Motivational SystemsMotivational Systems

Chap 26

Traditional Views of Traditional Views of “Motivation”“Motivation”

Contrary to the behavior analytic view, motivation was traditionally held to be a non-measurable “inner state” or “will” that leads to desire (or lack of) to engage in a behavior

Many educators believe that the motivation to learn is naturally present in children (“intrinsic”) and is harmed by using external “rewards” (reinforcement procedures) to increase engagement in certain behaviors

A very influential book makes just such a claim…

Detrimental Effects of Detrimental Effects of Rewards Rewards

(Motivational Systems)?(Motivational Systems)? “External” motivational systems have

been claimed to cause all sorts of problems:– reduced creativity– reduced self-esteem– feelings of being controlled– reduced intrinsic motivation– dependency on rewards– dependency on others for “self-concept”– failure of skills to generalize

RewardedRewarded by Rewards? by Rewards?

When properly identified, implemented, and monitored, however, “external” motivational systems are the MOST effective means to teaching many varied skills to children and…

Research has shown that, when used skillfully, motivational systems do NOT cause any detrimental effects (Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001; Cameron & Pierce, 1994, 2002; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996).

Motivation Basics: Motivation Basics: ReinforcementReinforcement

According to the behavior analytic view, motivation is simply the likelihood that someone will engage in a behavior

One of the most powerful ways to increase that likelihood (motivation) is through the use of reinforcement procedures

Reinforcement states that if a particular behavior produces a favorable outcome, then that behavior is more likely to occur again in the future (In other words, the person is more “motivated” to engage in that behavior again)

Reinforcement Basics Reinforcement Basics CONTINGENCY

– delivery of the favorable outcome (the “reinforcer”) DEPENDS on the behavior to produce it (why buy the cow if you can get the milk for nothing?)

OUTCOME PREDICTABILIY– learning occurs best when the reinforcer is

RELIABLY produced by the behavior

IMMEDIACY OF DELIVERY– the sooner the reinforcer occurs after the

behavior the better

Natural ReinforcersNatural Reinforcers Our daily lives are filled with reinforcers

for the behavior we engage in:– Setting an alarm clock gets us up on time– Buying groceries gives us food to eat– Laying out our clothes the night before gets

us to work quicker– Approaching our loved ones gives us

enjoyment and fulfillment– Watching a comedy makes us laugh– Taking aspirin makes us feel better– Infant crying produces a loving mom or dad

Teaching With ReinforcementTeaching With Reinforcement Although many of our behaviors are

reinforced “naturally,” it is desirable to use reinforcement to teach functional skills that are currently very unlikely to occur on their own (but should occur much more frequently)

These include behaviors related to social interactions, communication, and interacting appropriately with one’s environment

Importance of ReinforcementImportance of Reinforcement Contingency management

– Engagement in productive behavior is rewarded, engagement in non-productive behavior is not rewarded

Management of stereotypy– Matching law (see-saw effect)

Reinforcing productive behavior will result in a decrease of non-productive behavior

– Increasing reinforcement

Communication– Frequent feedback gets relayed to the

student

Identifying Potential Identifying Potential ReinforcersReinforcers

Sampling– Think outside the box (go shopping!)

Catalogs– E.g., highlites

Variation on a theme– E.g., Bob the Builder

Stereotypy– E.g., Visual stereotypy, use water toys

Matching Task to ReinforcersMatching Task to Reinforcers

Use naturally reinforcing contingencies when possible– E.g., Snacks for eating

Important tasks get a specific reinforcer– E.g. verbal imitation, toilet training

Reserve a favored reinforcer for specific task– Maintains potency– E.g., M&Ms for bike riding

PotencyPotency

Choice– Multiple reinforcers for multiple tasks– Increase reinforcer breadth– Prevents satiation

Single reinforcer with single response– Most powerful reinforcer for most important

responses Potty training, language skills, eating

– Restricting access increases potency of reward

– (Supply and demand)

Building ReinforcersBuilding Reinforcers Pair Primary Reinforcers with Secondary

Reinforcer Secondary reinforcers paired with novel

rewards Use Premack Principle to establish new

reinforcers– Make engagement with preferred rewards

contingent on engagement with less preferred rewards

E.g., if a child only likes video, must engage in other activities before earning access to video

Skill teaching– Once competent with many activities they

eventually become reinforcers E.g., puzzles, bike riding

Correct Use of Correct Use of ReinforcementReinforcement

Adventitious Reinforcement Effects– Contingent & Immediate

Correct Response and Attending Skills

ChoiceChoice

Pre-requisites– Picture/Object Correspondence– Observing response

Teaching ChoiceTeaching Choice

Select from limited range of objects

Select from limited range of pictures

Systematically Increase number of pictures– Choice board– Choice book

Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems

Direct Reinforcement Token Economy Sticker-Check Board Snacks in a cup Embedded snacks in activity schedule Pennies embedded in activity schedule Contingency Contracting Group Contingencies

Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems

Direct Reinforcement

Token EconomyToken Economy A behavior change system consisting of

– A specified list of target behaviors– Tokens or points that learners receive for

emitting target behaviors– Backup reinforcers obtained by

exchanging earned tokensTokens are arbitrary, neutral stimuli

which become generalized conditioned reinforcers

Use a variety of back up reinforcers to maintain potency of rewards

Must be INDIVIDUALIZED!!!

Conditioned reinforcersConditioned reinforcers

An event object or stimulus that is not initially reinforcing but acquires the properties of a reinforcer after frequent pairing or association with another reinforcer– E.g., ???– Limitations

Can satiate

Generalized conditioned Generalized conditioned reinforcerreinforcer

Paired with a variety of backup reinforcers– E.g., – No satiation– Tokens exchangeable for a wide

variety of backup reinforcers have considerable utility

– Must frequently access backup reinforcer

Common Misconceptions about Common Misconceptions about Generalized Conditioned Generalized Conditioned

ReinforcementReinforcement Reinforcers are generalized because

they reinforce a wide range of behavior or can be used to reinforce behavior in a wide range of settings

Why false? Generalized conditioned reinforcers is

not generalized to behaviors or settings but to many backup reinforcers

Why Use a Token System?Why Use a Token System?Saves resources (time, money)Practical – we aren’t always able to deliver

the SR immediately after the target behaviorChange the learner’s behavior

– Less satiationChange the teacher’s behavior

– Specify what behaviors are important to change– Increases likelihood of using positive SR

Decreases use of aversive procedures

Guidelines for Using a Guidelines for Using a Token SystemToken System

Collect baseline data on target behaviors

Identify Target Behaviors– Operationally define

Define tokens– Easy to administer– Portable– Durable– Safe (nontoxic and can’t be swallowed if

this is an issue with the learner)– Can’t be accessed any other way

Choosing TokensChoosing Tokens They don’t have to have innate value

– Poker chip, sticker, coupon, coin– Check mark, hole punch, happy face– Penny, piece of colored paper cut in a

certain shape, rubber stamp, button, bean– You can use stimuli that the student is likely

to attend to (e.g., letters, Thomas characters) but not too distracting!

Other ExamplesOther Examples

Connect the dots that make a picture of the reinforcer

Puzzle pieces that makes a picture Pieces that add to a scene Tokens have the pic of the item being earned Fill in blank spots on a chart

After tokens have been After tokens have been identified…identified…

Identify backup reinforcers Set up the Exchange

– Decide on schedule of token delivery Begin with CRF

– Deliver tokens immediately– Deliver praise, smile, eye contact with the token

Deliver token when learner is making eye contact if target is social

– Decide who will deliver, when, where tokens will be delivered

– If not on a board, how will tokens be stored? Cup, box, jar, necklace

– Will data be collected?– How much do backup reinforcers cost?

Begin with small number of tokens Gradually increase the number of tokens, while

increasing the cost, potency, and variety of the backup reinforcers.

– With whom, when, and where will tokens be exchanged?

After tokens have been After tokens have been identified…identified…

Train all users: instruction, modeling, feedback, demonstration of mastery– Make sure system is written down so

users can refer to itResponse Cost? – Don’t use until

tokens are established as conditioned reinforcers

Field test your system for several days

Using Token Systems with Using Token Systems with Learners with Limited Learners with Limited

LanguageLanguage Begin with 1 token and immediately deliver the backup reinforcer when the token is earned

Keep the token board in view all the time Place a picture of the item to be earned on the token board Gradually increase the number of tokens

– Look for signs that it’s time to increase the number of tokens –take data on this!

Good attending to the token board Tokens are functioning as reinforcers Learner initiates sequence Learner tries to “steal” tokens to put on the board

Have spaces on the token board that show how many tokens need to be earned to exchange for the backup reinforcer

Building Initial Token SystemsBuilding Initial Token Systems

Direct Reinforcement

Trading one Token for a Toy

Using multiple tokens

Motivational Systems as Motivational Systems as Behavior ChainsBehavior Chains

Behavior Chain– A specific sequence of responses each

associated with a particular stimulus condition

– Involves the performance of a specific series of discrete responses

– Each response is a conditioned SR and an SD

– The responses must be performed in the correct order and in close temporal succession to one another

Motivational Systems as Motivational Systems as Behavior ChainsBehavior Chains

– Earn tokens– Get picture– Put on timer board– Play with toy– Turn off timer– Put toy back– Put timer board back– Put picture in discard pile– Select new choice– Earn tokens

Ways to Fade the Ways to Fade the Token SystemToken System

Plan for this before you begin! Gradually increase the number of responses required to earn

a token Make the schedule of token delivery intermittent Gradually decrease the time the system is in effect Make backup reinforcers preferred items that are available in

the natural environment Gradually increase cost of most preferred items and keep low

preference items cheap Gradually make the token board smaller

– To goal of keeping in daily planner, purse, wallet or fading out entirely

Gradually increase the delay between target behavior and token delivery

No research on which method is best Build in programming for generalization and self-monitoring…

in the next few weeks we’ll discuss this.

Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems

Sticker-Check Board

Snacks in a cup

Embedded snacks in activity schedule

Pennies embedded in activity schedule

Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior

Types of Motivational Types of Motivational SystemsSystems

Behavioral Contract– Document that specifies a contingent

relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to or delivery of a specified reward.

– School Note

Contingency Contingency ContractingContracting

Contingency Contract– AKA Behavioral contract– Document that specifies a

contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified reward

3 Major Components3 Major Components Task

– Who…will perform the task– What…is the task to be performed– When…must the task must be completed– How well…must the task be completed

Reward – why not reinforcer?– Who…will deliver the reward– What…is the reward– When…will the reward be delivered– How much…reward will be delivered

Task Record – include a place for – Task completion– Task reward

Consider…Consider…Nature of the target behavior

– Should already be in the learner’s repertoire

– Should produce a permanent product or performed in the presence of someone else

Verbal skills of the learner– If learner is a nonreader, he

should have good verbal skills– Can use pictures, symbols,

audio or videotape

ContractsContracts

Contracts should be– Fair and realistic– Clearly written

Post contracts in a visible place To evaluate, record occurrence of task

completion during baseline and during contract

Renegotiate contract if necessary Terminate the contract when

independent and proficient performance is achieve– And you’re confident it will be maintained

Group Group ContingencyContingency

Contingency in which a common consequence is delivered contingent upon the behavior of…– One member of the group– Part of the group– Everyone in the group

Advantages of Using Group Advantages of Using Group ContingenciesContingencies

Save timeCan be used when individual

contingencies are impractical– e.g., disruptive behaviors of several

students need to be managedPeer influence can be capitalized

on to increase motivation

Types of Group Types of Group ContingenciesContingencies

Independent– Reward is delivered only to group members

who meet the criteria Dependent

– Reward for the whole group is dependent on the performance of an individual

– The target student may be known or unknown– Potential problems?

Interdependent– All members of the group must meet the

criteria for any member to receive the reward– Potential problems?

GuidelinesGuidelines

Choose rewards that are preferred items for all learners in the group – how?

Be absolutely sure each member of the group is capable of performing the target behavior.

Make sure some group members do not find it reinforcing to sabotage the whole group

The system must minimize the possibility of some members performing the target behavior for others

Reinforcement: Potential Reinforcement: Potential PitfallsPitfalls

Termination Rate of Reinforcement

– Adjusting rate based on task and skill of learning

Satiation Breadth of Reinforcers

– Large selection Novelty

– Choice– Sample rewards– Rotating rewards

Individualization– Number of tokens