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Motivation and EmotionMotivational Concepts

Hunger

The Need to Belong

Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

Embodied Emotion

Expressed and Experienced Emotions

Motivational Concepts

Drive-reduction theory

Arousal theory

A hierarchy of needs

Drive-reduction theory assumptionsWe have physiological needs.

Unmet needs creates a drive.

That drive pushed one to reduce the need.

DRIVE -REDUCTION THEORY

MotivationNeed or desire that energizes and directs behavior

IncentivesEnvironmental stimuli that attract or repel, depending on individual learning histories

Physiological needBasic bodily requirement

Drive-reduction theoryIdea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need

HomeostasisTendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Motivational Concepts

Arousal theoryHumans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels.

High arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels.

Low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal—often through curiosity.

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Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks.

(1) How might this phenomenon affect runners? (2) How might this phenomenon affect anxious test-takers facing a difficult exam? (3) How might the performance of anxious students be affected by relaxation training?

A Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow• Viewed human motives

as pyramid (right)

• At the base are basic physiological needs; at the peak are the highest human needs.

How do instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, and arousal theory contribute to our understanding of motivated behavior?

After hours of driving alone in an unfamiliar city, you finally see a diner. Although it looks deserted and a little creepy, you stop because you are really hungry. How would Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain your behavior?

Hunger

The physiology of hunger

The psychology of hunger

Obesity and weight control

CLOSE-UP: Waist management

Cannon and Washburn (1912)Using a swallowed balloon attached to recording device, information about feelings of hunger were discovered.

MONITORING STOMACH CONTRACTIONS

Hunger: The Physiology of Hunger

Body chemistry and the brainGlucose

Is form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues

Triggers feeling of hunger when low

Hypothalamus and other brain structuresArcuate nucleus: Pumps appeitite-suppressing hormones

Ghrelin: Involves hunger-arousing hormones secreted by empty stomach

Set pointPoint at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.

Basal metabolic rate Body’s resting rate of energy output.

THE APPETITE HORMONES

• Ghrelin: Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain.

• Insulin: Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose.

• Leptin: Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

• Orexin: Hunger - triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus.

• PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

Hunger occurs in response to ________ (low/high) blood glucose and ________ (low/high) levels of ghrelin.

Hunger: The Psychology of Hunger

Taste preferences: Biology and culture

Chemistry and environment play role in feelings of hunger and taste preferences.

Preferences for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal; other preferences are learned.

Acceptability of foods is culturally influenced.

HOT CULTURES LIKE HOT SPICES (Sherman & Flaxman, 2001)

The Physiology of Hunger

Tempting situationsFriends and food: Presence of others amplify natural behavior tendencies

Serving size is significant: Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving, dinnerware, cultural norms.

Selections stimulate: Food variety promotes eating.

Hunger

Obesity and weight controlObesity has physical and social risks.

Obese 6- to 9-year olds are 60 percent more likely to suffer bullying.

Adult obesity is linked with lower psychological well-being, increased depression, and employment discrimination.

Worldwide, obesity has doubled since 1980, with 1.46 billion adults now overweight.

Past and projected overweight rates, by the Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development

After an eight-hour hike without food, your long-awaited favorite dish is placed in front of you, and your mouth waters in anticipation. Why?

Obesity and Weight Control

The survival value of fatHunger-driven desire for energy-rich fat or sugar has evolutionary roots.

Obesity health risksShortened life

Reduced quality of life

Increased health care costs

Why don’t obese people not lose weight?

A sluggish metabolism: Fat has lower metabolic rate.

A genetic handicap: Genes explain two-thirds of the person-to-person differences in body mass of adopted children and identical twins

Sleep, friends, food, activity—Obesity risk factorsSleep loss

Friendship with obese friend

Fattening world

Activity level

Begin only if you feel motivated and self - disciplined.

Exercise and get enough sleep.

Minimize exposure to tempting food cues.

Reduce portion sizes.

Don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night.

Beware of the binge.

Before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat.

Remember, most people occasionally lapse.

Connect to a support group.

WAIST MANAGEMENT

American Idle: Couch Potatoes Beware—TVWatching Correlates With Obesity

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Which THREE of the following five strategies help prevent unwanted weight gain?

a. Proper sleep d. Eating with friends

b. Regular exercise e. Joining a support group

c. Eating the heaviest meal in the evening

The Need to Belong

The benefits of belonging

The pain of being shut out

Connecting and social networking

The Need to Belong

Benefits of belongingSocial bonds and cooperation have survival value.

Group membership is worldwide.

All people experience anxiety, loneliness, jealousy, or guilt when something threatens or dissolves social ties.

When need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence are satisfied, a deep sense of well-being results.

THE NEED TO CONNECTSix days a week, women from the Philippines work as “domestic helpers” in 154,000 Hong Kong households. On Sundays, they throng to the central business district to picnic, dance, sing, talk, and laugh. “Humanity could stage no greater display of happiness,” reported one observer (Economist, 2001).

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The Need to Belong

Pain of being shut outWorldwide, many forms of ostracism are used.

Brain scans reveal that ostracism causes physical pain.

Social isolation and rejection foster depressed moods or emotional numbness and can trigger aggression.

Risk for mental decline and ill health may also occur.

SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE ANDREJECTION Successful participants on the reality TV show Survivor form alliances and gain acceptance among their peers. The rest receive the ultimate social punishment as they are “voted off the island.”

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How have students reacted in studies where they were made to feel rejected and unwanted? What helps explain these results?

Connecting and Social Networking

Mobile networks and social mediaAt the end of 2010, the world had 6.9 billion people and 5.3 billion mobile cell-phone subscriptions.

But phone talking now accounts for less than half of U.S. mobile network traffic.

Three in four U.S. teens text. Half (mostly females) send 60 or more texts daily.

Among 2010’s entering American collegians, 94 percent reported using social networking sites.

Connecting and Social Networking

The net result: Social effects of social networking

Are social networking sites making us more, or less, socially isolated?

Does electronic communication stimulate healthy self-disclosure?

Do social networking profiles and posts reflect people’s actual personalities?

Does social networking promote narcissism?

Suggestions for a Good Balancing Act

Monitor your time.

Monitor your feelings.

“Hide” your more distracting online friends.

Try turning off your handheld devices or leaving them elsewhere.

Try a Facebook fast or a time controlled social media diet.

Refocus by taking a nature walk.

Social networking tends to ________ strengthen/weaken) your relationships with people you already know, _________ (increase/decrease) your self-disclosure, and ________ (reveal/hide) your true personality.

Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

Historic emotion theoriesJames-Lange Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and Emotion Happen at the Same Time

Schacter-Singer two-factor theory: Arousal + label = emotion

Zajonc, Ledoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the two-track brain

Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

Emotions are adaptive responses that support survival.Emotional components

Bodily arousal

Expressive behaviors

Conscious experiences

Emotion: Two Big Questions

Does your bodily arousal come before or after your emotional feelings?

How do thinking and feeling interact? Does cognition always come before emotion?

Historic Emotion Theories

James-Lange Theory: Arousal comes before emotion

Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and emotion happen at the same time

Emotion - arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

JOY EXPRESSED IS JOY FELT According to the James -

Lange theory, we don’t just smile because we share our teammates’ joy. We also share the joy because we are smiling with them.

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Emotion Theories

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = Emotion

Emotions have two ingredients: Physical arousal and cognitive appraisal.

Arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it.

Emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal.

Spillover effect: Spillover arousal from one event to the next—influencing a response

THE SPILLOVER EFFECT

Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other violentconfrontations.

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Emotion Theories

Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the two-track brain

ZajoncSometimes emotional response take neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex and goes directly to amygdala.

Some emotional responses involve no deliberate thinking.

LazarusBrain processes much information without conscious awareness, but mental functioning still takes place.

Emotions arise when an event is appraised as harmless or dangerous.

The Brain’s Pathways For Emotions

The two-track brain processes sensory input on two different pathways. (a) Some input travels to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis and is then sent to the amygdala. (b) Other input travels directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction.

Summary of Emotion Theories

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, (a) our physiological response to a stimulus (for example, a pounding heart), and (b) the emotion we experience (for example, fear) occur ______ (simultaneously/sequentially). According to the James-Lange theory, (a) and (b) occur ________ (simultaneously/sequentially).

According to Schachter and Singer, two factors lead to our experience of an emotion: (1) physiological arousal and (2) ________appraisal.

Emotion researchers have disagreed about whether emotional responses occur in the absence of cognitive processing. How would you characterize the approach of each of the following researchers: Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer?

Embodied Emotion

The basic emotions

Emotions and the autonomic nervous system

The physiology of emotions

Thinking Critically About: Lie detection

Embodied Emotion

The basic emotionsIzard (1977): Isolated 10 basic emotions; most present in infancy

Others: Add pride and love

A different approachDo our different emotions have distinct arousal footprints?

Embodied Emotions

Emotions and the autonomic nervous systemANS mobilizes body for action with stress hormones from adrenal glands, sugar from liver into bloodstream, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and slowed digestion.

When crisis passes, ANS slows and hormones gradually leave bloodstream.

Emotional Arousal

In a crisis, the ANS’ sympathetic division arouses us. When the crisis passes, the parasympathetic division calms us.

Embodied Emotions

The physiology of emotionsDifferent emotions have subtle indicators.

Brain scans and EEGs reveal different brain circuits for different emotions.

Depression and general negativity: Right frontal lobe activity.

Happiness, enthusiastic, and energized: Left frontal lobe activity.

How do the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system affect our emotional responses?

Expressed and Experienced Emotion

Detecting emotion in others

Culture and emotional expression

The effects of facial expressions

MALE OR FEMALE?Researchers manipulated a gender neutralface. People were more likely to see it as a male when it wore an angry expression, and as a female when it wore a smile (Becker et al., 2007).

Detecting Emotion In Others

Glance or a stare can communicate intimacy, submission, or dominance.

Nonthreatening cues more easily detected that deceiving expressions.

Women detect emotions (except anger) better than men

Females more likely to express empathy and experience emotional events.

GENDER AND EXPRESSIVENESS

Male and female film viewers did not differdramatically in self - reported emotions or physiological responses.

But the women’s facesshowed much more emotion. (From Kring & Gordon, 1998.)

________ (Women/Men) report experiencing emotions more deeply, and they tend to be more adept at reading nonverbal behavior.

Culture and Emotional Expression

Gesture meanings vary among cultures; but outward signs of emotion are generally the same.

Shared emotional categories do not reflect shared cultural experiences.

HOW TO MAKE PEOPLE SMILE WITHOUT TELLING THEM TO SMILE

Do as Kazuo Mori and Hideko Mori (2009) did with students in Japan: Attach rubber bands to the sides of the face with adhesive bandages, and then run them either over the head or under the chin.

What do you think happened? Why?

Are people in different cultures more likely to differ in their interpretations of facial expressions, or of gestures

Culture and Emotional Expression

Facial feedback effectResearch demonstrates that outward expressions and movements can trigger inner feeling and emotions.

Behavior feedback effectThis is similar to facial feedback effect wherein behaving in certain way awakens emotions.

(1) Based on the facial feedback effect, how might students in this experiment report feeling when the rubber bands raise their cheeks as though in a smile? (2) How might they report feeling when the rubber bands pull their cheeks downward?