Motivation Concepts

Session 10

Motivation

Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

Motivation is a result of interaction of individual and situation.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation being driven by positive feelings associated with doing well on a task or job

Extrinsic Motivation motivation caused by the desire to attain specific outcomes

Motivation Theories

Early Theories (Content Theories)Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Abraham Maslow

ERG Theory – Clayton Alderfer

Theory X and Theory Y – Douglas McGregor

Two Factor Theory – Frederick Herzberg

Theory of Needs - David McClelland

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Contd

Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization

needs.

Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Core Needs –

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)

Theory X (Negative in nature)Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.Theory Y (Positive in nature)Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) TheoryIntrinsic factors (Motivators) are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (Hygiene factors) are associated with job dissatisfaction.

Motivators –Promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition, responsibility and achievement

Hygiene FactorsQuality of supervision, pay, physical working conditions, job security, Company policy and administration, supervision

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Contd

Criticism –1. Procedure is limited by methodology.2. The reliability of methodology is

questioned.3. No overall measure of satisfaction was

utilized.4. Methodology doesn’t show relationship

between satisfaction and productivity. It looked only at satisfaction.

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

Matching High Achievers and Jobs

Contemporary Theories (Process Theories)

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryGoal Setting TheoryManagement by Objectives (MBO)Self Efficacy TheoryReinforcement Theory Equity TheoryExpectancy Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

It states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. Reasons –

An individual experiences a loss of control Natural inclination to work towards the task

Individual’s pay should be made noncontingent on performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.

Contd

Extrinsic rewards that are verbal (receiving praise from a supervisor) or tangible (money) can have different effects on intrinsic motivation.

Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation while tangible rewards undermine it.

Self – Concordance – Reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.

Goals

Goal what an individual is trying to accomplish

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Intentions to work toward a goal is a major source of work motivation

Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.Factors influencing the goals–performance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture

Guidelines for Writing “SMART” Goals

Specific

Measurable

Attainable

Results oriented

Time bound

Insights from Goal Setting Research

1) Difficult goals lead to higher performance2) Specific, difficult goals lead to higher

performance for simple rather than complex tasks

3) Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals

4) Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective

5) Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Implementing Goal Setting –Management by Objectives (MBO) –

Participatively setting the goals that are tangible, verifiable and measureable.It uses bottom up and top down approach.

Goal Specificity Participation in decision making An explicit time period Performance feedback

Self Efficacy Theory (Social Cognitive/ Social Learning)

Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.Four ways to increase self efficacy – (Bandura)

1. Enactive mastery2. Vicarious modeling3. Verbal persuasion4. Arousal

Application –Training programs (Use Enactive Mastery)Verbal Persuasion (Pygmalion / Galatea effect)

Intelligence and Personality can increase Self Efficacy.

Joint Effects of Goals and Self Efficacy on Performance

Individual has confidence that given level of

performance will be attained (self

efficacy)Manager sets

difficult, specific goal for job or

task

Individual has higher level of job or task performance

Individual sets higher personal (self set) goal for

their performance

Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:

Behavior is environmentally caused.

Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Concepts:

Behavior is environmentally caused.

Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences (Behaviorist View)

Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

Referent Comparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Equity Theory (cont’d)

Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Equity Theory (cont’d)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Over rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Over rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

3. Under rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Under rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Over rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Over rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

3. Under rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Under rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

Model of Organizational Justice

Distributive JusticePerceived fairness of outcomes

Eg – I got the pay raise I deserved

Procedural JusticePerceived fairness of process used to

determine outcomeEg – I had input into the process

used to give raises and was given an explanation of why I received the

raise

Interactional JusticePerceived degree to which one is treated

with dignity and respectEg – When telling me about my raise, my

supervisor was very nice

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair

Eg – I think this is a fair place to work

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

Expectancy Theory Relationships

Effort–Performance Relationship The probability that exerting a given amount of

effort will lead to performance.Performance–Reward Relationship

The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

Contd

If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?

If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?

If I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find personally attractive?

Global Implications

Maslow’s need hiearchy and Equity theory aligns with US culture.

Asian society, being collectivist, focuses on social view and relationship between an individual and interpersonal standards.

In western society, motivation and behavior occur in a social vacuum.