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Buys, William E.; And OthersSpeech Communication in the High School Curriculum.Speech Association of America, New York, N.Y.Nov 6821p.Speech Communication Association, Statler HiltonHotel, New York, N.Y. 10001 ($0.35, prepaid; 10 ormore, $0.30)Speech Teacher; v17 n4 p297-317 Nov 1968

EDRS Price ME-$0.25 HC Not Available from !DRS.*Communication (Thought Transfer), *CurriculumDesign, Curriculum Development, EducationalObjectives, *Information Theory, InterpersonalRelationship, Learning Theories, Program Planning,Secondary Education, Self Concept, SpeakingActivities, *Speech Curriculum, *Speech Education,Speech Instruction, Thought Processes

ABSTRACTThis article, written for speech educators, explores

some of the concepts of communication theory as they relate toteaching speech communication in the high school. Suggestions forcurriculum study, change, and development are given in (1) arationale for-a communication theory approach to high school speech,(2) a description of the learning-teaching environment which iscompatible with communication theory and what is known aboutlearning, (3) a description of the intra-personal and inter-personalfunctions of human communication and the problems deriving from thosefunctions, (4) an outline of suggested learning experiences forspeech communication curricula, and (5) a topical bibliography forteachers of speech communication. (Author/JM)

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POSITION 01 PRICY.

SPEECH COMMUNICATION IN THE

HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM

COC2W

By

WILLIAM E. BUYS, CHARLES V. CARLSON,

HITE COMPTON, and ALLAN D. FRANK

Reprinted from

The Speech Teacher, Volume XVII, No. 4

November 1968

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New York, New York 10001 MISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."

Copyright 1968, Speech Association of America.

William E. Buys, Charles V. Carlson, Hite Compton, andAllan D. Frank

SPEECH COMMUNICATION IN THEHIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM

EnrroR's Non. The four authors preparedthis statement for the Committee on Curric-ulum for the High School, a committee of theSecondary School Speech Interest Group of theSAA. Editorial assistance was provided byRalph L. Lane, immediate past Chairman ofthe Secondary School Speech Interest Group,Glenbrook North High School, Northbrook,Illinois; Karl Wallace, Chairman, Departmentof Speech, University of Illinois; and BettyMae Collins, Department of Speech, MemphisState University.

rTIHE purpose of this curriculum1 statement is to indicate that the

American Culture and its educationalobjectives are in states of change andthat these changes prompt a considera-don of new approaches to the teachingof speech communication in the highschool. This statement is not intendedas a prescriptive course of study but asan exploration of some of the conceptsof communication theory with a set ofsuggested approaches to the implemen-tation of those concepts.

There is no one way to effect changesin human communication behaviors.However, the basic set of premises, un-derlying any curriculum, does have acrucial influence on the design and the

William E. Buys (Ph.D., University of Wiscon-sin, 1952) is Professor of Speech and Chairmanof the Curriculum Committee of the Depart-ment of Speech at Western Michigan University.Charles V. Carlson (M.Ed., Kent State Univer-sity, 1964) is Assistant Professor and Coordina-tor of the Resources Center for Speech in Sec-ondary Schools at Ohio University. Mrs. HiteCompton (M.A., West Virginia University) isInstructor in Speech Education at MarshallUniversity. Allan D. Frank (Ph.D., Universityof Wisconsin, 1967) is Assistant Professor ofSpeech at State University College, Brockport,New York.

educational product of that curriculum.Change is a reality in any processoriented culture. This study and ex-ploration in possibilities for curriculumchange consists of the following:

t. The rationale for communicationtheory approach to high schoolspeech.

2. A description of the learning-teach-ing environment compatible withcommunication theory and what weknow about learning.

3. A description of the functions ofhuman communication and prob-lems deriving from those functions.

4. Suggested learning experiences forspeech communication curricula.

5. A bibliography for teachers of speechcommunication.

SECTION I

THE RATIONALE FOR A COMMUNICATION

THEORY APPROACH TO HIGH SCHOOLSPEECH CURRICULA

Early in this century speech educa-tion entered the American high schoolcurriculum. It derived its basic educa-tional premises and its curricular con-cern for the speaker and message fromthe colleges and universities. Theseinstitutions reflected the purposes ofclassical education; they aimed to pre-pare the leaders of the culture, leaderswho were to be the holders of truth,announcers of certainty, explainers ofcausality, and possessors of power. Aslong as these postulates were generally

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operative in the culture, it was reason-able and logical to utilize the classicallinguistic educational model. Messageshad to be true, clear, and received, ifmade by the holders of truth; messageshad to be persuasive if made by theholders of power. The function of thelistener was to give undivided attentionto the message so that he got the mes-sage. As long as these postulates gov-erned the curriculum and the teacherwas the appointed repository of thetruth, the learner had placed upon himone injunction. "Listen to the teacherto words of truthrepeat the words toprove to the teacher that you have thetruth." Communication, if effective, wasthus considered primarily a linear ac-tivity with the source of the messageand its content being the concerns ofspeech education. Hence, speech educa-tion from before the time of the Greeksto the present has centered upon thespeaker and message and their functionsin the communicative act.

Four revolutions, however, have al-tered the premises which supported theclassical speech education model. Thefirst revolution which forced westernman into the modern world was therevolution of Darwin. This revolutionchanged man's relationship to thenatural world of created things andbrought about new views of the natureof truth, certainly, and causality. Man,an evolving creature, living in a worldof evolving structures and changingfunctions, was forced to examine him-self and all other living creatures froman entirely new perspective. If survivalof the fittest was indeed a reality, manhad to ask, then, what human behaviorsgave him the best chance for survival?It soon became apparent that man'ssurvival, in the human sense, did notdepend so much upon physical fitnessand brawn as upon intellectual fitness.

Intellectual fitness soon became equatedwith man's ability to learn and utilizesimple systems as the modus operandifor resolving his human condition. Ifman could best survive by thoughtprocesses, then education was a neces-sity.

In addition to the Darwinian revo-lution two other revolutions changedthe nature of education. The Freudianrevolution turned man's attention to thenature and functioning of the humanemotional-neurological-somatic system.Before Freud a non-functioning humanbeing was believed infested with devilsand relegated to the scrap heap of hu-man refuse; after Freud it was recog-nized that man was susceptible to changeand restoration. The child, adolescent,and adult became educable and re-educable. The education required forsurvival included more than highly in-tellectualized, verbalized, and formal in-put of fact, figures in generalizationswhich were posed in textbooks writtenby authorities. Education acknowledgedmother love, object love, fear of deathand rejection, the libido, trauma, therole of language in the dream and thenature of the Self. The role of thesymbolic process in the development ofthe human personality became im-portant and the function of intra-personal communication as a criticalfactor in healthy organisms became sig-nificant. So important has communica-tion become in the successful adjustmentof the human being that in this decadeone entire approach to psychiatrics isoriented around communication theory.This approach defines mental illness asa breakdown of communication anddefines its therapeutic goal as the re-turning of the individual to a state ofintra-and interpersonal communicativeeffectiveness.

The third revolution, the Einsteinian

revolution, destroyed man's belief thatthe physical universe had been startedand was kept in order and operation bya set of immutable laws of unalterableaccuracy. Laws of nature were no longersomething man sought outside himself,but were recognized as a result of hisown operations. Cause and effect rela-tionships, once held to yield certaintyof truth, were now held to yield prob-able truths, and degrees thereof. Theworld of static order gave way to thedynamics of process and change. Rela-tivity entered the vocabulary, and todayits application in science has been ex-tended to a concern for the uniquenessof the individual as well as explaining,in part, the answer to the question,"What is the meaning of meaning?"

The fourth revolution, a product ofthe other three, was the economic revo-lution. The implications of this eco-nomic revolution for the constructionof speech curricula are far reaching andurgent. The child born today will growinto a world where his economic ex-istence will be predicated upon his com-municative abilities. Such abilitiesencompass all the factors found in boththe intra- and inter-personal communi-cative act. Approximately ten years agoour labor force shifted from a predomi-nantly blue collar society to a whitecollar society. As a result of this shiftthe primary characteristic of the presenthuman economic task is that man nowworks with man rather than things.

The economic revolution has pro-duced three other major sets of condi-tions pertinent to this rationale. Thenumbers of human beings not equippedto enter service industries grows largerby virtue of their poor or non-existenteducation in communication skills. Theproblem of the Negro and other minor-ity racial groups, economically andsocially, is due in large measure to the

fact that their communicative skillsintra- and inter-personallydo not fallwithin the norms imposed by theburgeoning service industries. Theyoungster deprived linguistically, oftenfrom early childhood, is the early schoolfailure. The reason is simple. Earlyschool education as well as secondaryschool education still operates on postu-lates which predate the revolutions dis-cussed above. Language curricula whichcenter upon inter-personal communica-tion and which ignore the function oflanguage as an organizer of intra-per-sonal behaviors initiate the droppingout process. The classically orientedlinguistic school imposes in the earlyschool experience of the linguisticallydeprived child a set of behaviors whichresult in failure, pain, and withdrawalfrom learning.

The economic revolution is producinganother set of conditions which must begiven attention. These conditions haveto do with the concept of leisure time.Today work tasks, in themselves, requirea minimum of energy expenditure; andthe numbers of hours that one doesnot have to work are growing rapidly.The task of turning to activities whichgive human pleasure is a great burdenupon society. To answer the question,"What can a person do on his day off?"is a deceptively difficult matter. Allforms of human behavior are related tolanguage behaviors. For a man to bealone in the mountains and find pleas-ure, security, and personal growth re-quires a highly developed skill ofenjoying being with one's self. Suchskills are intra-personal communicationskills and need to be taught. Those whoutilize leisure time by attending movies,plays, and other forms of entertainmentcan only utilize that time to the max-imum when they have developed rathersophisticated skills of listening, determi-

nation of meaning, self-talk, criticalreactions and that nebulous behaviorcalled appreciation. Such skills are intra-personal communications skills and theneed to increase our attention to themis urgent.

Finally, the economic revolution withshifting centers of industrial output hasforced us into a highly mobile nationwith twenty percent of all people mov-ing domiciles at least once a year. Therapid extermination of the rural mythand the rapid growth of urban centershas forced millions of human beingswith experiences in languages accumu-lated in one society to travel into otherlinguistic and semantic environments.Such movements throw the human sys-tem of prediction into jeopardy. Theinterpersonal language systems requiredfor such a mobile society are much morecomplex, subtle, and numerous thanthat verbal language called English.Yet the attention necessary for full utili-zation of sub-languages is too oftenlacking in the traditional speech andEnglish curricula. Hence the full re-sources of the human beings in commu-nication are not realized, and themoving from one geographical, lin-guistic, and semantic environment toanother is traumatic for millions.

The total impact of these four revo-lutions is not yet clear. It is possible,however, to recognize their influenceupon pre-suppositions relevant to mod-ern communication. The problem forcurriculum planners, particularly incommunication, is to find how to copebest with these new postulates:

1. Huinan beings are largely responsi-ble for their own growth, learning,and development.

2. In: the discussion of human affairsbeliefs, conviction, and truths lie notin a word, text, or the pronounce-ments of an authoritative figure,

but in the free discussions of menin which fact and opinion are pre-sented and tested.

3. Man and his universe are dynamicand susceptible to change.

4. A human being cannot exist with-out others; his identity and happi-ness are the product of the socialforces at work in the process ofcommunication.

5. Human behavior reflects cognitiveand affective processes, and learningtheory recognizes this fact.

SECTION II

THE LEARNING - TEACHING ENVIRONMENT

The face of education is changingand reflecting the pre-suppositions ofAmerican thought. More and more, theschool is introducing the student to theskills and powers necessary for physicalwell being and for self-realization. Theschool as a physical environment ischanging to permit greater attention tomatters of individual needs, to explora-tions in culture and increased inter-personal contacts. The role of theteacher is being re-defined to permitmore attention to individual differencesand to provide for greater utilizationof teacher strengths. Instructional ma-terials are becoming more sophisticatedin their teaching effectiveness.

Such changes are being brought aboutbecause of the realization that humanbeings have an unlimited potentialityfor learning, that every human beinglearns the behaviors expected of him byhis culture, that human behavior islearned and not pre-ordained, that hu-man beings learn at different rates andin different ways, and that learningoccurs primarily in a social-emotionalclimate.

These ideas and materials for a courseof study in speech communication, de-spite ;heir specifics, are general in nature.

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Each school system should approach thedevelopment of a speech communica-tion program according to its needs andits abilities. In general, however, thereare certain principles that can facilitatean effective speech communication cur-riculum.

The Administration. The administra-tion should become familiar with thesuggested program and the implicationsinvolved in undertaking such a pro-gram. It will want to become acquaintedwith the basic literature of communica-tion theory and understand that effec-tive speech communication curricula donot deal primarily or solely with theneeds, interests, and skills of solitaryspeakers, but that all the ingredients ofthe communicative process are the dataof speech education.

In the foreground of a speech cur-riculum centered on the understandingand development of communicative be-havior are the self-concepts, self-confi-dence, feelings, emotions, and internalthought processes of young learners;accordingly, all of the curriculum shouldutilize appropriate school facilities.

Introducing a new program with anew point of view calls for carefulorientation of staff, students, and par-ents. For instance, in most early phasesof a speech communication curriculum,the use of traditional grading and test-ing systems may be unwise. To developa non-threatening climate in communi-cation learning experiences and to ac-cept the role of pure audience evalua-tion is not a particularly easy task.Because an effective speech communica-tion program will depend upon involve-ment of the student in reality-basedexperiences, provision must be madefor student mobility, flexible scheduling,and wide use of field trips.

Perhaps the most important adminis-trative challenge will be the finding--or

makingof teachers adequately trainedto handle speech communication cur-ricula. In those cases where new per-sonnel are not available, in-servicetraining for interested teachers is a,

possibility. Teacher institutes and spe,cial classes for re-training purposes-should be made available.

The Teacher. The heart of any effec-tive communication curriculum, ofcourse, is the teacher. The teacher wilthave to be conversant with both thenature of communication and with up-to-date information concerning methodsof learning. The learning-teaching pro-cess in a speech communication coursecannot be the traditional teaching pro-cedure based on telling. In order tofacilitate effective learning-teaching en-vironments, the following desirablelearning conditions are offered for con-sideration:

i. Students learn best if they are physicallyand emotionally comfortable.

2. Students learn best if they select or helpselect those problems or objectives whichhave a reality base for them.

3. Students learn best if learning situations .represent immediate and specific problems.

4. Students learn best if they are asked toperform within their limits of abilities.

5. Students learn best if they are emotionallyinvolved in their experiences.

6. Students learn best if they are active ina variety of related experiences.

7. Students learn best if they are involved insnew experiences which derive from andare related to previous meaningful experi .ences.

8. Students learn best if they have an oppor-tunity to discuss and generalize their ex.periences immediately following theirinvolvements.

3. Students learn best if their intellectualized'knowledge leads immediately to some use.ful activity.

io. Students learn best if what has been'learned is followed by meaningful and motivated repetition.

11. Students learn best if they have a. sense otpersonal and group achievement.

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A climate of freedom must pervadethe speech communication classroom.Eager to encourage the self-developmcntof students the teacher must avoid anenvironment which forces the studentto turn to him for direction and re-enforcement. Team teaching with othersubject matter specialists should be en-couraged. The use of peer teachingshould be explored. In general, theteaching-learning environment shouldbe characterized by exploration, inven-tion, discovery, and creativity.

SECTION IIISOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE PROCESS

OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION

One effective means of explaining thecommunication process to students is touse a communication model or diagram.A communication model typically con-sists of a diagram which depicts thestages in the communication process,along with brief descriptions and labelsfor each stage. There are many differentmodels, and the teacher should selectthe one which most accurately struc-tures and interrelates the ingredients ofhis course.1 In addition, the modelshould contain the essential facts aboutthe communication process, and itshould be well-suited to the students'ability to understand it and to theteachers' purposes in using it.

A communication model can serveat least four purposes:

1. It helps to depict, by visualization, relation-ships and events which are difficult to ex-plain by verbalizations alone.

2. It presents a wholistic view of the interrela-tionships among the factors involved in thespeech communication process.

3. It can serve as a point of reference whendiscussing some aspect of the communica-

1 Ronald L. Smith. "General Models ofCommunication" Special Report No. 5, Com-munication Research Center, Purdue University,1962.

tion process, as when presenting theory orgiving oral speech criticism.

4. It can aid in finding and correcting commu-nication breakdowns. (You can point to adiagram and show students where their com-munication problems are)

In the following paragraphs someessential facts about the speech commu-nication process are presented. Thesefacts can serve as one set of criteria forselecting a communication model. Itis helpful to have a large-scale versionof the selected model posted in the class-room for quick reference.

Explanation of the Speech Communica-tion Process2. All communication takesplace in a field or matrix of stimuli.In this matrix there is a speaker, alistener, and two sources of stimuliwhich affect both:

1. Internal stimuli originate within the speaker(fear, fatigue, joy, etc.) and listener (indif-ference, hostility toward speaker, hunger,etc.).

2. External stimuli originate outside the speak-er and listener (notes in front of speaker,overheated room, audience chatters, etc.).External stimuli can simultaneously affectboth the speaker and the listener, while in-ternal stimuli affect only the person orig-inating them. Stimuli are the raw materialout of which messages are formed and sent.

The speaker originates stimulus mes-sages which he sends to listeners, whilethe listeners originate response messageswhich they send to speakers. Messagesare sent by both parties to stimulatemeaning in the other person (s) and toinfluence the behavior of the otherperson (s). Speakers and listeners sendmessages simultaneously. The speakerand listener are being continuously andsimultaneously affected by (i) the ex-ternal stimuli present in the situation,(2) their own internal stimuli, and (3)

2 Gordon Wiseman and Larry Barker.SpeechInterfiersonal Communication (SanFrancisco: Chandler, 1967), pp. 1g-37.

the messages being sent by the otherparty.

Speakers and listeners are simul-taneously bombarded by stimuli and bythe messages produced by each other.Try to picture two persons continuouslyand simultaneously giving off manystreams of particles which strike theother person, and both persons beingbombarded by particles from sourceswithin them and within the environ-ment, and you have a fairly accurategrasp of one aspect of the speech com-munication process.

For purposes of description only, theprocess of communication will bebroken down into steps. We could startanywhere, but we will start at the mostfamiliar point: the speaker.

The speaker selects some of thestimuli bombarding him and attends tothese to the exclusion of competingstimuli. The selected stimuli could besuch things as the sick feeling in the pitof his stomach (internal stimuli), thesmiling lady in the front of the room(response message), or the notes in frontof him (external stimuli). His selectionof stimuli is influenced by such thingsas: (1) his habits of attention, (2) therelationship of incoming stimuli to hisimportant needs, values, and objectives,and (3) his emotional state (angry,afraid, optimistic, etc.).

Humans learn to select stimuli byhabit or experience (as a botanist anda zoologist would select differentstimuli if both were walking throughthe woods together). Humans also selectstimuli which are related to their values,needs, and objectives, and exclude thosewhich are not (we see what we want tosee). Also, human beings will morelikely select stimuli which fit in with,or verify, their emotional states, andwill tend to block or reject stimuliwhich do not fit in or verify (as an

anti-union person would more likelynotice and read an article attackingunions than one praising unions in thesame newspaper). In addition, incomingexternal stimuli are distorted by theunique functioning of the speaker'ssense receptors, and by blending withthe speaker's internal stimuli. So thespeaker's perceptions of stimuli arealways to some extent subjective, andall speakers start with incomplete anddistorted perceptions of the events theyspeak about.

The selected stimuli, in their dis-torted and incomplete form, interactwith or relate to the speaker's pastexperience. These relationships betweenincoming stimuli and past experiencescan be called meanings. Meanings arealso subjective, because each humanbeing's experience is unique.

Meanings are formed into messagesby using language and principles oforganization. The messages are trans-lated into visual and auditory stimuli(voice and visible behavior), and thisstimulus message enters the matrix ofstimuli to compete for the attention ofthe listeners. Any stimulus which takesthe listener's attention away from thestimulus message, or distorts or blocksthe message, is called noise (as hot andpoorly ventilated room, listener's hun-ger, speaker's unusual dialect, andseveral listeners talking to each other).Noise is present in every communica-tion situation, and it changes messagesby distortion, omission of parts of themessage, or complete blockage. Themessage the listener receives is not thesame one the speaker sent.

The listener now selects some of thestimuli bombarding him, and he attendsto these, to the exclusion of others. Thestimulus message is only one of manystimuli he can select. He selects interms of his habits of attention, emo-

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tional states, needs, etc.; and his percep-tions of stimuli are distorted by theunique functioning of his sense re-ceptors and by blending with his in-ternal stimuli. The listener receivesparts of the stimulus message along withother internal and external stimuli. Heloses part of the message by inattentive-ness, noise interference, and emotionalblocking and distortion. All of thesestimuli combine into a new version ofthe stimulus message.

The incomplete, distorted stimuliinteract with and relate to the listener'spast experiences to form meanings. Justas the speaker used the stuff of his ex-perience background to create a mean-ing, so the listener creates meaning outof the stuff of his experience back-ground. The more similar the speaker'sand listener's backgrounds are, thecloser are the created meanings, andvice versa. Meaning then exists in peo-ple, not in words or messages.

The listener uses language and prin-ciples of organization to form a mes-sage, which he translates into visual(yawning, looking confused, walkingout, etc.) arid auditory (clapping, hiss-ing, laughing, heckling, etc.) stimuli.This response message is sent to thespeaker, and is distorted or blocked bynoise factors in the situation, and by thespeaker's reception of it. The responsemessage sent by the listener is not thesame message as was received by thespeaker.

One available source of stimuli forthe speaker then is the listeners' re-sponse messages. The speaker may ormay not select response messages andattend to them. If he does, he is utilizingfeedback. Feedback consists of responsemessages which the speaker uses to mod-ify his speech communication behaviorto make it more effective.

At this point we are back where we

started from, and some writers mightstate that one complete turn in thecircular process of communication hasbeen completed. However, the commu-nication is not strictly chronological andcircular, as speakers and listeners simul-taneously send and receive messageswhich simultaneously affect each other.

Several principles can be extractedfrom the preceding explanation:I. All perception is, to some extent, subjective.2. All meanings arc subjective.3. Meaning exists in people, not in words or

messages.4. Listeners as well as speakers communicate,

and both require training to be more effec-tive.

5. The message sent is not the same as themessage received.

6. The purpose of speech communication is toinfluence the behavior of other human be-ings.

7. The more you know about the listeners' lifeexperiences, the more effective is your com-munication: effective speech communicationis listener-centered.

8. There are no absolute rules or 'precepts ofeffective speech communication: what is ef-fective will be determined by the uniquecombination of factors found in a givenspeaker, a given listener (or group of lis-teners), and in the situation in which thespeech communication takes place.

3. The effective speech communicator is onewho makes accurate predictions concerningthe responses listeners will make .to hisspeech communication behaviors, and effec-tive speech communication education trainspersons to increase the accuracy of theirpredictions.

SECTION IVINTRA-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The Intra-Personal Functions of 'SpeechCommunication

Communication to develop and main-tain the integrity of self-concepts and toencourage stability of emotion and feel-ing.1. Speech communication enables a person to

construct and maintain a satisfactory self.

concept which contributes- to his haPpitieuand. his effectiveness as a communicator. *Ashe talks to others a person reveals himself;he builds images and creates roles of himself..a. A person builds many images of himself.

They are the roles that he plays invarying communication situations. (Theyoung person builds Many images of him-self in his roles as a student in the class-room, as an athlete on the playing field,as a son in a family, as an employee onthe job, or as a leader/follower in hischurch and other activity groups, etc.)

b. Self-concept evolves through the wordsothers have used to describe him.

c. Self concepts evolve from several 'facetswhich involve such aspects as awarenessof body and physical competencies; aware-ness of state of knowledge and compe-tency as a thinker; awareness of attitudes,*vilties; and feelings; awareness of effec-tivenesi as a communicator; and space'dine Orientation.

d. SelVconcePt can be discussed from atleast fOur points of view: the person'sbith perception' of who he is, his idealself =his picture of the kind of person he*Could like to be, his perception of howothers perceive him to be, and how othersperceive him to be.

a. Some conditions of the self that create com-munication problemsa: 'A State of high tension, unhappiness, etc.,

betause of a conflict between differentversions of self-concept

b. The absence of response (or 'feedback)or an insensitivity to or misinterpreta-tion' of feedback

c. Unawareness of the confUidon or noiseinvolved in the speaker's. understandingof himself, of others, and of the circum-stances of communication

d. The inability or unwillingness to verb-alize goals, aspirations, and, feelings

e. Faulty selection of values: over-empha-sis on concepts and feelings inappropriateto the speaker and his listeners; e.g., un-due concern for personal appearance

f. The use of speech communication todisguise self because of feelings of in-adequacy and the like

Communication to make decisions andto resolve problems1. Dechion *making and problem solving in-

volve the understanding of prOblem situ*

tions and the desirability, often' a necessity,of choosing among competing and .conflict-ing states of mind. There are two foci:a. Choices leading to the convincing or per-

suading of self.b. Choices leading to the explaining or the

advocating of decisions' to others.2. The making of choices- involves experiences

in the following activities:a. Verbalization, internal and external;

thinking, writing, speakingb. Recognition of purposes in making choices

and the fact that these entail one's emo-tions and feelings

c. Recognition of the materials and meansof arriving at decisions and communica-ting them to others

d. Recognition of the fact that one's ma-terial resources reside in his past experi-ence and what he can add to his experi-ence in preparing for a specific commu-nicative situation

e. Judging and criticizing decisions and theways of presenting them to others

The Teacher's Goals in Developing andMaintaining Self-Conceptsi. The teacher should be aware of the general

kinds of behavior which mature adults aresupposed to acquire. Behind' each kindof behavior is' a self-concept appropriate tothat behavior, an image that is developedthrough communication and needed forsuccessful communication and survival.

2. The . teacher encourages the students in thedevelopment of the following self-imagesand values which seem compitible with ourmidtwentieth century cultufe..a. A self-image of independence and re-

sponsibility for decision makingb. A self-image of physical competency and

attractivenessc. A social self able to meet with, feel a

part of, and contribute to individual andgroup activities

d. An intellectual self who can successfullycope with problems and performancetasks

e. A self concept of moral integrityf. A self-concept satisfactory to the religious

aspects of his lifeAn economic self who knows he can earna living

h. Al historical self, who recognizes he hasa' past and is capable of making a future

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i. A political or citizen self who recognizeshis commitments to civil law and orderA dynamic self who recognizes that changeis a condition of himself and his environ.ment

k. A concept of the unique self who takespride in his private portrait of himself

i. A communicator self who knows be canspeak, and ought to speak, on appropri-ate occasions

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A General Approach for the Teacher tothe Achievement of Teaching Goals

Teachers of speech, like all teachers,encounter learners at various stages ofdevelopment and motivation. In thelearner-teacher relationships accommo-dation is the ideal. Essential to accom-modation are acceptance and encourage-ment, understanding and reward; andevery teacher selects his methods andprojects according to his best judgment.

Obviously not all learners will revealall of the different kinds of behaviormanifested as selves. Nor can eachlearner become equally good at develop-ing each of the selves. The special goalof the teacher of speech is to nurture thecommunicative self. He will thereforeinvent learning situations that elicitcommunicative behavior. He will begenerous with praise, sparing with cen-sure. He should remember that he him-self is his learner's model of a

,communicator.

Teaching the Development of Self Con-cepts Through Communication

Some kinds of activities and situationsdemanding communicative behaviorswhich can contribute to the develop-ment of positive self-concepts: role play-ing; informal discussions; games suchas charades, twenty-questions, who amI?; interviews; relating dreams; partici-pation in a school project; creating areality based problem-solving routine inclass; creative writing and sharing of

writing; haiku, short stories, charactersketches, autobiographical materials;persuasion, oral interpretation of one'sown and other's writings; producingplays; inviting guests to talk with stu-dents about special subjects related toself-concepts; taking field trips; makinga slide series or movies.Sets of sample questions and activitiespointing to materials for building cur-ricula in self-exploration

1. Self-concept: a decision-makera. Questions: What do I do well? What do

I value? What do I reject? What do Ihope for? What does my family expect ofme? Who are my heroes? What do mypeers think of me? How do I face prob-lems? What day would I like to live over?What would I like to forget? How welldo I see, feel, hear, and touch the worldaround me? Do I feel bad when I hurtsomeone? Do I feel pain when I see othersin pain? What are the things that I feelguilty about? What do I have that Iwish everyone had? Do I usually get whatI want when I work with others? Do Isee myseT brave person or a coward?When I au. ..11 trouble, to whom do Italk? What makes a person powerful orweak? If you were permitted to take tenpersons to an island, who would they be?(Explain your choice) What are five im-portant positions or work tasks in whichyou would like to engage? (Tell why)What does it mean to be alone? What ismy most prized possession?

b. ActivitiesThe teacher may talk openly and frankly

about his own development as a decis-ion maker.

In small groups have students discuss theproblems they face and how they areattempting to solve them.

Invite a guest lecturer to talk about de-cision-making.

Present students with the steps in sci-entific decision-making and have themrelate them to their own lives.

Discuss the decision-making that occursduring sleep.

Raise questions regarding the influenceof previous experiences and emotionalstates upon decision.making.

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Have student list the decision-makers inthe school and explore the methodsused to make decisions.

Teach students the brainstorming pro-cess and have students apply the processto a simple and related problem, forexample, "How can we improve eras-ers?"

a. Self-concept: body and physical imagesa. Questions: When I look into a mirror,

what do I see? Do I like what I see? Howwould I change my appearance? Do Ifeel handsome? Pretty? Do I feel awk-ward? Graceful? What games do I play?What games would I like to play? Do Ilike competitive games? Do I think it avirtue to be physically strong? Do I liketo exercise? Do I follow a program ofphysical fitness? Do I think diet, recrea.Lion, sleep, work, and study are impor-tant? Do adults treat me as mature be-cause of my size? Do they regard me asimmature because of my physical appear-ance?

b. ActivitiesSponsor a style show, using students in

the speech class.Invite members of the home economic

and athletic departments to come toclass and discuss the importance ofindividual differences, values of phys-ical exercise, importance of good man-ners, and grooming. Relate these tothe communication process.

Have students read biographies of menand women who have overcome handi-caps.

Produce a series of one-act plays with theemphasis in casting not on types, butreverse types (da not present these forformal audiences).

3. Self-concept: the social selfa. Questions: Do I feel comfortable with

my peers? Do I believe that my mannersare inferior? Am I uncomfortable aboutmy background? Am I afraid to meetnew people? Can I start a conversation?Am I able to enter into a conversationwhich others have begun? Do I feel com.fortable with adults? Do I belong to agroup? Do I approve of the group towhich I belong? Do I want to belong toanother group? Am I shy in new experi-ences? What am I ashamed of? of myhouse? of my family? of meeting newpeople? of my appearance? of my ability

to introduce my friends? of my fear ofnot being able to belong? of living onthe wrong side of the tracks? Am I re-jected by specific groups? Do cliques havea special language system?

b. ActivitiesMake a socio-gram of the class.Use role playing to develop conversation-

al abilities.Have students make a study of school

cliques.Have group therapy sessions in which

students share their fears and hopes.Invite the school counsellor in to talk

about social development.The teacher should tell about his social

growthopenly and frankly.

4. Self concept: the intellectual selfa. Questions: What is thinking? Can I think?

Is thinking a usual process? How do Ilearn? Am I able to predict what willresult from my thinking? Am I able to:recognize facts? Am I able to distinguishfact from opinion? Am I able to solveproblems? How does one solve problems?Do I enjoy the process that is termedintellectual? Do I want to learn how tosolve problems? Am I afraid to try tosolve a problem for fear that I may fail?Do I feel free to solve a problem in myown way? Is earning a grade important?If I choose not to accomplish every as-signment, do I accept the consequences?Do I respect intellectual competencies?What does it mean to be educated? AmI afraid in the classroom? Am I afraidof teachers? Do I like to read? Have Ibeen made to feel inferior because I can'tread well? Does my family think thatbeing educated is important? Do myfriends think me strange if I choose toread and think? Can I be successful with-out going through school? May I hateteachers? May I hate school without feel-ing inferior?

b. ActivitiesInvite school psychologist or counsellor

in to discuss "The I.Q. Myth."Have students discuss: Is intelligence a

product of birth or of learning?Invite a former school dropout to class,

preferably one who has since becomesuccessful, to discuss the cause for hisleaving school.

;

Teach students specific techniques forthinking, such as simple logic, set the-ory, symbolic logic, semantic.

5. Self-concept: the moral selfa. Questions: Do I assume responsibility for

home tasks? Do I assume responsibilityfor school tasks? Do my parents andteachers generally trust me? Do my peersbelieve me? Do they tell me secrets? HaveI ever done something I believe to bedishonest? Do I believe that my culturerewards honesty? Do I question the hon.est), of my society? Have I been taughtthat cheating is immoral? Do I believethat one can cheat, if no one discoversthe cheating? Do I have a standard ofethics? Is my standard derived from myfamily? Is the moral man one who ac-cepts without thinking the standards ofhis society? Am I my brother's keeper?What is the norm of time in my homeand culture? Does time affect my respon-sibilities? Do I have contracts to honor?Do I respect the law? Do I respect therepresentatives of the law? What is thefunction of law?

b. ActivitiesCreate critical incidents involving honesty

and dishonesty.Assign students various roles to play.Have students discusi ethics.Invite guests, such as lawyers or ministers,

to talk about the basis for humanethics:

Encourage students to read and discussmaterials containing ethical or moralissues.

6. Self-concept: the religious selfa. Questions: Do I beloiig to some religious

organization? What does religion meanto me? What do I know about the re-ligions of the world? Hoiv do I relate tothe universe?

b. ActivitiesInvite ministers to discuss various reli-

gions.Have students talk about their religious

beliefs.Conduct . discusiions about the various

religions of the world.

7. Self-concept: the economic self*. a. Questions: How does my father and/or

mother earn a living? Him many jobshas each had? Do they enjoy their work?

Do they wish that they were trained foranother type of work? Do they want meto choose a specific profession? Am Iinclined to accept their choice? Would Irather choose some other meads of mak-ing a living? How do I want to earn aliving? What jobs have I enjoyed? HaveI sought jobs without being told? Do Ineed a job? What are my competenciesin earning? What is my answer whensomeone asks, "What do you want tobe?" Must I prepare for what I want todo by going to college? Must I decidenow upon a choice? Should I have de-cided sooner? Do I want to work as hardas my father and/or mother doei? CouldI be a bum? Can I take time to developa talent? Can I try to be an artist? DoI believe that wealth and happiness aresynonymous?

b. Activities .

Haye students report to the class. on somework they have done. Encourage themto explore their feelings about, thework experience.

Invite the teacher- of economics to classto discuss the work survival concept.

Have 'guidance counsellors ',discuss thechanging nature Of work in the UnitedStates.

'Have student role play interviews, crit-ical incidents in getting or holding ajob.

8. Self-concept: the universe related self

a. Questions: Do I recognize the flow oftime? What is yesterday to me? What istomorrow? What does today mean? Am Iconnected with today? Can I remembersomething from my childhood? Does itconnect me with today/ tomorrow? Do Iremember grandparents? Have they toldme about yesterday? Do I. know anyolder person who relates me to the past?Who have been world changers?.Do onlygreat men change the future? Can I bea changer? What is. the history of myfamily? my school? my .community? Howdid I get to be the way I am?

b. ActivitiesHave students tell stories of their own

past and the past of their' tunnies.Have students interview old People in

their community and have theti reporttheir findings. , ..,,!

.4,

tr' 1, -,

Conduct a historical survey of the com-munity from a particular point ofview.

Have students prepare eulogies of im-portant people in their lives.

Have students discuss the 'topic, "Whatwill our world be like one hundredyears from now?"

.g. Self-concept: the political selfa. Questions: Do I like my school commu-

nity? Do I have a voice in planning myschool community? How can I change myschool community? Who sets school pol-icy? Holy free should we be to decideschool policy? Does a small group of stu-dents provide leadership? Have I reg-istered a complaint with the council, thefaculty, or the administration? Do Idisapprove of school or class room man-agement in silence? 'Must there be au-thority in the class room? Have I workedin a school or community political cam-paign? Do I believe that I cannot changemy community? What do I think of thephrase, "You can't fight city hair

b. 'ActivitiesHave .student discuss the role of student.councils.Take field trips to local centers of gov-

. ernmental decision-malting.Have students organize .class along par-, liamentary lines and conduct class

meetings.Study and discuss such topics as: strikes,

demonstrations, civil rights.

so. Self-cbncept: the changing self. .

a. Questions: Am I growing? Am I awareof how different I am because I amgrowing? Today, do I feel different? Dothe members of my family change? DoI resent their change? Do I expect themto change? Have my interests changed?In the sports that I play? In the books,that I read? In the movies that. I like?In the television programs that I see?Have my attitudes changed towardothers?' Am I aware that new biologicaland anthiopological theories destroypreviously held myths concerning race?Do I suspect that truth may be relative?Am I frightened by change? Does anyliVing thing remain static? Does knowl-edge of the universe remain static?What scientific discoveries have changedmy life?

b. ActivitiesHave students discusi the topic, "You

can't step in the same river-twice."Have students discuss the subject: "The

World is a Process."Have students design an experiment to

demonstrate that people change.Have students give speeches on the sub-

ject: "Changes I look forward to andchanges I resent."

t 1. Self-concept: the unique selfa. Questions: Do I believe that uniqueness

is a virtue? How am I different fromeveryone else? What differences do Iwant to maximize? Because someone isdifferent, does it mean that he is wrong?What makes a person different? Do dif-ferent times and places produce dif-ferences? Does knowing someone differentfrom me bother me? Why do othersmake fun of. differences? What kindsof differences are destructive? How were..Ghandi, Jesus, Hitler and Marx dif-ferent? When I look at different classesof things, can I tell them apart? If Iown a car, do I customize 'it?. Why? Ifa . salesman says. to me,. '.!Everyone iswearing this style," what is. my reaction?Can .a non-conformist find .. happiness?Does.it.require courage to differ? Can ademocratic society survive without non-conformists?

b. ActivitiesHave students write and read descrip-

tions of themes in which they pointout their differences.

Have students discuss the meaning ofsimilarities and differences.

Have students discuss the concept ofconformity.

Have 'students debate the'- topic:. Re-solved that identical twins are notidentical.

. .

1st. The self-concept: the self as a communi-cator, speaker-sender and listener:TY:elvera. Questions: Is an artist born? Are people

born creative? Do I think that I am cre-ative? Have I made something that Ilike? Do I believe that it requires cow-age to be creative? What I' need to becreative? Are the various art 'formsspecial kinds of communication? 'Am Iaware that speech is the most often usedform of communication? Can I survivewithout communicating? Am 4 ''aware

f

that speech is a complicated process?Am I concerned about the messages Isend? Am I concerned with how effec-tively I send messages? Am I a listener?Have I caused pain because I have notlistened? Do I diminish the worth ofanother because I do not listen? Can Ibe human without being a part of thesending-receiving process? Can I experi-ence humanness without telling how Ithink and feel? Is silence a virtue? Domy silences contribute to understanding?Do I believe that I am master of mydestiny? Do I believe that I may par-tially control my destiny through effec-tive communication?

b. ActivitiesEncourage original writing: poetry, plays,

short stories, etc.Encourage creative activities: readers'

theatre, chamber theatre, story tell-ing, dramatizations, etc.

Encourage display of talent: art objectswhich students have created, permitdancers to dance, musicians to play orsing.

Plan field trips that involve communi-cative experiences: live theatre, aspecial movie, a political rally, a tripto a museum or art gallery, a musicalor dance program, a lecture, etc.

SECTION V

INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Functions of Interpersonal Communi-cationCommunication to develop and maintain theintegrity of groups

i. Most of the self-concepts evident in individ-ual behavior not wdy are acquired throughparticipation in group activities but are atwork when persons attempt to influencegroups and audience behavior. Persons whoundertake to explain, to argue, and to per-suade need to understand the nature andcharacteristics of groups and the ways anindividual behaves in group situations.

L Roles of position, prestige, and power in agroup evolve through interpersonal com-munication.

3. Roles evolve from the need to maintain thegroup and to accomplish the tasks of thegroup. Some positions carry power and

prestige. Others carry esteem and power.Power is essential to the group if it is tomake decisions or to act. There are alsoleadership roles within the group of variouscombinations of position, prestige, esteem,and power.

a. Task functions: (I) gather and appraiseinformation; (2) resolve problems; (3)

make decisions; (4) communicate thosedecisions to members of the group.

b. Maintenance functions: (I) a doublysatisfying climate, e.g., one that encour-ages discussion; (a) rewards for group-approved behavior; sanctions for groupdisapproval; (3) recruitment and indoctri-nation of new members.

4. Rinds of groupsa. Structured, formed by purpose or taskb. Non-structuredaudiences

5. Possible communication problems in groupsa. Individual norms conflict with group

norms.b. Persons belong to many groups, hence

the norms of the different groups towhich they belong may conflict.

c. Persons are unsure of their roles in agroup; they do not know what theirfunctions are.

d. Persons are dissatisfied with their posi-tion in the group.

e. Persons' actual power is greater thantheir designated power.

f. Persons' actual power is less than theirdesignated power.

g. Task functions may conflict with main-tenance functions, thus producing ten-dons and lowering group cohesiveness.

h. Members are insensitive to each other.

Communication to resolve problems throughcooperation with a person or group

i. A problem exists when a person or a groupis being harmed and obstacles exist to theremoval of the source of harm.

2. Possible problems and resolutions include:a. Not knowing how to implement the

problem-solving process.b. Inadequate knowledge and skills in criti-

cal thinking.c. Inadequate skills and knowledge of lis-

tening.d. Failure to understand the nature of atti-

tudes, values, and emotions in the com-

:r4".16;ah.o.e...W4ta6A11.0.c.

munication behavior of the persons who c.are attempting to resolve the problem.

e. Failure to realize the advantages of andlimitations of language and interpersonalcommunication.

f. Insensitivity to feedback or to absence ofit.

Communication to influence the behavior ofothers for fulfillment of many survival needs

i. Persons depend on others for fulfillment ofsurvival needs

2. Sources of possible communication problemsa. Communicator engages in unethical be-

havior.b. Communicator makes inaccurate predic-

tion about the receiver: he fails to realizelimitations of language; his analysis ofthe receiver's value system and motiva-tional system is inaccurate.

c. Communicator fails to create a bond ofidentification between himself and hisreceiver.

d. Communicator is insensitive to feedback e.and lack of it.

e. Communicator fails to predict the capa-bility of the other person to satisfy theneed.

f. Communicator lacks sensory experienceas group member and lacks adequatesymbol systems to represent sensory in-put. thus reducing the potential experi-ence out of which thoughts can emerge.Communicator lacks information aboutthe problem.

Structural meaning is to be found inthe sequence of symbols, sentences, para-graphs, etc. It is the meaning furnishedby the structure of a series of symbols,a sentence, a paragraph, or the entiremessage. The only referent for thesesymbols is to be found in the structureof the message, or formal reality.

3. Possible communication problems

a.

b.

c.

d.

g.

Communication to invoke intended meaningsin other human beings

1. Goals in communicationa. To use speech and language to convey

meaningsb. To use meanings in ways that provide

for sharing portions of the experience ofspeaker-communicator and listener-re-spondent

c. To be successful in communicative situa-tions

2. There are at least three dimensions of mean-ing.a. Extensional meaning is found in the

relationship between a symbol and physi-cal reality.

b. Intensional meaning is found in the re-lationship between symbols and subjec-tive reality.

f.

g.

h.

Having undue confidence in his powersof perception. When he perceives, bestructures reality and interprets physicalreality in terms of his own experience.

Failing to distinguish between the ob-ject world and the world of language.

Assuming that physical reality is static,rather than in a state of process; failureto understand that words tend to re-main the same while physical realitychanges.

Assuming that meaning exists in wordsrather than in people.Assuming that the meaning attached toa word by one person is the same mean-ing as attached by anothercommunica-tion by-pass.Failing to ask questions and to beginwith a common set of meanings.Failing to distinguish between state-ments of fact (reports of observation),statements of inference (using statementswe know to predict or infer other state-ments we do not know), and statementsof value judgments (intensional mean-ings).

Structuring of the message ambiguouslyso that the intended message stimulusdoes not reach the receiver, and a non-intended message stimulus does reachthe receiver.

i. Assuming that physical reality exists in,,a two-valued dimension rather than ona continuum ranging from one extremeto another.

j. Failing to verbalize feelings or the feel-ings to be evoked by ;toyed messages inthe realm of the poetic.Being insensitive to feedback and theabsence of it.Lacking listening-thinking skills.Failing to adapt to noise factors withinthe sender or other factors of the com-munication process.

k.

1.

m.

Communication for Play

s. Man appears to find pleasure in manipu-liting symbols.

2. Possible communication problemsa. Inability to understand or appreciate

humor.b. Inadequacies of one's message style or

treatment.c. Negative past experiences in inter-per-

sonal communication, causing the per-son to view such communication as asource of pain rather than pleasure.

d. Uncertainty about the social customs ornorms which govern such verbal play.

e. Insensitivity to feedback and lack of it.L Inadequacies in handling structural

meaning.Inaccurate predictions about the re-ceiver's concept of what is play and 2.

what is pleasurable.h. Lack of experiences which, when com-

municated, could give pleasure to others.i. A negative self-concept which causes

communicator to believe that he hasnothing in his past experience which,when communicated, could give pleasureto others.An unwillingness to listen to others.Inability to translate private meaningsof past experiences into public meaningswhich can be understood by others.

I. Failure to store and to perfect by com-munication a repertoire of personal anec-dotes which bring pleasure to others.

g.

k.

Suggested Activities for InterpersonalCommunication Programs

hinetion: To build and maintain groups andto resolve problems

1. Formation of the class into four or moregroups (two to ten) in terms of problemsthat they identify as being important tothem.a. A series of group discussions (three or

four, or more) are scheduled over the 9.span of the academic year.

b. The same groups remain intact duringihis time and are involved in task andgroup maintenance functions.

c. Group members develop their own pro-cedures as to data-gathering, use of classtime, agendas, goal setting, and evalua-tion of their effectiveness. .

d. The group may or may not elect to re-port to the entire class. How and when

3-

4-

5-

6.

8.

this is done is determined cooperativelybetween the. teacher and students.

e. The end product includes a . report tothe class which is presented ,in a formselected by the group, such panel,individual reports, role playing, skit,etc. The reports may include proceduresfollowed and why followed; descriptionof solutions and steps taken to imple-ment them; description of communica-tion problems encountered in the groupand how the group attempted to resolvethem; an assessment of the problemsolving and critical thinking abilities ofthe group; explaining to the entireclass the group's decision on the prob-lem discussed or recommending its ac-ceptance.

Set up field trips to observe groups inaction: civic clubs and organizations, citycouncil, school clubs and organizations.

Have students observe thsiiar groups.

Encourage students to form new groups inschool and community and to join exist-ing groups.Require readings and classroom discussionsof the nature and functions of groups, com-munication problems in groups and inproblem solving.Encourage a candid discussion of cliques,how they are formed, their nature andfunctions, and communication problems.Have students plan role-playing sessions inwhich one or more communication prob-lems are present (see lists of communica-tion problems in the section of "functionsof speech communication"). Following- therole playing, ask students to identify andto suggest how to resolve the problems.Use cases which illustrate communicationdifficulties and which evoke problems incommunication. Get volunteers to participatein solving the case problems, or rotate par-ticipation to include everyone.Allow the class to organize itself into onegroup in terms of some student-identifiedneeds and objectives.a. It should probably recognize the need

for some form of parliamentary pro-cedure.

b. Readings in, discussion of, and exercisesin parliamentary procedure may becomenecessary.

c. Have it .compare its .procedures, com-munication problems, and success in

performing group functions in this situ-ation with the situations in smallergroups.

to. Test students on their critical-thinkingability and discuss results.

ii. Have student and teacher bring writtenor tape-recorded samples of statements ofinference, to assess them for truth andvalidity, respectively.

12. Have students take a critical listening testand discuss results.

13. Construct a semantic differential to meas-ure the attitudes toward concepts, people,events, etc.a. Administer the semantic differential

before undertaking any group commu-nication involving these concepts, etc.

b. Engage in group communication tosolve a problem or make a decisioninvolving these concepts, etc.

c. Administer the semantic differential

d. Discuss: Did the group members' atti-tudes influence their communicationbehavior? Their final decisions or solu-tions? Did attitudes change? How?Why or why not?

14. Provide physical arrangements in orderthat while a group communicates, memberscannot see each other. Have them describetheir communication problems and thecauses.

15. Record group discussions, case problem dis-cussions, or individual reports and replaythem for groups, the individual, or theentire class. Have students identify com-munication problems, how they werehandled, and how to resolve them.

Function: to influence the behavior of othersfor fulfillment of survival needs

1. Make a motion picture or videotape ofstudent speakers in action and show themprivately or in class in order that thespeaker can more accurately view thepersuasive force of his appearance.

2. Have students deliver persuasive speechesbased upon what they identified as thedominant motives and values in the class.

3. Have several students deliver a persuasivespeech in such a way that they cannot seethe audience (a screen, tape recording ofthe speech, ,etc.). Have the same speechgiven so speaker can see audience. Classdiscussion: How did this inability to see

listeners affect the speaker? Did it makehim more or less effective? Why or whynot?

4. Have students and teachers bring in writ-ten or tape recorded samples of persuasivemessages which have been labeled unethicalby someone (perhaps by the student orteacher). Discussion: (entire class, in smallgroups, or as in 1-f above): Is it unethical?What makes a message ethical or un-ethical? Should a communicator always beethical?

5. Have students and teachers bring in taperecorded or written samples of persuasivemessages which do or do not utilize identi-fication, and which do or do not take intoaccount the capability of the other per-son(s) to satisfy the sender's needs. Discusssamples.

6. Ask students to deliver a speech to derivesomething they need from one or moreclass members. The listener(s) asked tofulfill the sender's needs must be capableof the job.

7. Conduct discussion of the principles ofeffective persuasive communication.

8. Have students bring in samples of themost influential persuasive messages theyhave encountered. In class discussion, tryto extract what made them so influential.

Function: to evoke intended meanings inother human beings

1.

2.

Take a word like truth or beauty andhave each student define it. Have eachstudent read his definition and raise thequestions: Who is right? Where wouldwe look to find the one correct meaning?Do words have correct meanings? Do wefind meaning in words or in people, orin communicative situations, demandingthe production of knowledge . and infor-mation, the acceptance of a value-judgment,a proposal for action, or a change inattitude?Bering in an* zberract painting o'r' drawingand follow the same procednres as in thepreceding activrity (i.e., have' them writqa description of whatthe picture is, etc.).Allow students to perceive, something, litqslow men at work. Have them report whatthey perceived. Ask why they reportedwhat they did.For a period of one week have studentskeep a record of all instances of commu-nication problems involving this function

40P

which they observe. Have each studentreport to the class.

5. Have students give a demonstration speechwithout any visual aids. Discuss resultingproblems. Repeat the assignment, usingvisual aids. Compare results.

6. Have students describe a personal experi-ence using statements of observation only.Any time the speaker makes an evaluationor an inference, anyone in the class mayraise his hand and challenge the speaker,i.e., he may raise a question about whetheror not the speaker's statement was a state-ment of fact.

7. Prepare and duplicate a list of 15.20words which can evoke from a few (Illi-nois) to many (automobile) meanings. Pref-ace the list with: "Do you know what orwhom I mean when I say? The stu-dent answers "yes" or "no" for each word,and, of course, all the answers should beno.

8. Have students give a speech in which theydefine, explain, or clarify an abstract ortechnical term (as "freedom" or "photo-synthesis"). At the end of each speechhave the listeners write a brief definitionor explanation of the term. Have thespeaker compare his meaning with thelisteners' meanings. For some speakers, dis-cuss the similarities and differences.a. Do this speech once without allowing

any questions from the listeners.b. Repeat and allow questions. Compare

results.

g. Involve students in role-playing and caseproblems v-%ich illustrate communicationProblems in.-olved in evoking intendedmeanings in others. In class discussion,have students identify problems and sug-gest solutions.

so. Have students report instances of com-munication in which their meanings andtheir receivers' meanings were far apart.Have them explore the questions: Howdid this happen? How could this havebeen prevented?

11. Have students analyze tape recorded andwritten messages to locate and verbalizeextensional, intensional, and structuralmeanings the message evokes in them.a. Discuss the meanings verbalized, focus-

ing on differentiation of the three di-mensions.

b. What other problems do I have inevoking intended meaning?

c. What should be my goals for improve.ment?

12. Have a series of brief discussions ontopics that involve the important valuesand emotions of the participants (as, "Isit ethical to cheat on examinations?").Questions for group and class discussion:Was there confusion of intensional, ex-tensional, and structural meanings? Whatother communication problems arose whenthe participants tried to evoke meaningin others? These discussions and questionscan be pursued in front of the class, orwithin the groups themselves. If discussionsare conducted within groups, a group reP-resvitative may or may not report to theclass either individually or as part of apanel of representatives.

13. Have a structural differential present inthe classroom, and when a student con-fuses one level of abstraction with another,or description with evaluation or infer-ence, have him locate his statement of thestructural differential.

14. Administer a listening comprehension testand discuss results.

15. Develop or purchase a tape recorded pro-gram for improving listening comprehen-sion and put ineffective listeners throughthe program.

i6. For each speaking assignment, develop aparallel listening assignment designed toimprove listening comprehension skills,such as (a) have listeners write out thespeaker's central idea and intent; (b) havelisteners list the main points and majorsub-points; (c) have listeners list what theyconsider to be the important informationpresented by the speaker; (d) comparethese lists with the speaker's perception ofimportant information. If they differ, whydo they? Is this harmful to effective com-munication? How could this have beenprevented?

17. Assign readings in and class discussions ofthe principles of effective communication ofmeaning, and translation of emotions intosymbols.

i8. Have students describe any person, event,object, or themselves one, three, and fiveyears ago. Discuss: Are they the same? Whynot? Did the label change? Why not?What are the implications of a world ofprocess for the use of a static language?

t

19. Have students describe a person or ,grouparound which they have constructed astereotype or prejudice (as teacher, Negro,policemen, Catholic, etc). Discuss: Whatare the origins of these stereotypes andprejudices? What are the causes of them?Are all members of a class (as teachers)the same? Are differences as important assimilarities? What happens when. we ignoredifferences and go only by similarities inmaking statements about individuals in aclass?

Have students deliver a speech on thetopic: "What I like and dislike most."a. Is. something either bad or good?b. Does reality exist on a continuum or

is everything two-valued only?c. Do statements of evaluation describe

what we are communicating about, ordo they really describe the speaker?

21. Provide experiences in communication ofemotions.

a. Oral readings of prose and poetrywhich contain strong emotion-evoking-words. Students write and read theirown prose or poetry.

b. Play readings (readers theatre) andpresenting plays with strong emotion-evoking words.

c. Students prepare and deliver a eulogyon someone they love or admire.

d. Role playing and case problems identi-fying' problems involved in communica-tion of emotions.

e. Pantomimes to communicate emotionalstates 'and emotional reactions to de-fined situations.

. f. Students write and present a play orskit.

ast. Role, playing of effective and ineffectivecommunication behaviors (by sender andreceiver) in an interview situation. Classdiscussion of problems uncovered and howto resolve them.

23. Give the student a geometrical drawing orfigure. Using words only (no physical be-haviors) the student tries to get the classto reproduce the drawing on paper.a. Do it without, then with, questions

from listeners.b. Do it without, then with, the use of

visible action.

Function: Communication for play1. Telling a personal experience .a. Story telling and telling anecdotes

ehAr.13.4,LkoitoWit.A.,41444ZIStIv.thir.,'_

3. Humorous speeches4. Readings in and classroom discussions of

sources of humor, effective conversation,story telling, and communication problemsin verbal play

5. Have students collect samples of enter-taining experiences, stories, and anecdotesthey have heard, experienced themselves,or read. Ask them to compile a note bookof resources for verbal play,

6. Role playing of communication problemsin conversation (speaker's and listener'sproblems). Students identify problems andrecommend solutions.

7. Students observe their own conversationsand those of others. All report back andsynthesize a description of useful sendingand receiving behaviors for effective con-versation.

8. Students form into groups and practiceintroducing themselves and others. Thiscan be extended to role playing situationswhere men introduce women, a teenagerintroduces a friend to a specific adult, etc.

9. Oral readings of humorous and entertain-ing prose and poetry.

to. Students write, produce, and tape acomedy or other entertaining radio pro-gram.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

LEARNING

Carlton E. Beck, Normand R. Bernder, JamesB. MacDonald, Thomas W. Walton, andJack C. Willers. Education for Relevance.New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1968.

Jerome S. Bruner. Toward a Theory of In-struction. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.,Inc., 1968.

John Dewey Experience and Education. NewYork: Crowell-Collier and Macmillan, Inc.,1938.

Norman E. Gronlund. Measurement and Evalu-ation in Teaching. New York: The MacmillanCo., 1965.

David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom, andDetrain B. Masia. Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives, Handbook II: Affective Domain.New York: David McKay Co., Inc, 1964.

Harry A. Passow, Miriam Goldberg, and Abra-ham J. Tannenbaum, eds. Education of theDisadvantaged. New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, Inc., 1967.

Joan I. Roberts. School Children in the UrbanSlums. New York: The Free Press, 1967.

B. F. Skinner. The Technology of Teaching.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968.

John M. Stephens. The Psychology of Class-room Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, Inc., 1967.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Self as decision-maker

James S. Coleman. The Adolescent Society.New York: Glencoe Free Press, 1961.

John E. Horrocks. The Psychology of Adolescence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962.

RON E. Muuss. Theories of Adolescence. NewYork: Random House, 1962.

Physical selfC. Knapp and A. E. Jewett, eds. The Growing

Years: Adolescence. Washington, 1962 (Year.book, American Association for Health, Phys-ical Education, and Recreation.)

H. R. Stolz and L. M. Stolz, Somatic Develop.ment in Adolescence. New York: The Mac-millan Co., 1951.

Social self

Ruth Cunningham and associates. Understand-ing Group Behavior of Boys and Girls. NewYork: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col-lege, Columbia University, 1951.

David Riesman, in collaboration with ReuelDenney and Nathan Glazer. The LonelyCrowd. New Haven: Yale University Press,1950.

Hendtik Ruitenbeek. The Individual and theCr° ivd. New York: Mentor Books, 1964.

Ruth Strang. The Adolescent Views Himself.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957.

Intellectual selfJerome S. Bruner. The Process of Education.

New York: Vintage Books, 196o.John W. Gardner. Excellence. New York: Har-

per and Row, 1961.Jean Piaget. The Psychology of Intelligence.

New York: Littlefield, Adams and Co., 1950.N. W. Shock. "Psychological Changes in Adoles-

cence," Adolescence. Wallington, 1944 (Year-book of the National Society for the Studyof Education.)

Moral self .

Harold H. Dunkel. General Education in theHumanities. Washington: American. Councilon Education, 1947.

Robert F. Peck and Robert J. Havighurst.The Psychology of Character Development.New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 196o.

Religious selfRichard A. Gard, ed. The Great Religions of

Modern Man Series. Chicago: Bureau of In-dependent Publishers and Distributors, 1957.

Arthur Miller. "The Crucible," Collected Plays.New York: Viking Press, 1957

Economic selfE. K. Strong Jr. Vocational Interests Eighteen

Years After College. Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota Press, 1955.

Donald E. Super and P. L. Overstreet. TheEmotional Maturity of Ninth Grade Boys.New York: Bureau of Publications, TeachersCollege, Columbia University, 1960.

Robert White. "Motivation ReconsideredTheConcept of Competence," Psychological Re-view, LXVI (1959), 297-333.

Universe-related selfAlfred C. B. Lovell. The Individual and the

Universe. New York: The New AmericanLibrary Inc., 1959.

Rainer Maria Rilke. Letters to a Young Poet.Translated by 'M. D. Herter Norton, NewYork: W. W. Norton and Co., 1962.

Political selfT. W. Adorno et al. The Authoritarian Per-

sonality. New York: Harper and Row, 1950.Harry and Bonaro Overstreet. What We Must

Know About Communism. New York: PocketBooks, Washington Square Press, 1958.

The changing selfL. C. Dunn and Theodosius Dobzhansky.

Heredity Race, and Society. New York: TheNew American Library, Inc., 1949.

Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self inEveryday Life. New York: Doubleday andCo., 1959.

The unique selfAldous Huxley. The Doors of Perception and

Heaven and Hell. New York: Harper andRow, 1963.

Nikos Kazantizakis, Zorba the Greek. New York:Ballantine, 1953.

Lionel Trilling. The Liberal Imagination. NewYork: The Viking Press, 1951.

Self as communicatorDwight Burton, and John S. Simmons, eds.

Teaching English in Today's High Schools.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc..1965.

f

Theodore Clevenger, Jr., and Huber W. Ellings-worth. Speech and Sodal Action. EnglewoodCliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967.

Marshall McLuhan. Understanding Media: TheExtensions of Man. New York: McGraw-HillPaperbacks, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.

Louis B. Salomon. Semantics and CommonSense. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,Inc., 1966.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Floyd Aliport. Theories of Perception. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955

Dean C. Barnlund and Franklyn S. Haiman.The Dynamics of Discussion. Boston: Hough-ton Mifflin Co., 1960.

David K. Berlo. The Process of Communica-tion. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,Inc., 196o.

Sanford I. Berman. Understanding and BeingUnderstood. San Diego: International Com-munication Institute, 1965.

Eric Berne. Games People Play. New York:Grove Press, 1964.

Charles R. Brown and Charles Van Riper.Speech and Man. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

Frank E. X. Dance, ed. Human Communica-tion TheoryOriginal Essays. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967.

Jon J. Eisenson, J. Jeffery Auer, and John V.Irwin. The Psychology of Communication.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,1963.

Leon Festinger. A Theory of Cognitive Dis-sonance. Evanston: Row, Peterson and Co.,1957-

J. W. Getzels and Philip W. Jackson. Creativ-ity and Intelligence. New York: John Wileyand Sons, Inc., 1962.

Edward T. Hall. The Silent Language. GardenCity: Doubleday and Co., 1959.

William V. Haney. Communication: Patternsand Incidents. Homewood: Richard D. Irwin,Inc., 196o.

Paul A. Hare. Handbook of Small Group Re-search. New York: Free Press, 1962.

Victor R. Harnack and Thorrel B. Fest. GroutDiscussionTheory and Technique. NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1964.

S. I. Hayakawa. Language in Thought andAction. New York: Harcourt, Brace andWorld, Inc., 1959.

Carl I. Hovland and Irving L. Janis. Personal-ity and Persuasibility. New Haven: Yale Uni-versity Press, 1959.

Wendell Johnson. People in Quandaries. NewYork: Harper and Bros., 1946.

Wendell Johnson. Your Most Enchanted Lis-tener. New York: Harper and Bros., 1956.

Irving J. Lee. Language Habits in HumanAffairs. New York: Harper and Bros., 1941.

Gerald R. Miller. Speech CommunicationABehavioral Approach. Indianapolis: TheBobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., 1966.

Ralph G. Nichols and Leonard A. Stevens.Are You Listening? New York: McGraw-HillBook Co., 1957.

Robert T. Oliver. Culture and Communication.Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1961.

Alfred G. Smith. Communication and Culture.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,Inc., 1966.

Carl H. Weaver and Warren L. Strausbaugh.Fundamentals of Speech Communication.New York: American Book Co., 1964.

Norbert Weiner. The Human Use of HumanBeings. New York: Anchor Books, Doubledayand Co., 1956.

Gordon Wiseman and Larry Barker. Speech:Interpersonal Communication. San Fran-cisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1967.