MODULE VII- ECOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT & MANAGEMENT ISSUES:

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

In module fifth, discussion on ethics has been presented and in the sixth module discussion

on sustainable development has been emphasized. Both of these modules reflect the ideas

about managing ecology and environment. In this module, we discuss special aspects of

managing ecology and environment in terms of Corporate Social Responsibilities and Policy

Considerations.

In all social systems/corporations there are number of participants. They are employers,

employees, government agencies and stakeholders. In the context of environmental studies, it

refers to participants like employers, government agencies and decision makers are

participants who matter in corporate social responsibilities.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the alignment of business operations with social values.

It takes into account the interests of stakeholders in the business policies and actions. The focus

on CSR is on social, environmental, and financial success of a company - the so-called triple

bottom line - with the aim to achieve social development while achieving business success.

Corporate Social Responsibility - What does it mean?

One of the most frequently asked questions - and probably for all those individuals and

organizations dealing with CSR issues is the obvious - just what does "Corporate Social

Responsibility" mean anyway?

Different organizations have framed different definitions - although there is

considerable common ground between them. Definition given by others refers to CSR is

about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive

impact on society. According to Mallen Baker, CSR can be explained by the following

illustration. (Mallen Baker, April 2001)

Corporate

Social

Responsibility

Social Values,

Ethics

Social factors

Financial factors

Environmental factors

Success/

Effectiveness

Financial

analysis

Unions

Employees

Shareholders

Customers

Local Communities Government NGOs

Marketplace Workplace

Environment Community

Quality of

Management

Impact on

Society

Companies need to address two aspects of their operations. 1. The quality of their

management - both in terms of people and processes (the inner circle). 2. The nature of,

and quantity of their impact on society in the various areas.

Outside stakeholders are taking an increasing interest in the activity of the company.

Most look to the outer circle - what the company has actually done, good or bad, in

terms of its products and services, in terms of its impact on the environment and on

local communities, or in how it treats and develops its workforce. Out of the various

stakeholders, it is financial analysts who are predominantly focused - as well as past

financial performance - on quality of management as an; indicator of likely future

performance.

CSR is also defined as “Making Good Business Sense" "Corporate Social Responsibility

is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to

economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their

families as well as of the local community and society at large".

People and processes

Nature, quantity, its impact on

society.Corporate Social

Responsibility

Various stakeholders

Another definition is CSR is about capacity building for sustainable livelihoods. It

respects cultural differences and finds the business opportunities in building the skills of

employees, the community and the government" "CSR is about business giving back to

society".

United States has defined CSR more in terms of a philanthropic model. Companies

make profits, unhindered except by fulfilling their duty to pay taxes. Then they donate a

certain share of the profits to charitable causes. The European model is much more

focused on operating the core business in a socially responsible way, complemented by

investment in communities for solid business case reasons. Because

1. Social responsibility becomes an integral part of the wealth creation process -

which if managed properly should enhance the competitiveness of business and

maximize the value of wealth creation to society.

2. When times get hard, there is the incentive to practice CSR more and better - if

it is a philanthropic exercise which is peripheral to the main business, it will

always be the first thing to go when push comes to shove.

Corporate social responsibilities therefore have to be understood within a Systems

perspective. The approach has been discussed in Module I

Corporate Social

ResponsibilityQuality of

life

Social Development

* Click here to know more about the Systems approach. (Satsangi’s paper)

Social Responsibility of Technocrats

Khan and Iqbal (1990) proposed that the basic philosophy of progress in our country is the

dream of a socialistic pattern of society. There is general consensus upon the goals envisaged

in our planning i.e. a rapid rise in the standard of living of the common man. It is also

accepted that this rise in material prosperity can be brought about only in a technological

milieu of rapid industrialization and instant communication. Such a scenario will naturally

put a great responsibility on the engineers for it is they, who apply their knowledge and

judgment for the optimum utilization of avail, able resources to accelerate the pace for

progress and prosperity. To shoulder this immense responsibility the engineers will need to

be prepared to face the challenges of future development in technology.

It is estimated that the progress made in science and technology in the 20th century is more

than the progress made in the entire history of human civilization. The engineers will

therefore need to keep a clear vision of the future trends in technology.

In today's fast moving technological flux it is dangerous to make any prediction for the

future. Nevertheless certain trends can be safely identified.

First the world is rapidly shrinking. More and more people will be travelling utilizing

faster, safer and better systems. This will usher in an era of novel and bold technologies

e.g. super fast trains, supersonic jet, water transport system, traffic system organization

etc. Computers, telecommunication, satellite and remote sensing techniques and a wide

array of information technology will be commonly available.

The teaching and learning methodologies will also undergo major changes both in outlook

as well as in implementation. Today students spend a lot of their valuable time in rote learn

and cramming raw data in their minds. The difference between information knowledge and

wisdom is not appreciated by the educationists. With the advent of computers and easy

access to information technology there will be less need for cramming and more time and

effort will be spent on thinking and analyzing.

Faster communication and information systems will become a powerful vehicle for

transmission of ideas and for interaction among people in distant place. In the words of

Arther Clarke "ours has become the last century of the savage. For all mankind, the

stone age is over".

In several fields e.g. agriculture, chemical engineering, biotechnology new research

findings will usher an era of unprecedented progress and prosperity. Mankind will no

longer suffer pangs of hunger nor the scourge of deprivation. Green revolution, wonder

drugs and general abundance of material goods will benefit everybody and not just the

elite. In short in each and every area of human Endeavour technological pro gress will

bring in far reaching developments.

But this will also add to the responsibilities of the technocrats and managers. In such a

technological milieu it will be essential that all system work in perfect harmony. The

penalty for any inefficiency and incompetence will be severe and the breakdown of any

system will wreak untold misery on the people. The recent Bhopal tragedy is a powerful

reminder to the technocrats and the managers that human attitudes will need to be

upgraded corresponding to the progress in Science and Technology. Even in the

developed countries e.g. USSR , U.S A. similar accidents happen with a disturbing

frequency. The irony is that many of these accidents go unreported and thus opportunity

for learning valuable lessons and building a data bank on case histories is lost.

Sampath (1989) has discussed the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility of Scientists,

technologists and managements

* For more details about this paper please click here

Social Responsibility of Scientists, Technologists and Managements

There are numerous strands in the fabric of science. Some of these originate from purely

philosophical and abstract thin king. But the main thrust of science is to attempt to solve

'problems not previously solved or solve the old problems in newer ways. Any country,

rich or poor, has to have a national commitment to the policy of building up, on its own

soil, a broad base of scientific endeavour covering the basic as well as applied R & D

areas. It is of crucial importance that each country affords opportunities to its truly

creative scientists to grow and function in the way their genius dictates. There cannot be

two sets of standards in scientific research-one for the rich countries and yet another for

the poor countries. Doubtless there will be quantitative differences between them with

regard to funding and productivity; but qualitatively they have to be of the same class.

And to be able to provide support to those engaged in extending the frontiers of

knowledge,

** Director, Recruitment and Selection at Defence Research Directora te, New Delhi.

each country should put to work team of innovators-the applied scientists whose main

concern will be to contribute to the growth of the GNP.

With the exception of a few truly backward regions of the world, all the countries are

20th century technological societies. On the technological highway, they have all travel

led beyond the point of no return. Just a few decades ago, even the most astute of

visionaries could not guess the pace at which technology would advance. What is

baffling is that there is such a serious imbalance today in the global picture of

development. In many areas, technology is imbedded in a primitive and stifling social

matrix. Yet we cannot arrest the forward movement and stay put. Kenneth Boulding, the

eminent economist makes this refreshing point:

The spectacular changes that have taken place in a small segment of the earth's activity,

such as in computer technology or cybernation, should not blind us to the fact that, over

a larger section of human society, the great and intractable problem of today is not how

to deal with technology that is advancing too rapidly but how to advance it rapidly

enough to meet the challenge of fulfilling felt needs.

Science and Technology have the power to obliterate, scarcity and to create abundance;

conquer disease and assure for man a better life expectancy and health care during his

journey on earth; and provide numerous devices that can help to eliminate the pain of

human labour and leave time for leisure and the enjoyment of the good things of life.

But these expectations have not come to fruition. Poverty and hunger were never a

graver threat than today to large sections of the human population. Life continues to be

a mixture of strife and antagonistic urges. Swedish Scientist, Hannes Alfven describes

the current dilemma in these words:

Medical Science has successfully fought epidemics, but has forgotten that the

population explosion which has resulted from this success is a serious threat in the

long run. Electronics has made communication the entire World over even much easier

but communication between the rich and the poor in Society is today worse than at any

time before. Despite the availability of very sophisticated observational techniques,

scientists are unable to observe and understand social condi tions prevailing just

outside the walls of their laboratories. In this so-called age of Science, the number

of illiterates is increasing at a fast rate. Science pays little heed to what was and still

continues to be its primary task which is to fight ignorance, prejudice, supersti tion and

violence wherever they appear. In many respects, the relationship between Science

and Society must change. This calls for a new thinking and several bold initiatives.

The role of Science in War was relatively small prior to Second World War. The

destruction wrought during that War in several parts of the World and the menacing,

destructive posture of many nations in the decades that have followed-owing to the

power that Science puts in their armouries have tarnished the image of Science in the

public mind.

Besides the horrendous weapons of annihilation, there are numerous ills that afflict

human society and these are due to changes brought about by Science and Technology.

Some of these applications were conceived of with very good intentions but, in the long

term, their consequences have become untoward. Well-known examples are : resources

depletion and environmental degradation. Every now and then, a technological

innovation starts a new hazard e.g. use of DDT ; distortions produced by thalidomide ;

climatological changes resulting from altering the characteristics of the atmosphere or

the ocean ; experiments in recombinant DNA-technology which may inadvertently

produce new plant, animal or human pathogens that may disrupt crucial biological

equilibria.

It is possible to conceive of the scientific community itself exercising a policy of

restraint and conforming to a code of moral conduct, remembering the plea made by

Einstein, for the attention of his fellow-scientists, that the concern for man and his

destiny ought to remain the chief motivating force behind all technical effort.

Independence of opinion on the part of all concerned, openness in discussion and a

coupling of scientific capabilities with moral values are among the major ingredients of

a possible solution.

There is observable a marked imbalance between the rate at which the frontiers of

knowledge are expanding and the rate at which the newly acquired knowledge becomes

integrated and gets consolidated. The process of integration, making Science more

coherent and hence more easily comprehensible, is a more difficult process than

merely expanding the territories of knowledge. Science appears to show no concern

for this aspect. In its cold and objective march forward, it has ignored and left behind

humanism as a factor in the affairs of mankind.

In our context, a strong-willed movement to integrate Science with Humanities should

become the corner-stone of our educational effort. We should endeavour to create a

perception in the minds of all concerned that Science supports and clarifies the

philosophies of Nature and of man embodied in the arts of the classical cultures.

We should equally strive hard to salvage human values inherent in the cultural

traditions of the East and the West and to find in them meaning and relevance for our

times. Where Science can help is to accept humanism as its founda tion and then lend

its methods of observation and reasoning to regions of human experience which lie in

the domain of the moral and the ethical and which have thus far evaded an objective

approach. It is only within the framework of precise, objective knowledge that we may

hope to re-establish the old set of values as a factor of consequence in human

relations. This process has to start with the individual, with the introdu ction of

harmony between his inner and outer life, leading to harmony between him and groups

and between groups and groups and eventually between nations and nations. The

methods of Science can help to demonstrate the validity and force of some truths: that

neither truth nor the implementation of an idea is the monopoly of the individual, a

group or a nation ; the imperative of co-operation rules out the idea of domina tion of

one group by another ; and progress can take place only on the basis of equality,

mutual respect and concern for the common good.

We need to generate a new quality of Science based on the understanding that Science

should not confine itself to the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake but should

become suffused with a moral force. We have landed ourselves in difficulties because

Scientists, with rare exceptions, have been content to be the brick-layers of the edifice

of Science. In the new World that we envision, in order to survive and to progress, the

Scientist can no longer practice, as well. In the midst of our pragmatic concerns, we

should do all that we can to safeguard this vision of Science and the pursuit of

creativity that it inspires.

II

A plea is often made that we should turn away from the complexities of today and go

back to the age of simplicity of our forefathers. This means calling a halt to the

advance of technology. While it is desirable that we look for simplicity in our lives

and evolve value-systems that make the minimum demands on energy, non-renewable

resources and environmental conditions, it is quite clear that, in order to meet the

essential requirements of food, shelter and clothing of the population, we need to

make full and judicious use of all the scientific advances that are taking place ; and

many new and innovative developments are called for.

There is a basic dichotomy between the technology that affluent societies practice and

the technology that poor is capital-intensive and takes from the bowels of the earth

resources that have taken aeons of time to materialize ; is complex and requires

specially trained operational ; and is highly centralized in setup and working and is

thus more prone to accident and sabotage. Such technology is un-satis factory from the

viewpoint of developing countries because it offers no continuity with the traditional

forms of knowledge and human skills that these countries possess and in the

repetitive, monotonous systems that have to be set up to further it, there are no

meaningful tasks to be performed by the abundant manpower available with them.

These countries now have the challenging task of organizing alternate techno logies-

not low-grade technologies but forms of technology that will look at all the scientific

knowledge in the world, not in a derivative or slavishly imitative fashion but in novel

and hitherto untried ways. Interesting work lies ahead in several significant areas

covering the basic human needs: the seeking of alternative forms of technology for

generating or tapping energy; housing and related amenities; decentralized

It is time to give a new direction to Science and Technology-to change the course

that has been followed since the Industrial Revolution. We must aim at a unified

view of global-not only national-needs. A multi-national effort is needed to solve the

elementary problems of all the peoples of the World-in the areas of food, medicine

and health-care, housing and education. Research is needed to increase agricultural

production with a minimum of inputs dependent on oil and coal. We must prevent the

misapplication and the waste of the wealth of our rivers and lakes, forests and mines.

We must befriend the sun. The wind and the tides and find ways to utilize some of

their tremendous reserves of power for human welfare. A whole new technology of

conservation is indicated and a new psychology that will teach people to overcome

the logic of the jungle that the stronger has the right to consume more.

III

Technology makes spectacular advances through the use of the scientific method.

Concurrently great scientific achievements take place because of the technological

tools that become available. We witness development in the interconnected areas of

nuclear science and technology, covering nuclear weapons-systems, nuclear power

systems. The application of isotopes in medicine etc. Nuclear technology has been

strongly influenced by scientific advances in materials science, chemistry, electronics

and instrumentation. To cite another example, the rapid developments that have come

about in the field of Laser Technology have given a new momentum to areas of

Science such as Spectroscopy that were areas of fundamental importance in earlier

times and were characterized by great discoveries. The new field of Quantum Electro -

nics has emerged from this interplay of advances.

Technology is not limited to the fulfilment of industrial goals and objectives. It has

begun to permeate all areas of production and end-use. Examples of such areas are:

agricultural technology; medical technology, and, deriving input and strength from

scientific discoveries in the field of life-sciences, the new range of bio-technologies.

We must also add Information Technology to this stock of new technologies. It is here

to make a powerful impact on the very nature of human society. Aristotle stated that

the size of a political unit is determined by the range of a single man's, voice. He was

a citizen of the Greek World where all residents of the City-State could be assembled

at one place to transact their common business. The entire World to-day is a single

community. There is no part of it which is not within the range of a single man's

voice; and, in the present television age, within the reach of a charismatic personality

using modern community techniques to manipulate emotions and control reasoning. In

today's conditions, the use of television, ushering in the tendency to replace language

with imagery, with the latter uninhibited by national frontiers thanks to the advent of

satellite-based communication, tends to create a highly impressionistic involvement in

global affairs. Besides crossing the horizontal barriers of nationality, the newly

emerging communication capabilities assail the vertical stratification of Society.

Information reaching out to remote regions on a scale not feasible before creates new

aspirations and puts into people's minds desires for new demands. Com munication

media now break through the traditional fragmentation of Society and reveal

outmoded limitations emphasizing that human rights and social aspirations and new

knowledge and information can no longer remain the monopoly of rich nations nor of

the privileged section in a poor country.

Thanks to rapid advances in the field of Computer Science and Technology, both in

terms of hardware and software, the Electronic Computer is proving itself to be more

than just a productivity engine. A U.N. Document refers to it as "the intellect-

amplifier" invented by man. It is well on its way to becoming a responsive personal

companion to ordinary people, at home as well as their work-places. Advances in

micro-electronics make information-systems both affordable and sophisticated enough

for wide-spread use. The innovation-challenge in this field is not just technical. It lies

in the matching of the broad spectrum of new technologies for service to the

informational, educational and cultural needs of people constituting contemporary

Society.

It is quite obvious that Technology has a key-role to play in determining the character

and vitality of the socio-economic system as a whole. Less than a decade ao, the cost

of energy remained a small part of the total cost of any output. This resulted from the

historical situation in which the population was small and energy resources in the form

of wood, coal, oil and hydro-electricity appeared to be of infinite capacity.

Technological development was based on the idea that energy would be available

easily and at low cost. Neither of these assumptions is valid today. The world

population has escalated tremendously and there is no sign of abatement. It is now

clear that the future of human society lies in the development of technologies that are

not energy-intensive. This is a distinct change that has come about in a short spell of

time. This represents an opportunity for countries like ours to leapfrog into

technologies of the future which must be low energy-intensive and where everyone in

the World is roughly at the same starting point.

The environment has assumed a position of crucial signi ficance within the last decade

or so. Earlier the sea around us, the rivers and the atmosphere were capable of

absorbing all the end-products of human activity. It did not matter what waste-

products were produced; .and they, when produced, could be discharged into the air,

the rivers and the sea. Today the situation is vastly different, with a large and growing

population in many parts of the World, increasing human activities and the limited

capacity of the earth to absorb the effluents. The environmental protection calls for

urgent attention - regulations relating to air and water pollution; control of toxicities

in the short-term as well as long-term; preservation of the global heat-balance; control

of the temperature of water-bodies. It is clear that the development of future

technologies must be directed toward attaining a greater degree of harmony with the

environment, through the development of processes that result in lesser generation of

pollutants and through steps to absorb or destroy pollutants.

Technologies developed in industrial countries have addressed labour-saving

techniques in view of the high cost of labour. On the other hand, our need is to

provide gainful employment to large sections of our population.

Energy is expensive and not easily accessible; the safeguarding of our environment

has assumed special significance; the provision of gainful and satisfying employment

to large numbers of men and women has become a key-issue. We have to look at the

technological options in the light of the economic and social needs of our Society. We

have to devise our own action-oriented programmes. No one from outside can be of

genuine assistance to this in this regard.

The pathway to self-reliance is not to set out to rediscover independently what as

already been discovered not to invent what has been invented already elsewhere. It

signifies the ability to analyze problems and define tasks and objects; to obtain

specific information that is needed from sources that are willing and can provide what

is relevant to our needs; to acquire self-confidence in our ability to develop what

needs to be developed; to start from a base which may be a mix of indigenous and

imported know how; and to more into the future on a contemporaneous basis through

bold initiatives and new thinking. Self-reliance needs a national commitment and

political will that supports it. It encompasses facets such as technology policy,

managerial capacities and technical skills. `The most critical requirement is a self-

reliant science and technology basis:

We should dedicate ourselves to the following objectives:

- The attainment of technological competence, with special reference to certain

strategic areas, making the maximum use of indigenous resources;

- Generation of meaningful and satisfying employment to all strata of society,

with emphasis on the employment of women and the weaker social groups;

- The use of traditional skills and capabilities, making them commercially

competitive, and a continual effort to modernize them to make them

competitive in the World of today;

- Maximizing development with minimum capital outlay ; identification and

removal of obsolescence in existing practices, both in terms of equipment and

techniques ;

- Fuller utilization of existing capacities and enhancement of the quality and

reliability of performance and output.

We should reduce our demands on energy particularly from non-renewable sources;

strive for greater harmony with the environment preserving the ecological balance and

improving the quality of the habitat; and mount crash-programmes to recycle waste-

material and achieve fuller utilization of by-products.

It is time to define with clarity the role of academic institu tions in the development of

technology and in the transfer of know-how to agencies engaged in production-

activities.

Universities and other institutions of higher education are invariably idiosyncratic and it

is in general impracticable to try simply to transfer successful patterns from one

institution to another. While it is myopic and incorrect to dismiss Universities as remote

ivory-towers, it is equally a trivialization of the potential of a University to regard it as

standing in relationship to Industry as a supplier to a client, producing graduates and

research results on order. The kind of relationship that ought to exist between academia

and industry is a subtle one in which the University utilizes its autonomy to try to take

the longer, strategic view, in a genuine spirit of cooperation in which, in fact, there is a

distinct complimentary of roles, as between the two partners. Technology and its

development are immensely important intellectual endeavours that demand the very best

of human creative skills.

We should enlarge the scope of functioning of Engineering Consultancy Units of which

we have many happy examples with successful accomplishments-to facilitate the

conversion of ideas and capabilities from laboratory to production centres. In the

process of transfer to technology from the donor to the acceptor, it is essential to

provide basic information on those aspects that went into the generation of the

technology or a particular design. The availability of such information will help to

build the spring-board for further development. We all recognize that sizeable

investments are called for at this critical juncture. If appropriate investments are not

made on indigenous efforts, money that is available will flow out on import of goods,

capital equipment and technology; and our backwardness will be perpetuated. In a White

paper submitted to the Parliament of India on the vistas of our national development in

the fields of Nuclear Energy and Space Technology, Indian Scientist Vikram Sarabhai

made this observation:

Our late arrival on the scene, our initial backwardness and the meagre investments made

by us in the past need not be allowed to remain our handicaps but can be converted into

our most valuable assets if we now clearly define our priorities, make judicious invest-

ments and rake firm forward steps with confidence in our ability to manage our affairs

competently.

Ever since we became a free nation, we have made a sustained effort to improve the

economy of the country, to grow more food, to lessen the pain of hunger and

malnutrition, to generate wider employment and to improve living conditions of the

people as a whole. We have attempted to restructure our educational systemand meet

the awesome challenges posed by the immensity of our population. We have addressed

ourselves to the imperatives of self-reliant growth of science and technology to fulfill

our felt needs.

We have succeeded on a number of fronts that will help to enthuse us in our efforts to

reach higher levels of performance. There are glaring failures too that cast a doubt on

our ability to rise above our difficulties and move forward on the path of progress.

There is in evidence a rising crescendo of fissiparous tendencies challenging the

integrity of those who wish to preserve the unity of the country. The daily newspapers

are replete with reports that indicate a sliding down inhuman values, the onset of

violence for securing immediate material gains putting narrow, selfish ends over the

larger interest of the community and a lowering of respect for truth and purity in public

life.

Many of our villages remain untouched by the changes taking place elsewhere.

Whatever changes take place are the trickle-down effects of changes in towns and cities

brought about by the introduction of modern industry and technology. The rural sector

quite often acts as a drag on the rest of the economy.

We complain about the slow pace of change. On the other hand, when change takes

place rapidly, certain sections of the community tend to appropriate to themselves a

larger share of the benefits than is their due. A sudden access to wealth; has led to

several abuses including a penchant for black money, which started with the business

community and has now spread to other classes.

Can it be said that our growth has suffered due to lack of resources? This may have

been true in the early years when nearly everything that we needed for development had

to be imported -capital, technology and management skills. Today we are not short of

capital of technology or management skills. What keeps us down is not lack of

resources but the lack of ability to use them intelligently and efficiently. If we do not

develop this capacity, we will surely descend into mediocrity and be pre-occupied with

trivial activities.

Over aeons of time, we have developed an ethos in which we prefer individual

perfection to creative social action. The Indian desire to unite with the infinite is a

distinctive char'-.ct eristic. Our people have the remarkable capacity to keep the inner

man intact, whatever happens around him.There is the story of the Sarpanch of an

Indian Village who mentioned with pride that his village had collected Rs. 50,000 to

build a new temple. Looking at the pathetic state of the open sewers of the village, the

visitor asked him: "Will you not first think of building sewers for the village?" A look

of consternation and pain came over the face of the Sarpanch – the lack of appreciation

of the system of values. The Sarpanch is the true representative of India-not the one

who put the question.

In the process of civilization, the cake of custom is broken and Society is set in dynamic

motion along the course of change and progress. There are two Indian characteristics

that we may take note of: One is that we do not fight. We absorb what we wish to

absorb and reject most influences on us. We have learnt through centuries to fight these

influences but we reject them peacefully. In India, reformers have found that when they

try to chip at the cake of custom, it is the chisel that cracks rather than the cake; for

example, the cake of the caste-system or the cult of the dowry-system. Introduc ing

Computers into such a society will not by itself modenise the Society. It will only help

to usher in another item of greed and exploitation. Modernization has to address itself to

the motives, the values and conduct of each person in society.

Arnold Toynbee, the eminent historian points out that, growth ceases, a sense of drift

and a sense of sin take over. The sense of drift comes from a belief that the whole world

ruled through chance or by Karma; that no change Can or will come and hence the

effort is not worth making. We have lived under the thraldom of drift for centuries and

must continue to do so. If there is a sense of sin, there is hope because it can serve as a

stimulus for change.

Indian civilization refuses to die like the Greek and Roman civilizations. But it resists

also regeneration. We need a new impulse to kindle the heart of India and set it on the

path of dynamic progress.' To lift the nation from the morass of difficulties, from the

frame-work of age-old customs and from the web of indecision, will take more than the

determination of one individual, however, sincere, wise and enlightened he is. People

must become involved in a programme of positive changes and this must begin with

their making the c h a n g e s themselves in their lives.

All around us we see a heightened awareness of the problems being created by

advances in. Science and technology, affecting our environment and threatening the

future of the human race. Our concerns transcend or abilities to deal with these

problems. We do not yet see with clarity how we may deploy our resources in a

constructive manner and do this even as our scientific and technological capabilities

get enhanced,

V

We should rise above certain illusions. Science and technology cannot wish away

poverty at one stroke though they can show how this can be optimally done in the long

run. Science and technology cannot by themselves generate employment or counter

under-employment but they can be used to develop appropriate-techniques that may be

employed and to analyze their cost-effectiveness in attaining the desired goals. How

Science and Technology can be used to meet human expecta tions is a matter of

commitment to social justice.

The exploitation of knowledge for the benefit of mankind is a complex, arduous

process. Human societies are more difficult to deal with than we thought at one time.

Every intervention in human affairs produces unforeseen complications. In the ultimate

analysis, it is only an incisive understanding of the human factors-combined with the

new capabilities that flow from advances in Science and Technology that will help to

achieve a World of decency, of increasing opportunity for individual development and

of social life based on compassion and cooperation. There is only one choice before us

and it is the one that calls upon us to move to a higher level of understanding, of

sophistication and of sensitivity in our use of Science and Technology and in our service

to Society on mankind's behalf.

Science and Technology affect the lives of all of us. Major decisions involving the

investments that we make in the areas of Science and Technology should be the

responsibility of all of us. These should be essentially public decisions. This, in turn,

demands that all members of Society must be educated and made to feel concerned about

the nature of the advances in Science and Technology and their impact on society. We

need the visualization and articulation of a series of humane goals to me. It is only when

we hold this that we will be able to lift Science & Technology from out of the rut into

which they have fallen and invest them with meaning and purpose in human terms. We

have met here to achieve a discernment of such goals and ways of moving towards them

in a manner that is commensurate with our aspirations conditioned by our limitations and

constraints.

In the words of Prof. Alfred North Whitehead:

The future of humanity is filled with threats, hazards and uncertain ties. And it is among

the merits of Science that it shows us the path towards progress and the way oat of

difficulties.

This Workshop is an attempt to promote thinking on the modus operandi, in our

context, of using the advances in Science and Technology to promote the welfare of the

Society to which we belong.

* Paper presented in the curriculum Development Workshop, New Delhi on Social

Responsibilities of Scientists, Technologists. Co-ordinator Prof Anuradha Sharam &

Prof Raka Sharan.

Social responsibilities in the context of Ecology & Environment:

One cannot ignore the danger to ecology and the environment due to lack of industrial

discipline. It is common knowledge that the pollution in the big cities has reached alarming

levels. There is little control on the quality of industrial effluents discharged in our water

systems or on the quality of motor vehicle exhausts polluting the environment. Even in

such routine activities as road building, construction, telephone system, power and water

supply etc. This quality control is conspicuous by its absence.

Little sensitivity is shown in such important activities as felling of trees, mining, construc -

tion of dams, location of industries, fire safety, traffic flow etc.

The general apathy to such macro-level problems leads one to the depressing conclusion

that the state of affairs will become much worse before it becomes better.

Reckless consumption of petroleum products and industrial pollution has resulted in what is

called `The Green House Effect.' Scientists believe that it is leading to a general rise in the

earth's temperature. It is estimated that the temperature has already risen by about 2°C.

Such a trend will eventually bring in its wake melting of polar caps and increase in the

water levels. Many coastal cities and even some entire countries (e.g. Maldives) are in

danger of being completely wiped out by the floods feared on this account. The protective

ozone layer in our atmosphere has also suffered and holes as big in size as the continent of

Antarctica have appeared in this layer. It is well known that this layer protects the

inhabitants of the earth by filtering out harmful radiations from the sun (e.g. ultra violet

rays). The depletion of this layer will bring in its wake a chain of diseases and disasters to

the inhabitants of the earth.

In the technologically advanced countries a number of voluntary and official agencies are

working for the protection of environment. Consumer protection agencies also operate to

ensure quality control. The increase in the volume of litigation and importance of legal

profession in the U.S.A. today is an index of the awareness of the people to their rights of

quality control and proper maintenance of all services e.g. telephone, and power supply.

Public awareness of such issues is bound to increase in India also. One can safely conclude

that all developing countries will pass through the same cycle of euphoria and depression as

is witnessed in advanced countries in their technological progress.

Developing countries often borrow technology from developed countries without realizing

that much of the developed countries' discipline and attitudes are often built into the

technology. It is essential that along with the machinery, the related work culture and

organization is also transplanted for the optimum operation of the particular machinery.

Environmental protection ensuring ecological balance, quality control and proper

maintenance of services are some of the most urgent issues that need to be clearly understood

and analyzed by the engineers and technocrats.

To this end there are two essential requirements. Firstly the engineers will need to be experts

in handling the sophisticated machinery and equipment. Secondly they will also need to

develop leadership qualities to efficiently run huge engineering projects that will continue to

proliferate in the course of development.

In large complex projects it is essential that people work as a team. The days of lone heroes

and indispensable autocrats are over. An engineer today has to work in harmony with his

peers, his superiors and his subordinates. This democratization of work culture puts a heavy

responsibility on engineers and managers to ensure regular training, updating of skills and

career management of the staff engaged in a project.

The Indian Scenario:

In the following section we discuss few examples from India. Most of the companies in their

Annual Board meetings make it a point to discuss the issue of Social responsibilities. Some

organizations have adopted villages, developed schools and are distributing facilities of

training like handicrafts and machines etc. at the level of government there are concerned

towards ecology and environment. Ganga cleaning project and Yamuna cleaning plans are

few examples. However there are areas where we have failed the test of Social

responsibilities. Municipalities for example need to gear themselves. Issues of waste

management are one of the challenging tasks for the municipalities. Delhi city only generates

about 80 million tonnes of garbage; Sushil has discussed waste management as social

responsibilities of scientists and technologists.

* Click here for learning more on waste management technology.

SOCIAL, IMPLICATIONS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Waste Management (WM) is a dynamically emerging field with vaste scope. The growing

urbanization and industrialization is making WM a complex problem with serious sociolo-

gical, ecological and economic implications. A sustained effort is needed to restore the

socio-ecological balance of nature in order to optimally harness the available resources.

This paper emphasizes to deal with the problem of waste in totality considering its technical

as well as social aspects and highlighting the social implications of effective WM. A sort of

social cost-benefit analysis should be done prior to the implementation of any W M

programme. It has been emphasized that in the socio-economic resource structure of India,

Management of waste plays an important role.

Waste Management: An Overview

From system's view point, waste has been visualized as any unnecessary input to or any

undesirable output from any system encompassing all types of resources, viz., manpower,

material energy, space, time, capital, utilities and services, data and information etc. The

resource-based classification of waste is shown in Figure 1. Waste Management (WM) is

conceptualized as a multidisciplinary activity to minimize the overall wastivity of the

system under consideration (1, 2, and 5). A systematic approach to WM encompassing the

waste of all kinds of resources at all stages should be adopted. However, as the material

constitutes a major faction of the total product cost, material wastes are of critical

importance.

Complementarity of Waste Management and Resource Management

A system basically takes some input, process it and gives the desired output, as shown in

Figure 2 i.e., some input is essential, in whatever form, for the functioning of a system. An

ideal system is conceptualized to transform the total input into useful or desirable output. In

view of the known physical laws of nature the existence of an ideal system is not possible,

i.e. 100 per cent utilization of resources is not practically possible for any system. To

paraphrase, some waste is inevitable in the functioning of any system.

The main objective of WM is to minimize the waste this aiming at the ideal system, while

the resource management aims to maximize the utilization of the resources. The goal of

waste and resource management is same, i.e., optimal utilization of the available resources

for higher efficiency and growth of the system, but the approaches are different. The

relationship of waste and resource management is shown in Figure 3. It can be said that

waste and resource management are complementary to each other. If one is primal

formulation of a problem, the other is dual.

Concept of Wastivity

An ideal or perfect system will be one that consumes just the right amount of resources,

leaving no idle, unutilized (nonrecoverable) or lost resource, or any undesirable output. The

concept of "wastivity" which is yet in the rudimentary stages may prove to be a good measure

of performance, both at macro and micro levels, and will be helpful in the sound planning and

monitoring of various systems at different levels of hierarchy.

"Wastivity of any system is defined as the ratio of the waste to the input"?

Wastivity

Depending upon the level of waste under consideration the

wastivity may be categorized as gross wastivity and net

wastivity. The wastivity for each type of input indirectly

assesses the productivity of each type of input. Both pro-

ductivity and wastivity are complementary to each other, which

bears in it the inherent cause-effect phenomenon. The cause,

i.e. wastivity is checked, the effect, i.e. productivity, will

automatically be improved.

The Functional Elements of Waste Management

The problems associated with the management of waste in today's society are complex and

diverse in nature. For an effective and orderly management of wastes the fundamental aspects

and relationships must be identified and clearly understood. The efficient WM comprises the

guide identification of waste generated/caused, economic reduction, efficient collection and

handling, optimal sense and recycling, and effective disposal of waste leaving no

environmental problems. WM can thus be functionally classified into five basic elements,

viz., generation, reduction collection, recycling and disposal. However, Waste Management

(WM) should be viewed in totality considering the inter-relationship of basic functional

elements/ systems as shown in Figure 4. One of the objectives of WM is to optimise

these basic functional systems to provide the most efficient and economic solution,

commensurate with the constraints imposed.

By considering each element separately it is possible to:

(i) Identify the fundamental aspects and relationships involved in each element:

(ii) Develop, wherever possible, quantifiable relationships for the purpose of making

engineering comparisons, analysis and evaluation.

Socio-economic Benefits of Waste Management Programmes

Some of the social and economic benefits of effective WM programmes and systems are as

follows:

i. Cheaper products due to increased productivity. Reduced scarcity of materials by way

of material conservations.

ii. Economic gains by salvaging waste materials.

iii. Introduction of newer products by recycling/reusing wastes.

iv. Relief from energy crisis.

v. More hygienic, safe and pollution free environment.

vi. Lesser public nuisance due to reduction in diseases.

vii. Neat, clean and comfortable living conditions and higher standard of living.

viii. Reduced uncertainty, better prediction and control of natural calamities by nature

conservation.

ix. Preservation of heritage, fauna and flora.

x. Control over unemployment and the development of a healthier society, and.

xi. Speedier and sustained national development and self-reliance.

Development of Economic System

Many a time growth and development of the economic system are treated as synonymous.

The consumption of resources is considered a growth measure. More consumption does

not necessarily mean more development. The development of the economic system is

dependent upon the effectiveness of utilization of the inputs, which is very much related to

the management of waste in the economy. It is advocated here that the waste parameters

deserve explicit consideration in view of their important role in various systems. The need

to incorporate waste as a parameter in socio-economic planning can hardly be

overemphasized by taking into consideration the crisis of vita fly needed resources,

balanced economic growth of the nation, and the awareness for a cleaner and hygienic

environment.6

The techno-economic structure has conventionally been concentrating on intermediate

means and intermediate ends. The ultimate means and ultimate ends in the spectrum, as

shown in Figure 5, (4) have most of the time been ignored. This has led to serious social

as well as ecological problems at both the ends. In order to minimize such socio-

ecological problems the base has to be widened to incorporate the ultimate means as

well as the ultimate end. WM can provide answer to interlink various stages from the

ultimate means to the ultimate ends in an effective manner.

The low entropy resources are being consumed exorbitantly and in the process high entropy

wastes are generated. This is leading to a continuous increase of the entropy of the whole

socio-economic system. This rate of growth of entropy has to be checked if the human race

wants to survive for tong and at a higher level of development. The entropy can be brought

under control by managing the waste in the economic system effectively. The technology

and WM can be taken as a substitute of negentropy, (3) as the technological progress

enables the economic extraction of lower grade natural resources and improved technology

and WM result in lower wastivity of the economy.

Socio-Technical System

From socio-technical system's viewpoint every organization is an integrated system having

interacting technical and social sub-systems as shown in Figure 6. The organization taken

both the technical and social inputs, gives the output of technical as well as social nature,

and generates both the technical and the social system waste. The relationship of technical

and social system waste is shown in Figure 7. The technical system's waste increase the

social system's waste and vice versa. Waste, whether technical or social, affects the social

system within the system and the environment through the links of quality, productivity and

environmental pollution.

In this regard selection of technology is an important managerial consideration. A wrong

choice of technology will lead to consequent waste of resources as well as cause social

problems. For example; if a capital intensive technology is selected, for a country like India

with vast amount of manpower available, in a sector where it is not needed, it will result in

the waste of capital, manpower and energy. Managers can play a vital role in the selection

of appropriate technology.

Social Responsibilities and Interfacing Problems

It is the social responsibility of every scientist, technologist and manager to design and

manage systems which are leading to minimum level of wastivity as shown in Figure 8.

There are two sub-systems in the technology cycle. One is technology development system

and the other is technology management system. Scientists, technologists and managers

have their social responsibilities with respect to both the systems. However, the scientists

and technologists have higher responsibilities for the technology development system,

whereas the managers are more responsible for the technology management system.

Scientists and technologists fulfil their social responsibilities by designing and developing

technologies that minimize the wastivity, and there, meet the social needs of the system

and the environment in the best possible manner.

Manager's social responsibilities are also very wide, and by managing the system's waste

they contribute towards better performance of social system by obviating some interfacing

socio-economic problems such as resource crisis, environmental pollution, psychological

and social stresses.

Conclusion

The need and importance of WM in the socio-economic system has been emphasized

and the social implications of effective WM are highlighted. It is concluded that in order

to create awareness in this regard the engineering curricula should incorporate some

topics on systems approach to WM and its socio-economic implications. It is hoped that,

if the professionals come out of the narrow conventional approach to WM and adopt a

broader systems approach to WM, it will help in the development of a better socio-

economic order.

FIG. 1. –Resource Based Classification of wastes

* Paper presented in the curriculum Development Workshop, New Delhi on Social

Responsibilities of Scientists, Technologists. Co-ordinator Prof Anuradha Sharam &

Prof Raka Sharan.

Many industries in India have also developed various technologies for disposal of waste,

for e.g. Solid wastes and Fly ash etc has been discussed in this paper.

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Click here to have an idea about such technologies in one of the companies.

Further Waste Management analysis:

We have discussed the issues related to waste management in our earlier modules. These

also constitute future challenges for us. In response to government and public pressures,

the health care industry has in the past few years directed a significant effort toward the

proper and safe management of medical waste streams. Medical waste is classified as a

bio hazardous waste which may result in human infection and transfers of disease. This

also includes injury and infection with many viruses and the Humans Immunodeficiency

Virus to laundry workers, nurses, emergency personnel, and refuse workers who may

come into contact with medical waste.

In a recent survey conducted in the United States and Japan and reported by the world

health organization (WHO) (1994), it was found that injuries by sharps constitute about

1-2 % per annum for nurses and maintenance workers and 18 % per annum for outside

waste management workers. In Japan, the survey indicated that injuries by sharps

constitute about 67% for in hospital waste handlers and 44% for outside waste

management workers.

In order to reduce the risks associated with medical waste, proper management

mechanism should be adopted by health care facilities to protect the health of the staff

within the medical facility, waste collection workers and the public once the waste has

left the facility for final disposal. These mechanisms include.

- Waste identification

- Segregation

- Storage and

- Treatment

However, as a first-step in the implementation of a waste management system, the

management of a medical facility should conduct an audit of the generated waste streams.

The purpose of this audit is to specify the locations of the waste generation points and

types and amounts of generated waste. An accurate estimate of the medical waste

amounts provides the management of a health care facility the tools for.

1. Predicting the cost of operating its medical waste management system in relation

to the fees for waste transport, treatment and disposal.

2. Improving environmental performance by monitoring the amounts of generated

waste from each medical activity, and undertaking proper measures to enforce

waste quantity minimization.

WHO/ UNEP (1997), the World Health Organization has adopted the following

definitions.

Medical activities: - any practices related to the diagnosis, monitoring,

treatment or prevention of disease or alleviation of handicap in human or

animals. These include emergency services, nursing, dental, veterinary,

pharmaceutical or similar practices, investigation, teaching and research,

or the collection of blood for transfusion.

Medical waste: the total waste streams arising form medical activities

which consist wholly or partly human or animal tissue, blood or other

bodily fluids, excretions, drugs or other pharmaceutical products, swabs

or dressings, or syringes, needles or other sharp instruments, being waste

which unless rendered safe, may prove hazardous or infectious to any

person coming into contact with it.

Healthcare or medical facilities: the sites carrying out all kinds of medical

activities as defined above. These include, but not limited to, hospitals,

healthcare centres, medical and dental clinics, laboratories, blood banks,

pharmacies etc.

The WHO regional guidelines (1994) presents some examples of heath care waste

classification systems in the western pacific countries. Accordingly a sound approach for

classifying wastes for the purposes of determining their quantities is to adopt

classification system which corresponds to the locally implemented methods for waste

collection, treatment and disposal.

Waste management and sustainable development:

Kofi A Anan (2002) observed Sustainable development rests on three pillars: economic

growth, social progress and protection of our environment and natural resources. When

the idea first burst onto the scene in 1987 with the publication of our common future, it

was meant to go beyond the ecosystem approaches of the past, which put environmental

issues on the political map but did not take fully into account these other key concerns.

Despite this advance, and despite considerable efforts and significant achievements since

the “Earth summit “the latest readings reveal a planet still in need of intensive care.

Poverty, pollution and population growth; rural poverty and rapid urbanization; wasteful

consumption habits and growing demands for water, land and energy continue to place

intense pressures on the planet’s life support systems, threatening our ability to achieve

sustainable development.

There is little chance of protecting the environment without a greater sense of mutual

responsibility, especially in an age of interdependence, and especially since the

environmental “footprint” left by some societies is so much larger than that left by others.

Leadership qualities coupled with technical competence are a potent prescription for

engineers and managers shouldering the heavy responsibility of socio-economic

development of the country. Corporations are driven by vast engine of consumer

satisfaction; many are also responsible for environmental destruction. Corporations and

businesses also generate pollution, contributing to what has been called the “trash crisis”.

They have not only been accused of generating trust, but also environmental racism, a

charge that turns our attention to where that trash is going and has gone. According to

Benjaarn F-Charis Jr. “a deliberate getting people of color communities for toxic waste

facilities” and an “official sanctioning of the life- threatening presence of poisons and

pollutants in our communities”. Minorities bear a greater burden form lead poisoning

airborne toxins and contaminated drinking water. Says Deeohn Ferris an attorney for the

National Wildlife Federation.

The condition is called as “environmental racism” an environmental researcher hope

Taylor says “small dirty industries have a tendency to locate in minority communities for

two reasons; one is cheap labor and two relative lack of knowledge about environmental

concerns “.

Environmental Racism analyzes the pattern of placing hazardous facilities in

communities in many countries and also makes a connection between this phenomenon

and dumping hazardous wastes in third – world countries often a discussion of ethics in

business or corporate social responsibility is reduced to a stank conflict between making

profits for shareholders VS assuming social responsibilities to the entire community

(Grossman, 1971)

Mitton Friedman (1970) a Nobel Prize economist raises the question whether business

has social responsibilities? Some business people have expressed the view that they ought

to not merely be concerned with maximizing profits but also concerned about

“discrimination” and “Avoiding pollution”. According to Friedman corporations have

“artificial responsibilities “but not “but as a whole”. He argues that they are employees

of stakeholders and that their duty is to make as much money as possible comparable

with the “basic rules of the society “those embodied in law and those embodies in ethical

custom. The executive is thus just an agent of those who own the corporation and his

primary responsibility is to them. He must not make corporate decisions in manners that

does not promote “ the best interests of his employers” and if he does he is spending

someone else’s money to promote a “social objective and this in Friedman’s view

amounts to fixation a function reserved in our political system to the government. If an

executive so acts, he is taxing people without being represented. Fried man thinks this is

typical or socialism. He claims that executives may lack expertise to make such

decisions, for e.g., how to might inflation or to ascertain how much stakeholders advocate

pursuit of social objectives.

There is a counter argument to Friedman’s view’s that has been given by a legal theorist

Christopher Stone. He says that “the managers of the corporation are to be steered almost

wholly be profit, rather than what they think proper for society on the whole”. Stone

takes the position that it may be better to leave the running of corporations to the market

and the law rather than “to have corporate managers implementing their own vague and

various notions of what is best. However, this view applies only if the law and the market

can keep corporations within “desirable bounds” of social responsibilities.

One example of these circumstances is the displacing of third-world farmers by huge

agribusiness companies in order to grow crops for export to other countries. Stakeholder

is a relatively new term invented to contrast with “Shareholder”. This suggests that

many individuals and groups beside shareholder are interest groups, retirees, host

communities and customers to name a few.

Thus, aims of CRS areas are as follows:

Companies now perform in non-financial arenas such as human rights, business ethics,

environmental policies, corporate contributions, community development, corporate

governance, and workplace issues.

Social and environmental performances are considered side by side with financial

performance. From local economic development concerns to international human rights

policies, companies are being held accountable for their actions and their impact.

Companies are also more transparent in disclosing and communicating their policies and

practices as these impact employees, communities, and the environment.

In the new global economy, companies that are responsive to the demands of all of their

stakeholders are arguably better positioned to achieve long-term financial success. It is no

longer optional for a company to communicate its environmental and social impacts; such

information is pertinent in an information-driven economy, and improved communication

has become critical for sustainable business growth.

CSR has become the password to not only overcome competition but to ensure sustainable

growth. It has been supported not only by the shareholders but stakeholders by and large

encompassing the whole community. Corporate Virtue Is In is the slogan as it offers so

many advantages including a hike in profits.

CSR is the point of convergence of various initiatives aimed at ensuring socio-economic

development of the community which would be livelihood oriented as a whole in a credible

& sustainable manner.

The above discussion suggests that there is Benefits of CSR too. Some of these are presented

below:

• Improved financial performance

• Reduced costs

• Enhanced brand image and reputation

• Increased sales and customer loyalty

• Customer satisfaction

• Increased productivity and quality

• Increased ability to attract and retain employees

• Reduced regulatory oversight

• Brand Visibility, recognition and awareness

• Increased market share

• Favourable positioning

• Competitive mileage

• More engaged investors

• Environmental sustainability

• Forging of partnerships

According to Wikipedia encyclopedia, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is an

expression used to describe what some see as a company’s obligation to be sensitive to

the needs of all of its stakeholders in its business operations. The principle is closely

linked with the imperative of ensuring that these operations are "sustainable" i.e. that it is

recognized that it is necessary to take account not only of the financial/economic

dimension in decision making also the social and environmental consequences

"Sustainable Development".

A company’s stakeholders are all those who are influenced by and/or can influence a

company’s decisions and actions, both locally and globally. These include (but are not

limited to): employees, customers, suppliers, community organizations, subsidiaries and

affiliates, joint venture partners, local neighborhoods, investors, and shareholders (or a

sole owner).

Today’s heightened interest in the proper role of businesses in society has been promoted

by increased sensitivity to environmental and ethical issues. Issues like environmental

damage, improper treatment of workers, and faulty production leading to customers

inconvenience or danger, are highlighted in the media. In some countries Government

regulation regarding environmental and social issues has increased, and standards and

laws are also often set at a supranational level. Some investors and investment fund

managers have begun to take account of a corporation’s CSR policy in making

investment decisions. Some consumers have become increasingly sensitive to the CSR

performance of the companies from which they buy their goods and services. These

trends have contributed to the pressure on companies to operate in an economically,

socially and environmentally sustainable way... Corporations have often, in the past,

spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the

establishment of Foundations. They have also often encouraged their employees to

volunteer to take part in community work thereby create goodwill in the community

which will directly enhance the reputation of the company and strengthen its brand. CSR

goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company will take into full account

the impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This

requires them to balance the needs of all stakeholders with their need to make a profit and

reward their shareholders adequately. This holistic approach to business regards

organizations as being full partners in their communities.

The benefits of CSR to businesses vary depending on the nature of the enterprise, and are

typically very difficult to quantify. It should be noted that the definition of CSR used

within business can vary from the strict 'stakeholder impacts' definition and will often

include charitable efforts and volunteering.

The Environment issues for CSR are likely rest on one or more of these arguments these

are:

- Human resources

- Risk management

- Brand differentiation

- License to operate

- Diverting attention

Corporate Social Responsibility can be an important aid to recruitment and retention,

particularly within the competitive graduate market in the environment.

Managing risk is a central part of many corporate strategies. Reputations that take

decades to build up can be ruined in hours through incidents such as corruption scandals

or environmental accidents. These events can also draw unwanted attention from

regulators, courts, governments and media. Building a genuine culture of 'doing the right

thing' within a corporation can offset these risks.

In crowded marketplaces companies strive for environmental factors, which can separate

them from the competition in the minds of consumers.

By taking substantive voluntary steps corporations can persuade governments and the

wider public that they are taking current issues like health, safety, diversity or the

environment seriously and so avoid intervention.

Major corporations which have existing reputation problems due to their core business

activities may engage in high-profile CSR programs to draw attention away from their

perceived negative impacts. Thus, as part in health initiatives corporations have installed

very visible wind-turbines on the roofs of some petrol stations in some countries.

Though CSR is a widely talked about concept, there are still many criticisms against it.

Some critics of CSR, such as the economist Milton Friedman, argue that a corporation's

principal purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders, whilst obeying the laws of

the countries within which it works. Others argue that the only reason corporations put in

place social projects is utilitarian; that they see a commercial benefit in raising their

reputation with the public or with government. Proponents of CSR, however, would

suggest a number of reasons why self-interested corporations, seeking to solely to

maximize profits are unable to advance the interests of society as a whole.

Key challenges to the idea of CSR include: - the rule of corporate law that a corporation's

directors are prohibited from any activity that would reduce profits - other mechanisms

established to manage the principal-agent problem, such as accounting oversight, stock

options, performance evaluations, deferred compensation and other mechanisms to

increase accountability to shareholders.

There are various views regarding CSR.

Some would argue that it is self-evidently “good” that businesses should seek to

minimize any negative social and environmental impact resulting from their economic

activity. It can also be beneficial for a company’s reputation to publicize (for example)

any environmentally beneficial business activities. A company which develops new

engine technology to reduce fuel consumption will be able to promote its CSR credentials

as well as increase profits.

Some commentators are cynical about corporations’ commitment to CSR and Sustainable

Development and say that the idea of an “Ethical company” is an oxymoron.

But as with any process based on the collective activities of communities of human

beings (as companies are) there is no "one size fits all". In different countries, there

will be different priorities, and values that will shape how business act.

The re i s a g row ing g loba l r o l e the pressure on business to play a role in

social issues will continue to grow. Over the last ten years, those institutions which

have grown in power and influence have been those which can operate effectively

within a global sphere of operations. These are effectively the corporate and the

NGOs. Those institutions which are predominantly tied to the nation state have been

finding themselves increasingly frustrated at their lack of ability to shape and

manage events. These include national governments, police, judiciary and others.

There is a growing interest, therefore, in businesses taking a lead in addressing those

issues in which they have an interest where national government have failed to come

up with a solution. The focus Unilever has on supporting a sustainable fisheries

approach is one example. Using the power of their supply chain, such companies are

placed to have a real influence. National governments negotiating with each other

have come up with no solutions at all, and ever-depleting fish stocks. That is not to

say businesses will necessarily provide the answers - but awareness is growing that

they are occasionally better placed to do so than any other actors taking an interest.

There are various arguments against Corporate Social Responsibility; some of

the arguments have been discussed below. These are as follows:

(Mallen Baker, April 2001)

Argument - I

Businesses are owned by their shareholders - any money they spend on so-

called social responsibility is effectively theft from those shareholders who can,

after all, decide for themselves if they want to give to charity.

This is the voice of the laisser-faire 1980s, still being given powerful voice by

advocates such as Elaine Sternberg. Sternberg argues that there is a human rights

case against CSR, which is that a stakeholder approach to management deprives

shareholders of their property rights. She states that the objectives sought by

conventional views of social responsibility are absurd. Not all aspects of CSR are

guilty of this, however. Sternberg states that ordinary decency, honesty and fairness

should be expected of any corporation.

In the first instance, this case strongly depends on the model of social responsibility

adopted by the business being a philanthropic one. The starting point assumption is

that, through CSR, corporations simply get to "give away" money which rightfully

belongs to other people. If CSR is seen as a process by which the business manages

its relationships with a variety of influential stakeholders who can have a real

influence on its license to operate, the business case becomes immediately apparent.

CSR is about building relationships with customers, about attracting and retaining

talented staff, about managing risk, and about assuring reputation.

Argument -II

The leading companies who report on their social responsibility are basket

cases - the most effective business leaders don't waste time with this stuff.

Looking at the most recent times, “Most Respected Companies" survey by the

Financial Times. Who are the most respected companies and business leaders at the

current time?

In the first instance, very few businesses operate in a black or white framework,

where they are either wholly virtuous or wholly without redemption. There are many

aspects in the way Jack Welch restructured General Electric which would play to the

kind of agenda recognizable to advocates of social responsibility - in particular that

of employee empowerment.

Also, many of the leading companies with regard to their social responsibility are

equally successful companies. The same "Most Respected" survey named IBM and

Motorola as leaders as well - and these are companies that have been much more

strongly associated with the CSR movement. Coca Cola achieved its place partially

because of its profile in social responsibility.

Argument - III

Our company is too busy surviving hard times to do this. We can't afford to take

our eye off the ball - we have to focus on core business.

It's all very well for the very big companies with lots of resources at their disposal.

For those fighting for survival, it's a very different picture. You can't go spending

money on unnecessary frills when people are being laid off one morale is rock

bottom. And the odd bit of employee volunteering won't make any difference to our

people when they feel cynical and negative about how the company operates.

Managing your social responsibility is like any other aspect of managing your

business. One can do it well, or one can do it badly. If the process of managing

social responsibility leads you to take your eye off the ball and stop paying attention

to core business, the problem is not that you're doing it at all - it's that you're doing

it badly. Well managed CSR supports the business objectives of the company, builds

relationships with key stakeholders whose opinion will be most valuable when times

are hard, and should reduce business costs and maximize its effectiveness. The

following statements would help to look at the situation more objectively.

• Times are hard, therefore it is in my interest to pollute more and run an

increased risk of prosecutions and fines, not to mention attracting the attention of

environmental pressure groups

• Times are hard; therefore I can afford to lose some of my most talented

people - serving or potential - by erecting barriers on the basis of race, gender, age

or sexual orientation. And it doesn't matter if employment tribunals occur as a result

of my poor employment practices.

• Times are hard; therefore I need to ignore changing values in my customer

base towards socially responsible goods and services. I can keep making things just

the way I always have.

• Times are hard, so I can ignore the fact that the local communities around

my plant are poor living environments with low education achievement, meaning

that my best staff won't want to live in them and our future staff will need

supplementary training in basic skills such as literacy which they should be getting

at school. Our company can be an island of prosperity in a sea of deprivation.

Argument - IV

It's the responsibility of the politicians to deal with all this stuff. It's not our role

to get involved

Business has traditionally been beyond morality and public policy. We expect

governments to provide the legal framework that says what society will put up with.

There's no point, for instance, allowing smoking to remain legal - even making large

tax receipt from it - and then acting as though tobacco companies are all

immediately beyond the pale. if one considers smoking illegal , then put a ban on it,

otherwise let people decide for there selves and choose what is good and bad for

them.

Outside of that "macro" scale, the argument holds up less well. Many companies

actually spend considerable time and money seeking to influence the formation of

public policy in their area of interest. And since that area of interest can range far

and wide - from international treaties on climate change, through to domestic policy

on health (such as that relating to smoking) or transport - the fact is the lobbying

activities of companies show that they have a role like it or not. And if that lobbying

has involved blocking legislation that serves a social end purely in order to continue

to profit in the short term, then the company is on very dodgy ground.

If CSR is simply about obeying the law and paying taxes, then perhaps the above

statement is fair comment. If it is about managing the demands and expectations of

opinion formers, customers, shareholders, local communities, governments and

environmental NGOs - if it is about managing risk and reputation, and investing in

community resources on which you later depend - then the argument is a nonsense.

Argument – V

I have no time for this. I've got to get out and sell more to make our profit line.

'

There are a number of views that have business managers about environmental

performance, how difficult a sell waste minimization was to managers who really

needed to save money. Study after study after study has shown that just about any

business you can think of, if it undertakes waste minimization for the first time, can

shift 1% of its overall turnover straight onto its bottom line. That is not an

insignificant figure. And yet, getting out and selling more product somehow remains

more attractive for business managers than making more profit through wasting less.

It will take a long time and a change in fundamental attitudes towards doing

business before this one shifts.

Argument - VI

Corporations don't really care - they're just out to screw the poor and the

environment to make their obscene profits

Corporations have their share of things to answer for; the fact is that if one is

interested in the real solutions to world poverty or environmental degradation, one

has to have some kind of view about how solutions will be found.

The solutions to these common problems will either be common solutions or they

won't be solutions. By all means give careful scrutiny to those who wield the most

power. But recognize CSR as a business framework which enables the common

solution of wealth creation as if people and the environment mattered.

Argument VIII

Another argument against CSR is –“Is Corporate Social Responsibility an

Oxymoron”?

The voices calling for corporate reform are getting louder. "Corporate social

responsibility is an oxymoron", according to a recent book and documentary film "the

Corporation" by law professor Joel Bakan. Corporations are like amoral "psychopaths" -

manipulative, incapable of being empathic or remorseful, and, while causing tremendous

damage to the environment and other elements of the public interest, they refuse to take

responsibility for their behaviour. Harsh words, but they resonate with those uttered by

critics of corporate power throughout history.

Corporations are powerful institutions. They do not serve humanity well when their

pursuit of profits leads to strategies that degrade the environment, violate human rights

and the dignity of employees, endanger public health and safety and otherwise undermine

the welfare of communities.

People who run corporations are mostly decent human beings; many are pillars of their

communities. They care about the environment and other people; they want to be

recognized as good citizens. Corporate abuse of the public interest does not stem from

flaws in the characters of corporate personnel; it stems from a flaw in the rules under

which corporations operate.

State laws that create corporations promote behaviour which managers and shareholders

do not condone in their personal lives. Those laws encourage managers to act as if

shareholders are psychopaths -- concerned only that their company makes more and more

money without regard for the human or environmental costs. They allow managers to

excuse the damage they do by claiming they are only doing what the law requires -

promoting the interests of shareholders.

Legislatures pass laws to control that behaviour, but they are merely treating the

symptoms of a problem while ignoring its underlying cause. A better solution, to prevent

the problem from occurring in the first place, is to change the laws that create it.

People understand that doing well and doing good are not mutually exclusive.

Shareholders are increasingly supporting stockholder resolutions that address issues of

corporate responsibility, even when those resolutions support action that may not be in

their short-term financial interest. More and more corporations are taking steps to protect

the environment and to adopt policies that enrich the communities in which they operate.

But these changes are slow, piecemeal and vulnerable to backsliding.

Corporations have the potential to embrace human values if we, the citizens in whose

name the corporate laws were enacted, demand it. To deal effectively with institutions

that exhibit psychopathic behaviour, as with psychopathic individuals, it is essential to

provide structure, embodied in a code of conduct that articulates expectations and

standards clearly, sets limits on such behaviour and proscribes appropriate sanctions

when the code is breached.

By asking the state legislators to enact the Model Code for Corporate Citizenship, which

would add the following sentence to the corporate law which suggests that "The pursuit

of profits must not come at the expense of the environment, human rights, public health

and safety, the dignity of employees or the welfare of communities. This takes us to the

next section of this module on policy considerations.

POLICY CONSIDERATIONS

Policy Considerations are important aspects of environmental studies. In this module we

understand the policy implications and environmental laws. There are various laws

related to environment protection in India. These are related to pollution, water , air.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: AN INTRODUCTION

Environment Protection has been the concern of Policy planners and lawmakers for a

long time. As long back as the time of Kautillya, the need for maintaining a forest cover,

protection of wild life and regulating the utilization of forest produce was emphasized. It

also laid down the punishment for those who degraded the environment by damaging the

forests or harming the protected species of wild life. In Early British period in India the

environment legislation was the subsidiary output of legislations on the other revenue

subjects such as Factory, Forest, Fisheries, Port, Easement and cattle Trespass etc. Some

Special Acts were also made to cover a specific item of environment protection like, the

Shore Nuisance Act of 1853, Orient Gas Company Act 1857, Bengal Smoke Nuisance

Act 1905, Elephant Preservation Act 1879, Hailey National Park Act 1936 etc. Indian

Penal Code covered the offence of fouling the water (section 277) and making

atmosphere noxious to health (section 278) in Chapter XIV on offences affecting public

Health etc. The Code of Criminal Procedure 1898 (now 1973) provided the mechanism

for removal of nuisance from any river, way or channel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge the help received from Mr. Sharda Prasad, I.P.S, and Director of the

Institute for Criminology and Forensic Sciences, New Delhi for the analysis presented in

this module.

After Independence the issues were dealt in an ad-hoc fashion till 1960’s. In February

1972 the Government of India constituted a National Committee on Environmental

Planning and Coordination. (NCEPC). The then PM Mrs. Indira Gandhi while addressing

the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm on June 14,

1972 said that the environmental problems of the developing countries are not the side

effects of excessive industrialization but reflect the inadequacy of development. She

cautioned that the fight against the pollution should not be converted to another business

out of which a few companies, corporations or nations would make profit at the cost of

the many.

There are many laws related to Environment. (R.K. Garg, 2006) Some of them can be

listed as follows:

ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION), ACT, 1986

I) Subject to the provisions of this act, the Central Government shall have

The power to take all actions it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of

protecting and improving the quality of environment and preventing, controlling and

abating environmental pollution.

II) Persons carrying on industry, operation, etc. not to allow emission or discharge of

environmental pollutants in excess of the standards.

III) Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards.

IV) Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases.

V) Penalty for contravention of the provision of this Act and the rules, orders, and

Directions.

VI) Protection of action taken in good faith.

VII) The Central Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, make rules for

carrying out purposes under this Act.

VIII) Prohibition and Restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on

processes and operations in different areas.

IX) Prohibition and Restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on processes

and operations in different areas.

X) Standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants

i) For the purposes of protecting and improving the quality of the

environmental pollution, the standards for emission or discharge of

environmental pollutants from the industries, operations or processes

shall be specified [Scheduled I to IV]

ii) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (i), the Central Board

or a State Board may specify industry, operation or process depending

upon the quality of the recipient system and after recording reason

therefore in writing.

iii) The standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants

specified under sub-under (i) or sub-rule (ii) shall be complied with by

an industry, operation or process within a period of one year of being

so specified.

iv) Not withstanding anything in contained in sub-rule (iii), the standards

for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants specified under

sub-rule (i) or sub-rule (ii) in respect of an industry, industry,

operation o process before the commencement of the environment

(protection) (amendment) rules, 1991 shall be complied with by such

industry, operation or process by the 31st day of December, 1991.

v) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (iii) an industry,

operation or process which has commenced production on or before

16th May 1981 and has shown adequate proof of at least

commencement of physical work for establishment of facilities to meet

the specified standards within a time bound program, to the

satisfaction of the concerned State pollution Control Board, shall

comply with such standards latest by 31st of December 1993.

vi) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule(iii) or sub -rule(v) an

industry ,operation or process which has commenced production after

the 16th day of May, 1981 but before the 31st day of December,1991

and has shown adequate proof of at least commencement of physical

work for establishment of facilities to meet the specified standards.

Within a tie bound program, to the satisfaction of the concerned State

Pollution Board shall comply with such standards latest by the 31st day

of December 1992.

HAZARDOUS WASTES (MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 1989.

I) Responsibility of the occupier and the operator of a facility for handling of

wastes.

i) The occupier and the operator of a facility shall be responsible for , proper

collection, reception, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes

ii) The occupier or any other person acting on his behalf who intends to get his

hazardous waste treated by the operator of a facility under sub-rule(i) shall

give to the operator of a facility such information as may be specified by the

State Control Board.

iii) It shall take the responsibility of the occupier and the operator of a facility, to

take all steps to ensure that the wastes are properly handled, and disposed

without any adverse effects to the environment.

II) Packaging, Labelling and Transport of hazardous wastes

i) The Occupier or Operator of a facility shall ensure that the hazardous wastes

are packaged, based on the composition in a manner suitable for handling,

storage and transport and the labelling and packaging shall be easily visible

and be ale to withstand physical conditions and climatic factors.

ii) Packaging, labelling and transport of hazardous wastes shall be in accordance

with the provisions of the rules made by the Central Government under the

Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, and other guidelines issued from time to time.

III) Import and Export of hazardous wastes from any country to India and export

to any other country for dumping or disposal shall not be permitted.

IV) Save as otherwise provided, no person shall import or export hazardous

wastes or substances containing or contaminated wit such hazardous wastes as

specified in Schedule 8.

V) Illegal Traffic:

The movement of hazardous waste from to the country shall be considered illegal if;

a) if it is without prior permission of the Central Government ; or

b) if the permission has been obtained through falsification, misrepresentation or

fraud; or

c) It does not conform to the shipping details provided in the document.

VI) Export of hazardous waste:

The exporting country or the exporter as the case may be, hazardous waste shall apply 90

days in advance in form 7 to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India, seeking permission for the proposed export the trans-boundary movement.

MANUFACTURE, STORAGE AND IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

RULES, 1989

I) The concerned authority shall-

a) inspect the industrial activity at least once in a calendar year;

b) except where authority is the Ministry of Environment and Forests, annually report

on the compliance of the rules by the occupiers to the Ministry of Environment and

Forests through appropriate channel;

c) Subject to the other provisions of these rules, perform the duties specified in column

3 of Schedule 5.]

II) General responsibility of the Occupier during industrial activity

These rules shall apply to-

a) An industrial activity in which a hazardous chemical, which satisfies any of the

criteria laid down in Part I of Schedule I .

b) Isolated stage of a hazardous chemical listed in Schedule 2 in a quantity equal to

or more than the threshold quantity specified in column 3, thereof.

2) Notification of a major accident:

i) Where a major accident occurs on a site or in a pipeline, the Occupier shall [within

48 hours notify] the concerned authority as identified in Schedule 5 of that accident,

and furnish thereafter to the concerned authority a report relating to the accidents in

instalments, if necessary, in Schedule 6.

iii) The concerned authority shall on receipt of the report in analysis of the major

accident and send the [requisite information about within 90 days the

Ministry] of Environment and Forests through appropriate channel

II) Preparation of on-site emergency plan by the Occupier

i) An Occupier shall prepare and keep up-to-date haw many major accidents will

be dealt with on the site on which the industrial activity is carried on and that

plan shall include the name of the person who is responsible for safety on the

site and the names of those who are authorized to take action in accordance

with the plan in case of an emergency.

ii) The occupier shall ensure that the emergency plan prepared in accordance

with sub-rule(1) takes into account any modification made in the industrial

activity and that every person on the site who is affected by the plan is

informed of its relevant provisions.

III) Import of hazardous chemicals

i) This rule shall apply to a chemical which satisfies any of the criteria in Part I

of Schedule I

ii) Any person responsible for importing hazardous chemicals in India shall

provide [before 30 days or as reasonably but not later than] the date of import

to the concerned authorities as identified in column 3 of Schedule 5.

iii) The concerned authority at the State shall simultaneously inform the

concerned port authority to take appropriate steps regarding safe handling and

storage of hazardous chemicals while off-loading the consignment within the

port premises.

IV) Improvement Notices:

i) If the concerned authority is of the opinion that a person has contravened the

provisions of these rules, the concerned authority shall serve on him a notice

requiring that person to remedy the contravention or as in this case may be,

[the matters occasioning it within 45 days].

ii) A notice served under sub-rule(i) shall clearly specify the measures to be

taken by the Occupier in remedying the said contraventions

V) Power of the Central Government to modify the Schedules;

The Central Government at anytime, by modification, in the Official Gazette, makes

suitable changes in the Schedules.

NOISE POLLUTION (REGULATION AND CONTROL)) RULES, 2000

I) The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas/zones:

i) The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas/zones

shall be specified in the Schedule annexed to these rules.

ii) The State Government [shall categorize] these areas into industrial,

commercial, residential or silence areas/zones for the purpose of

implementation of noise standards for different areas.

iii) The State Government shall take measures for abatement of noise including

noise emanating from vehicular movements and ensure that the existing noise

levels do not exceed the air quality standards specified under these rules.

II) Responsibility as to enforcement of noise pollution control measures:

i) The noise levels in any area/zone shall not exceed the ambient air quality

standards in respect of noise as specified in the Schedule.

ii) The authority shall be responsible for the enforcement of noise pollution

control measures and the due compliance of the ambient air quality standards

in respect of noise.

III) Restrictions on the use of loud speakers/ public address system:

i) A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used except after

obtaining written permission from the authority.

ii) A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used at night (between

10.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m.) except in closed premises for communication within

e.g. auditoria conference rooms, community halls and banquet halls.

IV) Consequences of any violation in silence zone/area:

Whoever, in any place covered under the silence zone/area commits any of the

following offence; he shall be liable for penalty under the provisions of the Act

i) Whoever, plays any music or uses any sound amplifiers

ii) Whoever, beats a drum or tom-tom or blows a horn either musical or pressure,

or trumpet or beats or sounds any instrument, or

iii) Whoever exhibits any mimetic, musical, or other performances of a nature to

attract crowds?

V) Complaints to be made to the authority:

i) A person may, if the noise level exceeds the ambient noise standards by

10dB(A) or more given in the corresponding columns against any area/zone,

make a complaint to the authority.

ii) The authority shall act on the complaint and take action against the violator in

accordance with the provisions of these rules and other law in force.

VI) Power to prohibit, etc. continuance of music sound or noise:

i) If the authority is satisfied from the report of an officer in charge of a police

station or other information received by him that it is necessary to do so in

order to prevent annoyance, disturbance, discomfort or injury or risk of

annoyance, disturbance, discomfort or injury to the public or to any person

who dwells or occupies property on the vicinity, he may, by a written order

issue such directions a he may consider necessary to any person preventing,

prohibiting, controlling or regulating:

a) the incidence or continuance in or upon any premises of-

i) any vocal or instrumental music,

ii) sounds caused by playing, beating, clashing, blowing or use in any manner

whatsoever of any instrument including loudspeakers, public address systems,

appliance or apparatus or contrivance which is capable of producing or re-

producing sound, or

b) The carrying or in or upon, any premises of any trade, avocation or operation

or process resulting in or attended with noise.

ii) The authority empowered under sub-rule (i) may, either on its own

motion, or on the application of any person aggrieved by an order made under sub

rule (i) either rescind, modify or alter any such order.

BIO-MEDICAL WASTE (MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 1998:

These rules apply to all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat,

dispose, or handle bio-medical waste.

I) Duty of the Occupier:

It shall be the duty of every occupier of an institution generating -medical waste

which includes a nursing home, hospital, clinic, dispensary, veterinary institution,

animal house, pathological laboratory , blood bank by whatever name called to take

all steps to ensure that such waste is handled without any adverse effect to human

death and the environment.

II) Treatment and Disposal:

i) Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance with

Schedule I, and in compliance with the standards prescribed in Schedule V.

ii) Every occupier, where required, shall set up in accordance with the time

schedule in Schedule VI, requisite bio-medical waste treatment facilities like

incinerator, autoclave, microwave system for the treatment of waste or, ensure

requisite treatment of waste at a common treatment facility or any other waste

treatment facility.

III) Segregation, packaging, transportation and storage:

i) Bio-medical waste shall not be fixed with other wastes.

ii) Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into bags, containers at the point of

generation in accordance with Schedule II prior to its storage, transportation,

and disposal. The containers shall be labelled according to Schedule V.

iii) If a container is transported from the premises where bio-medical waste is

generated o any waste treatment facility outside the premises, the container

shall, apart from label prescribed in Schedule III also carry information

prescribed in Schedule IV.

IV) Authorization:

i) Every occupier of an institution generating, collecting, receiving, storing,

transporting, treating, disposing and/or handling bio-medical wastes in any

other manner, except such occupier of clinics, dispensaries, pathological

laboratories, blood banks providing treatment/service to less than 1000

patients per month, shall make an application in Form I to the prescribed

authority for grant of authorization.

ii) Every operator of a bio-medial waste facility shall make an application in

Form I to the prescribed authority for grant of authorization.

V) Common disposal:

Without prejudice to rule 5 of these rules, the Municipal Corporations, Municipal

Boards or Urban Local Boards, as the case may be, shall be responsible for providing

suitable in area under their the jurisdiction and in areas outside their jurisdiction of

any municipal body, it shall be the responsibility of the occupier generating bio-

medical waste/operator of a bio-medical waste treatment facility to arrange for

suitable sites individually or in association, so as to comply with the provisions of

these rules.

DETAILED EXPLAINATION OF A FEW LAWS:

Water Act 1974 and Air Act 1981 were followed by an umbrella legislation for

environment protection namely, Environment (Protection) Act 1986. The latter was

enacted to implement the decisions of the Stockholm Conference mentioned above.

These Acts provide for the constitution of necessary regulatory agency, empower it and,

the need for a no-fault compensation regime was felt. The Parliament accordingly

enacted the Public Liability Insurance Act 1991. This Act makes it compulsory for the

handler of hazardous substances, to take insurance cover to cater for the funds for

providing expeditious relief to the persons affected by the accidents occurring while

handling any hazardous substance. Thus the observations of the Supreme Court in Charan

also provide for citizen’s suit. During the handling of handling the Bhopal Gas leak case

Lal Sahu vs. Union of India (1990 SCC 613 and AIR 1990 SC 1562) regarding creation

of funds to take care of compensation awards. Further the National Environment Tribunal

Act 1995 was made for administering an effective and expeditious relief and

compensation for damages to human health, property and environment, arising out of

handling the hazardous substances. This was followed by National Environment

Appellate Authority Act 1997, to hear appeals with respect to notifications specifying the

areas in which hazardous activities could be carried out in accordance with Environment

(Protection) Act, 1986.

Over the last few years the noise pollution is continuously increasing. Important

contributors to the noise pollution are increasing traffic chaos, conspicuous display of

wealth by using fireworks in marriages, functions and festivals, use of loudspeakers in

religious and social functions and use of pressure horns by commercial vehicles. It may

be noted that while the laws have been made regarding air and water pollution, protection

of forests and wildlife, no specific law has so far been made to control noise

pollutioni.Instead, by an amendment brought in 1987(Act 47 of 1987) the words

‘including noise’ were inserted in section 2(a) of Definitions under Air Act 1981. Later

made Environment (Protection) Act gave rule making power to the Central Government

vide section 6(2)(b) regarding maximum allowable limits of concentration of various

environmental pollutants (including noise). These appear to give enough legal backing to

State’s effort in pollution control. It is submitted that quality of air has a relationship with

the amount of pollutant, which according to Environment Act 1986 (see definition at

section 2. (b) ) have to be solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere. It

is obvious that noise pollution which is due to undesirable sound energy in air is certainly

not a particulate or gaseous matter. The definition of Air pollution in section 2(a) of Air

Act is similarly flawed where the noise is included as a pollutant as a subset of particulate

matters. It is difficult to say if such unscientific definition would stand the test of reason

in a court of law.

Notwithstanding above logic, Environment Rules framed under Environment Act, 1986

have notified Guidelines for containing noise pollution in item 46(noise limit for

automobiles), 47(Domestic appliances and construction equipments), 83(DG sets) and

85(Coal Washeries) of Schedule I, whole of Schedule III (area based noise standards for

i

day and night) and Part E (noise limits for automobiles) of Schedule VI. In addition, to

maintain ambient air quality Standard in respect of noise, the Noise Pollution Rules, 2000

have also been made to regulate and control the noise producing and generating sources

for example, loudspeakers and P.A. systems. In many States the use of loudspeakers can

be regulated under local laws .The use of pressure horns and multi-tone horns could be

regulated by provisions of Motor Vehicle Act. Preventive sections of Cr.P.C. have also

been used for the limited periods to control the use of loudspeakers and to prohibit sale of

certain type of fireworks, which produce unduly loud noise, in cases where they become

a public nuisance. Courts have invoked provisions of Article 21 of Constitution of India

to say that the right to life includes the right to a wholesome environment and ensured

noise free atmosphere for the inhabitants.

Our Constitution by an amendment in 1976 (42nd Amendment) provides for environment

protection as a Directive Principle of State’s Policy under Article 48(A) and as a

fundamental duty for all citizens of India under Article 51(A).

A Part IV “Directive Principles of State Policy”- Article 48(A): Protection and

improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wildlife.

“The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard

the forests and wildlife of the country”.

B Part IV (A) “Fundamental Duties”- Article 51(A): It shall be the duty of every

citizen of India.

(g) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and

wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures”

In incorporating environment related provisions in the Constitution, our Country has

stolen a march over most of the Countries of the world.

Further by The Constitution 74th Amendment Act, 1992, it has been laid down that

District Planning Committees (Article 243ZD (3)) and Metropolitan Planning Committee

(Article 243ZE (3)) shall have due regard to ‘environmental conservation’ in preparing

the development plan.

From 1980 onwards there has been a spate of public interest litigations (PIL) on the

environment protection and pollution issuesii.Many of these were initiated or joined by

noted environmentalist and lawyer Shri M.C.Mehtaiii.

Few landmark cases involving substantial environmental issues are listed below-

Ratlam Municipality Case 1980

1. Bhopal gas leak case 1984

2. Shriram gas leak case 1985

3. Dehradun valley case 1985

4. Irish Butter Case 1987

5. Taj Bengal Case 1987

6. Taj Trapezium Case 1997

7. Forest Conservation Case (T.N.Godavarman Thirumulkpad v. Union Of

India) 1997

Out of above list let us now discuss three cases, which are important from the angle

of setting new trend in litigation in Environment Pollution cases in India.

1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy- In the early hours of 3rd December 1984, Methyl Iso Cynate

(MIC) leaked (40 tons) from the storage tank of Bhopal Plant of Union Carbide,

causing wide spread pollution in Bhopal city and its suburbs. Estimated 3,500 people

who were present in the pathway of the dispersing chemical died and as many as

200,000 others were injured-many seriously and some permanently. Government of

ii

.

India, taking action on behalf of the victims first tried unsuccessfully to sue the

Principals Union Carbide Corporation in an American court (Southern District Court

of New York) for US$ 3 Billion damages. Later the issue was tried in Indian Courts

and on 14 February 1989, the Supreme Court induced the Union Carbide and Indian

Government to come to an overall settlement of the claims at US$ 470 million.

Supreme Court also in exercise of its extra ordinary jurisdiction terminated all the

civil, criminal and the contempt of court proceedings arising out of Bhopal Tragedy

and pending in the subordinate courts in India. Criminal charges were however

reinstated later, in October 1992 (reported in UCC vs. UOI AIR 1992 SC 248). This

criminal case of criminal homicide not amounting to murder against UCC officials is

still (in July 2003) not over. The Bhopal District Court attached Carbide’s shares in

UCIL. Carbide got away by registering a charitable trust in London and pledging the

attached shares to the trust. Later its highly reputed sole trustee was able to persuade

Supreme Court to allow him to sell the attached shares to enable him to build a

hospital in Bhopal. The tragedy brought to the fore the fact that no disaster

management plan was available to meet this disaster, no one knew how to contain the

damages inflicted by the lethal gas, and that the institutional frame works both for

immediate and long-term support were remarkably weak. The law of torts in India

was quite underdeveloped and was hardly applied to cases other than MV Act cases.

Interestingly Government of India’s public sector undertakings, LIC and UTI had

22% shares in the Indian subsidiary UCIL, which owned and operated the Bhopal

iii

Plant. Govt. of India and the State government of M.P. were also suspected to be

guilty of contributory negligence in this case.

2. Shriram Gas Leak Case- by a writ petition (12739 of 1985) M.C. Mehta filed a PIL

to close and relocate Shriram’s caustic chlorine and sulphuric acid plants away from

thickly populated section of Delhi. On December 4, 1985 one month after the filing of

PIL, Oleum gas leaked out from the same complex affecting several people. District

Magistrate Delhi made order under section 133 subsection (1) of Cr.P.C., directing and

requiring Shriram to cease carrying out manufacture of Hazardous and lethal chemicals

including Chlorine, Oleum, etc at their establishment at Delhi. Inspector of Factories,

Delhi on December 7, 1985 passed order under section 40 sub section (2) of Factories

Act 1948, prohibited Shriram from using the Caustic chlorine and sulphuric acid plants

till certain conditions are met. Assistant Commissioner (Factories) of Municipal

Corporation of Delhi on December 13, 1985 issued a show cause and subsequently on

December 24, 1985 directed Shriram to stop the industrial use of the premises at which

the chlorine caustic plant was located. The Court by itself constituted two expert

committees and also allowed the Government to form one committee. In its judgment

(February 17,1986 and subsequent orders) the court tried to strike a balance between the

requirements of employing science and technology to improve the quality of life and the

elimination of risk by hazardous products of the industrial activity.

3. Ratlam Municipality Case: This trend-setting judgment was delivered by Justice

Krishna Iyer (AIR 1980 SC 1622) in Municipal Council, Ratlam vs. Vardhichand. The

Sub Divisional Magistrate, Ratlam made direction under section 133 Cr.P.C. to the

Municipal Council Ratlam to abate the public nuisance of cesspools and stinks by

constructing drain pipes with flow of water to wash the filth and stop the stench. Instead

of complying with the order, the Municipal Council chose to plead inability to comply on

grounds that it had no sufficient funds. The Supreme Court held that section 133 has no

saving clause when the municipal council is penniless. Appreciating the Magistrate for

his activist application of section 133, the Court passed order to the Council to carry out

the directions in a time bound manner and remove the entire nuisance. The court held

that though the Code of Criminal Procedure and Indian Penal code were of ancient

vintage, the new social justice orientation imparted to them by the Constitution of India

makes it a remedial weapon of versatile use.

One important point to note is that some assault on environment is unavoidable, when we

take up the developmental work like establishing a industrial area, laying of railway

track, creating Hydel projects and clearing the forest for human habitation. However

while doing so we can still ensure that the overall ecological balance is maintained, say

by planting trees, preventing soil erosion and treating the effluents before discharging

them into the rivers .The issue was discussed at length in-

4. Dehradun Valley litigation case: (Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra, Dehradun

vs. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1985 SC 652) and Calcutta’s Taj Bengal Case

Sachidanand Pandey vs. State of West Bengal AIR 1987 SC 1109. In the later case the

Court appreciated that “there is every chance of the ecology and environment improving

as a result of planting numerous trees all around the proposed hotel and the removal of

the burial ground and dumping ground for the rubbish.” In a significant judgment on the

leak of oleum gas from a factory located in the thick of Delhi, M.C. Mehta vs. Union of

India AIR 1987 SC 965, Chief Justice P.N. Bhagwati in his judgment stated “ when

science and technology are increasingly employed to producing goods and services

calculated to improve the quality of life, there is certain element of hazard or risk inherent

in the very use of science and technology and it is not possible to totally eliminate such

hazards or risks altogether.”

Let us now discuss the role, which the different agencies of the Criminal Justice System

could play in meeting the challenges of increasing imbalances in the eco-system and

increasing environment pollution.

ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES IN PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION AND ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

Role of Magistracy-The preventive sections of Cr.P.C. from section 133 to section 144

interalia provide the remedy for public nuisance. Section 133 empowers the magistrate to

pass a conditional order for the removal of a public nuisance in a fixed time frame.

Supreme Court in its order in judgment of case Municipal council, Ratlam vs.

Vardhichand AIR 1980 SC 1622 interpreted the language of this section and decided that

once the magistrate has before him the evidence of a public nuisance, he is bound to

order its removal. The person so directed shall either comply or show cause. Court can

call for expert evidence. It can pass injunction pending an enquiry. Once the court is

satisfied that the initial order is proper it can make the order final.

Water Act, 1974 provides (section 33) that in case of apprehended pollution of water in

streams and wells, the Board can make an application to a court not inferior to that of a

metropolitan magistrate or a judicial magistrate of the first class, for restraining the

person who is likely to cause such pollution from so causing. On receipt of an

application, the court may make such order as it deems fit. While making the order

restraining any person from polluting the water, it may in that order direct the person who

is likely to cause or has caused the pollution to desist from taking such action as is likely

to cause pollution or to remove such matter from the stream or well. Where the order for

removal of the matter is not complied, it may authorize the board to undertake the

removal and disposal of the matter at the cost of that person. Failure to comply with the

direction of the court is punishable under section 41 of the same act. Almost similar

provision to restrain the air polluters, is available for the courts in Air Act, 1981 vide

section 22-A. However there is no parallel section to that of section 41 of Water Act, in

the Air Act to make the non-compliance of court order punishable.

Role of Higher Courts-

The courts have gone in quite depth into the issues concerning environment pollution

through the cases brought before them. For example the preservation of ecological

balance (in this case to preserve the flight path of migratory birds) was extensively

discussed in Taj Bengal case of which the judgment is long and detailed one. This was in

spite of the fact that the most of the issues were already resolved through negotiations.

Another interesting case is the various orders and judgments issued in the case of Bhopal

Gas tragedy. Judge Deo of Bhopal district court ordered Union Carbide to pay interim

compensation of Rs. 350 Crores to Union of India for distribution amongst the victims of

Bhopal Gas Tragedy. Later the High court took support of English Rules of court, as

“one of the important sources of ‘light’ for the growth and development of the Indian

common law”, to create an entitlement to interim compensation. In Shriram case the

Supreme Court framed the doctrine of Absolute liability, admitting no defences, when the

polluter company was engaged in manufacturing hazardous chemicals. This was cited

and applied in Bhopal Gas case, by the Madhya Pradesh High court. In Dehradun

Quarrying case the Supreme Court went out of way and constituted a monitoring

committee to oversee the implementation of its orders and provided the mechanism for its

funding as well.

The courts have so far allowed the projects affecting the environment to be executed,

provided the government has applied itself to all the issues and provided the remedies.

For example after analyzing all the issues the High court of Kerala, in the Silent Valley

Case (Society for Protection of Silent Valley vs. Union of India and others, O.P. nos.

2949 and 3025 of 1979), stated “it is enough to state that we are satisfied that the relevant

matters have received attention before the government decided to launch the project.

There has been no non-advertence of the mind to the salient aspects of the project. We

are not to substitute our opinion and notions on these matters for those of the government.

We find no reason to interfere. We dismiss these applications with no order as to costs.”

Similarly Supreme court in Tehri Dam Case opined that “ Government has already fully

considered every aspect of the project including its safety….we do not find any reason to

issue a direction restraining the respondents from proceeding ahead with the

implementation of the project. The petition therefore fails and is accordingly dismissed

with no orders as to costs.”

Role of the participants: Citizens, Government, Police, Organizations and Judiciary are

some of the participants of ecology and environment phenomenon

Citizens of India have been sensitive to the issue of maintaining the right balance among

the different components of Natural eco-system. Any assault on disturbing the eco-

system has been strongly resisted. One fine example of such initiative is the public

response to save the trees movement commonly known as Chipko Andolaniv. For the first

time the citizen’s role in fighting the pollution has been recognized in the Environment

Act, 1986. Later similar provisions for citizen’s suit were added to the Water Act and Air

Act by amendment made to the Acts in 1988 and 1987 respectively. Vide section 49 of

the Water Act, any person by giving a notice of not less than sixty days, of the alleged

offence and his intention to make a complaint, to the board or officer authorized in this

behalf, file a complaint of offences under the Water Act to the court. The citizen has no

right to enter the factory premises for the purposes of collecting samples or other

evidence, this power continues to be vested with the Board or the authorized officers. The

board shall however, on demand by such person make available the relevant reports in its

possession to that person. It may however refuse to make such reports available if the

same in its opinion is against the public interest. Similar provisions are there in section 43

of the Air Act 1981 as amended by Act 47 of 1987. Interestingly while the later created

Environment Act 1986 also has a provision for citizen’s litigation (section 19) but it does

not have the provision of obligation to furnish information, reports etc. to the

complainant as provided in the Water and Air Act. 42nd amendment in 1976 inserted

Article 51-A in the Constitution of India casting duties on the citizens in matters of

protecting the natural environment. High court in L.K. Koolwal vs. State of Rajasthan

AIR 1988 RAJ 2 interpreted this duty as creating a right in favour of citizens to move …

the court to see that the State performs its duties faithfully.

iv

Role of Police-

After the enactment of Water Act, Air Act and Environment Act, the primary role of

environment protection is that of Pollution Control Boards and the authorized officers.

However this does not take away the duty of police to take action against those who

commit the offence (see section 31 of The Police Act 1861) of throwing dirt, filth,

rubbish etc. into the street or who causes any offensive matter to run from any house or

factory into the street. If any person commits such offence in view of the police officer,

he can take the offender into custody without any warrant. He is also duty bound (see

section 23 of Police Act 1861) to prevent the commission of public nuisance, which the

most pollution incidents create. Further if the Magistrate enquiring into any complaint

regarding Cr.P.C.. Section 133 to 144 matters ask police to assist, the police is bound to

carry out such orders.) Of the Motor Vehicle Act 198Chapter XIV of the Indian Penal

Code 1860, deals interalia, with offences affecting public health and safety. Sections 269,

270,277,278,284,285 and 286 of the Code being cognizable offences, cast obligation on

Police to act, even on suo-moto basis. These offences are in relation to acts of public

nuisance, of negligent act likely to spread infection of disease dangerous to life,

malignant act likely to spread infection of disease dangerous to life, fouling water of

public spring or reservoir, making atmosphere noxious to health and negligent conduct

with respect to poisonous substance, fire or combustible matter and explosive substance.

It is the duty of Police to take suitable legal action in all above cases as per law. Section

268 of the Code defines public nuisance and section 290 (though non-cognigible)

provides punishment for public nuisance in cases not otherwise provided for. Use of

these provisions can also control noise pollutionv.

Police can also make a report (see rule 8) to the ‘Authority’ prescribed under Noise

Pollution Rules, 2000 regarding a music sound or noise to prevent annoyance,

disturbance, discomfort, or injury or risk of it to the public or neighbours so that the

authority could consider taking suitable action regarding the continuance of music sound

or noise

Suggestions and Conclusions-

While the central government has already come out with a number of legislations to

tackle the pollution related issues, post-Bhopal Gas tragedy, there is need to develop

sensitivity on the issue of environment pollution and the plight of victims of environment

pollution. Some areas in which the criminal justice functionaries could help directly or

indirectly are as below-

i. The supervision of emissions and effluent’s pollution contents is with the Board

and the authorized officers. If they work diligently the problem of pollution can

be kept under control. Licensing authorities should ensure that all the conditions

laid down in different environment protection legislations, including Public

Liability Insurance Act 1991 are fulfilled, before the license for establishing a

factory is granted.

ii. The assignment of industrial area in any new town is generally with the town

development authority. They can ensure that the polluting industries are so

v

located that they are away from the thick of residential areas. Another way could

be to leave sufficient green belt between the two types of land use as a natural

buffer. This will ensure that even if there is accidental leak of the type of Bhopal

Gas tragedy, there is time available to warn the residential areas and the green belt

plantations absorb larger part of the hazardous pollutant.

iii. Grant of interim relief to the victims of pollution should be made on priority. The

cases may be heard expeditiously and the offender is nailed. The punishment

should not only be deterrent, it should also be retributory and should provide

adequate compensation to the victims for their loss, distress and injury.

Injunction, damages including special and exemplary damages should be awarded

for this purpose. The doctrine of larger the polluting company, larger the

punishment should be followed. Else the fine that might be backbreaking for one

company might not even pinch a little to another company.

iv. The Directive Principles of the State Policy may be used as support for giving an

environment supportive interpretation of the legislations. Ratlam case (Municipal

Council of Ratlam vs. Vardhichand AIR 1980 SC 1622) judgment should be a

role model for all the courts. In this case the Supreme Court employed a number

of methods to implement its directions such as fixing deadlines, rebuking the

Municipality for taking an anti-people and anti environment friendly stand,

approving a pollution control scheme and issuing direction to carry out the

scheme at the pain of contempt of court in case of wilful breach of its orders.

v. It has been noticed that whatever compensation is made available; the same does

not reach to the actual victims. A larger part is siphoned away by the middlemen

and false claimants. Secondly the schemes for relief are made so grandiose that

they take inordinately long to be completed. In the meantime, the victims suffer

and no interim arrangements are made. It should be ensured that the concern of

victim is uppermost in the mind while devising any scheme for relief of pollution

victims. They may also prepare and keep updated the disaster management plans

specific to the hazardous plants in their area. The district magistrates may over-

see the disposal of hazardous material in their area. Common man must be

educated about the ill effects of pollution and briefed about the ways in which the

individual can contribute in protecting the environment.

vi. On the law making front three important tasks which need to be taken up

immediately are

i. Make a comprehensive and specific law to cover the cases of noise

pollution.

ii. Remove sixty days notice requirement for launching cases in case of public

interest litigation under Environment Act,(see section 19(b) ) Air Act (see

section 43(1)(b))and Water Act (see section 49(1)(b)).

iii. Remove strangevi provision of section 24 (2) from Environment Act, which

asks that if the same activity is offence under any other Act then, it shall be

punished under that other Act and not under the Environment Act.

vi

Thus, it is seen that laws relating to Control of Environmental Pollution are

undergoing continuous improvement. Wherever the legislature is found wanting, the

Courts have stepped in to support in favour of quality environment. Now it is the

bounden duty of every citizen to ensure protection and improvement of the natural

environment.

MANAGING FRAGILE ECO-SYSTEMS:

Managing Fragile Ecosystems: We need to analyze issues related to Health and

Recreation, Land use, Habitat Loss, and Bio-Diversity, Economic Analysis, Generating

and Strengthening Knowledge about the Ecology, Promoting Integrated Watershed,

Development, Agricultural Policy Review, Planning and Integrated, Ensuring People's

Participation and Promoting Human Resource Development for Sustainable Agriculture,

Improving Farm Production and Farming Systems .

NATIONAL RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY:

Protection of Nature May Lie in Taxes, Environmental Policy and New Generation,

Writing Classroom Materials that make the grade, European Community, Italy,

Netherlands, Nepa (1969), Canada, Clean Air, Oman, India, Amazon, New Zealand,

Commitment to Conserve, Quango Changes, Australia.

DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES PERSPECTIVE TO

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY:

Northern Perspective, An Environmental Marshall Plan, Trends in Developing Countries,

Asia-Pacific Region, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Southern Perspective,

Reluctance to Change Lifestyles, Crumbs of Aid.

THE EARTH SUMMIT:

A Statement by Ingvar Carlsson, Prime Minister of Sweden, A Statement by Fernando

Collor, President of the Republic of Brazil, New American Agenda, NGOs Question

Governments' Ability to Cope with Environmental Crisis, NGO Document Presented to

Government Delegates, NGO Statement on Debt, Whither the Road from RIO?, Role of

NGOs,:

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACILITY AND OTHER FUNDING

INSTITUTIONS:

Making, Agreements and Disagreements, Small Majority, Replenishment and

Restructuring, The Japan Fund for Global Environment, GEF Funding and the South,

Role, Definition and Extent of International Waters, The Emerging Global Problem, The

GEF Perspective, Conventions Relating to International Waters and the GEF.

LAND DEGRADATION, DEFORESTATION AND LAND RESTORATION:

Displacement of Soil Material by Water, Chemical Soil Degradation, Physical Soil

Degradation, Severity of Soil Degradation, Other Agents of Land Degradation, Strategies

for Retention of Tropical Forests, Open-Land Resources: Forests, Rangelands, Parks, and

Preserves, Victims of Conservation, Conflicting Interests, A Wider View of Values, Rain

Forests : Drosophila can Monitor Habitat Change.

DESERTIFICATION AND HABILITATES:

Causes of Desertification, Contemporary Deforestation and its Causes, Programme

Areas: Basis for Action, Objectives, Activities, Management-Related Activities, Data and

Information, International and Regional Co-operation, Means of Implementation,

Financing and Cost Evaluation, Scientific and Technological Means, Human Resource

Development, Capacity-Building.

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:

Strengthening the Knowledge based Developing Information and Monitoring Systems,

Protection of Water Resources, Water Quality and Aquatic Ecosystems, Drainage of

Wetlands, $ Needed for Wetlands, Agriculture, Drinking-Water Supply and Sanitation,

Objectives, Activities, Means of Implementation, Financing and Cost Evaluation,

Scientific and Technological Means, Human Resources Development.

COMBATING DESERTIFICATION GLOBAL RESPONSE AND COST

INVOLVED:

Preamble, Principles/Elements, Rights to Timber and Minor Forest Produce, Life on

Earth : Mapping Conservation Priorities, Agriculture and Fisheries, Program Areas :

Agricultural Policy Review, Planning and Integrated Program, Ensuring People's

Participation and Promoting Human Resource Development, Improving Farm Production

and Farming Systems Through Diversification of Farm, Land-Resource Planning,

Information and Education for Agriculture, Land Conservation and Rehabilitation,

Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources, Conservation and

Sustainable Utilization of Animal Genetic Resources.