,

protecting and conserving its traditional knowledge.

According to these rules an imprisonment of up to 5 years or a fine of US$20,000

would be imposed on those who export biological resources for research or

commercial use, who seek patents abroad on inventions based on Indian biological

resources, or who transfer the results of Indian research on biological resources

abroad without approval. The law is based on the equitable sharing of benefits

from these resources by local communities. The bill provides the framework to

regulate the transfer of Indian resources and knowledge and to reduce biopiracy.

4.1.4.6 Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

The World Trade Organization (WTO), 1995 as a successor to the General

Agreement on Tariffs and Trade-1947 (GATT 1947), governs multilateral trade

among Members. The WTO follows the principle of non-discrimination, based

on the twin concepts of Most Favoured Nation (MFN) and national treatment

between Members. It administers the implementation of a set of agreements,

which include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), other

agreements in the goods sector (e.g., agriculture, textiles, sanitary and psycho-

sanitary measures, Trade Related Investment Measures-TRIMs, anti-dumping,

etc.), and in addition, agreements in two other areas, viz., trade in services, and

Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The TRIPs was added to the

GATT treaty during 1994 at Uruguay Round of trade negotiations. Thus, after

this the GATT became the basis for the establishment of the WTO. Overall, The

TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international

trading system. The TRIPs Agreement tries to bring in uniformity in the standards

of intellectual property rights among the WTO irrespective of their development

status. While this is expected to result in technology transfer and flow of

investment among the Members, the extent of benefits accruing will depend on

domestic industries and the status of development of the countries.

The TRIPS Agreement is a minimum standards agreement, which allows members

to provide more extensive protection of intellectual property. According to TRIPS

Agreement, all the countries have to provide patent for protection of product

patents from 1st January 1995 onwards. However, for developing countries, a

transition period of 10 years (until 1st January 2005) was provided and for least

developed countries, the transition period was extended to 2016. During this

transition period, it was decided that these economies would accept applications

for patents (which would be considered and granted after January 2005) and

provide EMR (Exclusive Marketing Rights) for the producers of patented drugs

(in the pharmaceutical industry) and agrochemicals.

• Doha declaration, 2001: The November 2001 Doha Declaration on the

TRIPS Agreement and Public Health was adopted by the WTO Ministerial

Conference of 2001 in Doha on November 14, 2001. It reaffirmed flexibility

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Biopiracyof TRIPS member states in circumventing patent rights for better access to

essential medicines. In Paragraphs 4 to 6 of the Doha Declaration,

governments agreed that:

Para – 4: The TRIPS Agreement does not and should not prevent Members

from taking measures to protect public health. Accordingly, while reiterating

our commitment to the TRIPS Agreement, we affirm that the Agreement

can and should be interpreted and implemented in a manner supportive of

WTO Members’ right to protect public health and, in particular, to promote

access to medicines for all. In this connection, we reaffirm the right of WTO

Members to use, to the full, the provisions in the TRIPS Agreement, which

provide flexibility for this purpose.

Para – 5: Accordingly and in the light of paragraph 4 above, while

maintaining our commitments in the TRIPS Agreement, we recognize that

these flexibilities include:

a) In applying the customary rules of interpretation of public international

law, each provision of the TRIPS Agreement shall be read in the light

of the object and purpose of the Agreement as expressed, in particular,

in its objectives and principles.

b) Each Member has the right to grant compulsory licences and the freedom

to determine the grounds upon which such licences are granted.

c) Each Member has the right to determine what constitutes a national

emergency or other circumstances of extreme urgency, it being

understood that public health crises, including those relating to HIV/

AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other epidemics, can represent a

national emergency or other circumstances of extreme urgency.

d) The effect of the provisions in the TRIPS Agreement that are relevant

to the exhaustion of intellectual property rights is to leave each Member

free to establish its own regime for such exhaustion without challenge,

subject to the MFN and national treatment provisions of Articles 3 and 4.

Para – 6: We recognize that WTO Members with insufficient or no

manufacturing capacities in the pharmaceutical sector could face difficulties

in making effective use of compulsory licensing under the TRIPS Agreement.

We instruct the Council for TRIPS to find an expeditious solution to this

problem and to report to the General Council before the end of 2002.

These provisions in the Declaration ensure that governments may issue

compulsory licenses on patents for medicines, or take other steps to protect public

health.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.

1) Define biopiracy. Give examples where India has faced threats of biopiracy.

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Threats 2) What is biological warfare? Describe the different characteristics.

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4.2 LET US SUM UP

• Biothreat definition

• Invasive alien species

• Biological warfare / bioterrorism

• Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its provisions

• Indian rules and regulations regarding biological resources and biopiracy

• Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

4.3 KEY WORDS

Alien Invasive species : International Union for Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources (IUCN) defines Alien

Invasive Species as an alien species that becomes

established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems

or habitat, an agent of change, and threatens native

biological diversity.

Bioterrorism : It is a term, which means deliberate dissemination

of biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, or

toxins, that may be occurring naturally or in a

human modified form and can be used in

biological warfare.

4.4 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS

Basmati Case Study (http:/ / www. american. edu/ ted/ basmati. htm)

Chaudhari, S. K. 2003. Microbial biopiracy in India: How to fight back? Journal

of Intellectual Property Rights. 8: 389-399.

4.5 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Your answer should include the following points:

• Definition

• Examples from Basmati rice and Neem

2) Your answer should include the following points:

• Definition

• Characteristics (Anti-personal, Anti-agriculture, Biodefence)