modified natural excitation technique for stochastic...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Modified Natural Excitation Technique for StochasticModal Identification
Minwoo Chang, S.M.ASCE1; and Shamim N. Pakzad, A.M.ASCE2
Abstract: This paper presents an improvement to the eigensystem realization algorithm (ERA) with natural excitation technique (NExT),which is called the ERA-NExT-AVGmethod. Themethod uses a coded average of row vectors in eachMarkov parameter for evaluatingmodalproperties of a structure. Themodification is important because, for the existing stochastic system identificationmethods, the state-spacemodel,obtained from output sensor data, is usually overparameterized resulting in large systems. Solving such a problem can be computationally veryintensive especially in the applications when using the computational capabilities of embedded sensor networks. As a way to improve the ef-ficiency of the ERA-NExT method, the proposed method focuses on the number of components in a single Markov parameter, which can the-oretically be minimized down to the number of structural modes. Applying the coded average column vectors as Markov parameters to theERA, the computational cost of the algorithm is significantly reduced, whereas the accuracy of the estimates is maintained or improved. Nu-merical simulations are performed for a shear frame model subjected to Gaussian white noise ground excitation. The efficiency of the proposedmethod is evaluated by comparing the accuracy and computational cost of the estimated modal parameters using the proposed method, withseveral other stochastic modal identification methods including the ERA-observer Kalman filter identification, ERA-NExT, and autoregressivemodels. The performance of the method is then evaluated by applying it to ambient vibration data from the Golden Gate bridge, collected usinga dense wireless sensor network, and its vertical and torsional modes are successfully and accurately identified. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000559. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Structural health monitoring; Signal processing; Algorithms.
Author keywords: Modal identification; Wireless sensor networks; Structural health monitoring; Signal processing.
Introduction
In the last two decades, significant efforts in the research communityhave focused on development of methodologies and applications toconstruct numeric models in the control area. Implementing systemidentification methods for the dynamic response of civil infra-structure, structural systems, or machinery has facilitated the crea-tion of increasingly accurate and updated mathematical models(Ljung 2008). The role of system identification algorithms to esti-mate precise values for these structural properties has become moresignificant for damage detection applications, because damage ina structural system affects the structural properties such as stiffnessand modal properties (Li and Zhang 2006).
The identification procedure starts with modeling the input/output relationship, which can be established with a time domainfinite-difference model. This relationship is known as the autore-gressive model with exogeneous input (ARX), where the coeffi-cients represent the dynamic characteristics of the structural system.To estimate these parameters, the eigensystem realization algorithm(ERA) was proposed by Juang and Pappa (1985), which has served
as one of the most widely used system identification methods. In itsoriginal formulation, the ERA method uses the impulse response ofa dynamic system (i.e., the Markov parameters), which is difficult toestimate for existing structures (Phan et al. 1993; Arici andMosalam2005a, b). Several studies have focused on overcoming the limi-tations of this algorithm in the last few decades (James et al. 1993;Juang 1994). The observer/Kalman filter is used to remedy the lackof initial conditions, extend the applicability of the ERA to excitationsother than impulse, and create unique system Markov parameters(Juang1994). James et al. (1993) proposed theERA-natural excitationtechnique (NExT) using auto- and cross-correlation functions ofoutput data to extend the application of the algorithm further tostochastic (output-only) systems. This method has been adopted inseveral structural identification studies using sensor data (Farrar andJames 1997; Caicedo et al. 2004; Brownjohn 2003). The operationalmodal analysis (OMA) is proposed by Mohanty and Rixen (2004,2006), where the ERA-NExT is modified to be applicable to pureharmonic input and white noise input. Although this approach isuseful for mechanical systems, which include rotatingmachinery, it isnot very applicable for civil infrastructure where input data are hardlygeneralized to a single harmonic function.
Each system identification method requires a certain type of datasuch as the impulse response, the input/output response, or only theoutput response. Accordingly, the model order to obtain the correctmodal properties with comparable efficiency and accuracy variesdepending on the system identification method. As a result, under-standing the advantages and disadvantages of each method anddetermining the most appropriate method to implement in differentapplications are important. For instance, Lew et al. (1993), in acomprehensive study compared the ERA (Juang and Pappa 1985),ERA using data correlation (ERA/DC) (Juang et al. 1988), Q-Markovcover theory (Anderson and Skelton 1988), and an algorithmproposed
1Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engi-neering, LehighUniv., Bethlehem, PA 18015. E-mail: [email protected]
2P.C. Rossin Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, PA 18015 (corresponding author).E-mail: [email protected]
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 31, 2011; approved onDecember 29, 2011; published online on January 2, 2012. Discussion periodopen until March 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted forindividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engi-neering, Vol. 139, No. 10, October 1, 2013. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/2013/10-1753–1762/$25.00.
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013 / 1753
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 2: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
byMoonen et al. (1989). It was concluded that the ERA/DC can be thebest identification method among the four for input-output data.Petsounis and Fassois (2001) compared the identified modal param-eters using a stochastic method based on the autoregressive movingaverage (ARMA)orARXmodel.However, the necessity for input andoutput data for the ERA decreases its practical applicability for systemidentificationof some existing structures,where stochasticmethods arepreferred. Peeters et al. (1998) assessed stochastic system identificationmethods including the peak picking (PP), polyreference least-squarecomplex exponential (LSCE), and stochastic subspace identification(SSI) methods (Van Overschee and DeMoor 1991). The results showthat the quality of the identified mode shapes from SSI has been betterthan the other methods. These comparison studies have only focusedon the accuracy of the results of identification methods and do notprovide extensive information on computational cost for eachmethod.The performance measures should be combined with the efficiency ofeach algorithm to present a comprehensive comparison.
In this paper, a modified ERA-NExT algorithm, known as theERA-NExT-AVG, is proposed, where the size of Markov parametersis systematically reduced to optimize computational time. To in-vestigate the efficiency of the proposed method, the following twoaspects of the algorithm are studied: (1) the accuracy of identifiedmodal parameters and (2) the computational cost. At first, the for-mulation of the proposed ERA-NExT-AVG algorithm is introduced.Then, the framework for benchmark tests to estimate the performanceof system identification algorithms is presented. The third sectionpresents the results of system identification based on the proposedmethod for the numerically simulated data and the benchmark studyto compare various system identificationmethods including the ERA-observer Kalman filter identification (OKID), ERA-NExT, and AutoRegressive (AR)methods (Pakzad and Fenves 2009). The last sectionshows the application of the proposed method to identify the verticaland torsional modes of Golden Gate bridge (GGB), using ambientvibration data from a dense wireless sensor network.
Eigensystem Realization Algorithm forModal Identification
The ERA method uses a system’s impulse response to derive con-trollability andobservabilitywithout considering external force terms inits formulation (Juang andPappa1985).Tounderstand the fundamentalconcept of the ERA method, the discretized state-space equation,which expresses the equation of motion for a linear time invariant(LTI) system in a first-order difference equation, is considered as
xðk þ 1Þ ¼ AxðkÞ þ BuðkÞyðkÞ ¼ CxðkÞ þ DuðkÞ (1)
In Eq. (1), xðkÞ 2ℜ2N 5 state vector, N 5 number of degrees offreedom (DOF), uðkÞ 2ℜn 5 input vector at n locations of input tothe structure, and yðkÞ 2ℜm 5 output vector at m locations of re-sponse on the structure (nodes). The coefficients (A, B, C, D) arecalled the discretized state, input, output, and feed-throughmatrices,respectively.
The Hankel matrix Hðk2 1Þ is formed by rearranging impulseresponse yðkÞ, which produces the system Markov parameters toidentify the N rank of the state matrix
Hðk2 1Þ ¼
266664
yðkÞ yðk þ 1Þ ⋯ yðk þ q2 1Þyðk þ 1Þ yðk þ 2Þ ⋯ yðk þ qÞ
« « ⋱ «
yðk þ p2 1Þ yðk þ pÞ ⋯ yðk þ pþ q2 2Þ
377775
¼
266664
CAk21B CAkB ⋯ CAkþqB
CAkB CAkþ1B ⋯ CAkþqB
« « ⋱ «
CAkþp22B CAkþp21B ⋯ CAkþpþq23B
377775
¼ PpAk21Qqðk$ 1Þ (2)
where two block matrices are defined as the extended observabilitymatrix Pp 5
�CT ðCAÞT , . . . , ðCAp2 1ÞT
�Tand the extended con-
trollability matrix Qq 5�B AB , . . . , Aq21B
�.
Every two successiveHankelmatrices provide a simple approachto obtain the state matrix because these are related implicitly toa system. For instance, the Hankel matrices, Hð0Þ, Hð1Þ 2ℜmp3 nq
can be written as
Hð0Þ ¼ PpQq
Hð1Þ ¼ PpAQq(3)
The singular value decomposition (SVD) is applied to the Hankelmatrix,Hð0Þ, to derive a possible set for blockmatrices Pp andQq as
Hð0Þ ¼ RSST ¼ ½R1 R2 ��S1 0
0 0
��S1T
S2T
�(4)
where Pp 5R1S11=2, Qq 5S1
1=2S1Τ, S1 5 diag½s1 s2 , . . . , sNs �,
and Ns 5 number of modes. In the ideal case with no measurementnoise or modeling error, the system has Ns nonzero singular values,and the rest of the singular values are zero. In practice, however,a threshold is needed to distinguish and discard the insignificantsingular values, which often results in a system that is much largerthan the physical system. In the efficiency comparison, however, Ns
is assumed to be equal to nq because (1) there is no automaticmeasure to establish this threshold and (2) this model reductiontechnique can be applied to other modal identification methods aswell, so it is reasonable to compare all of themethods for their largestpossible set of modes. The transition state and output matrices(A2ℜNs 3Ns and C2ℜm3Ns ) are calculated as
A ¼ S121=2 R1
THð1ÞS1S121=2
C ¼ ½ Im 0 0 , . . . , 0 �Pp(5)
In Eq. (5), Im 2ℜm3m 5 identity matrix, and 02ℜm3m 5 zeromatrix. The eigenvalue decomposition for the transition state matrixA is used to obtain the poles, which isL5 diagðliÞ, i5 1, 2, . . . ,Ns.Natural frequencies and damping ratios of the system are given by
mi ¼logðliÞDt
, mi,mpi ¼ 2vizi6 jvi
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi12 z2i
qvi ¼
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffimi ×m
pi
p ð�conjugate formÞ
zi ¼ 2RealðmiÞ
vi
(6)
In Eq. (6), the subscript i is varied from 1 to Ns and Dt 5 samplingperiod. See Juang and Pappa (1985), Juang et al. (1988), and Chenet al. (1992) for more information about the ERA.
Because of the measurement noise, systematic error, non-linearity, and computational error, nearly similar rank is observedbetween the Hankel matrix Hð0Þ and transition state matrix A.Therefore, the system realization produces noisy sequences withpoles that are not from the real system, leading to identification of
1754 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 3: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
spurious computational and noise modes. A stabilization diagram(Heylen et al. 1995) is usually used to identify the real structuralmodal parameters from the overparameterized state matrix.
Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic Models
The underlying theory for the NExT is that the auto- and cross-correlation functions of output data for a system subjected toGaussian white noise are similar to the impulse response (Jameset al. 1993). The correlation function RijðTÞ between response atnodes i and j in terms of time lag T is expressed as
RijðTÞ ¼ PNr¼1
�fri Q
rj
mrvrdexp�2zrvr
nT�sin�vrdT þ ur
��(7)
In Eq. (7), the superscript r 5 particular mode from a total of Nmodes, fr
i 5 ith ordinate of the rth mode shape, mr 5 rth modalmass, Qr
j 5 constant associated with response at node j, zr andvrn 5 rth mode damping ratio and natural frequency, respectively,
vrd 5vr
n
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi12 ðzrÞ2
q5 rth mode damped natural frequency, and
ur 5 phase angle associated with the rth modal response. The totalnumber of correlation functions corresponding to a particular timelag is m2, and the Markov parameter RðTÞ, representing impulseresponse, is composed of those correlation functions as
RðTÞ ¼
266664R11ðTÞ R12ðTÞ ⋯ R1mðTÞR21ðTÞ R22ðTÞ ⋯ R2mðTÞ
« « ⋱ «
Rm1ðTÞ Rm2ðTÞ ⋯ RmmðTÞ
377775 (8)
Similar to the ERA method with impulse response, the Hankelmatrices Hð0Þ, Hð1Þ 2ℜmp3 nq are obtained by substitutingk5 0 and 1 in Eq. (9)
HðkÞ ¼
2666664
RðkÞ Rðk þ 1Þ ⋯ Rðk þ q2 1ÞRðk þ 1Þ Rðk þ 2Þ ⋯ Rðk þ qÞ
« « ⋱ «
Rðk þ p2 1Þ Rðk þ pÞ ⋯ Rðk þ pþ q2 2Þ
3777775(9)
In Eq. (9), RðkÞ5RðkDtÞ, and its components are RijðkÞ5E½yiðn1 kÞyjðnÞ�. The other steps of the identification process,estimating the equivalent state space model such as (A, C) anddetermining modal parameters using eigenvalue decomposition,are similar to the ERA method with impulse response.
Modified Natural Excitation Technique Using AverageMarkov Parameters
The main idea of the ERA-NExT-AVG method is that the size ofeachMarkov parameter in the existingNExTmethod can be reducedto increase the efficiency of the algorithm and avoid redundant data.The size of each Markov parameter is (m3m) with autocorrelationfunctions for the diagonal elements and cross-correlation functionsfor the off-diagonal elements. A single output data set yi is used2m2 1 times to create a Markov parameter, in which all elementsof each ith row and column (Ri1,Ri2, . . . ,Rim and R1i,R2i, . . . ,Rmi)are calculated using the same response at sensor location i. Con-sidering that the estimated state matrix is full rank in the presence ofthe measurement and modeling noise, there are excessive data in
a Markov parameter estimated by the NExT, whereas onlyN rank isrequired for Hankel matrix to extract an equivalent state spacemodel. These excessive data in Markov parameters add a heavycomputational burden and increase the computational noise in theeigenvalue decomposition. To identify the mode shapes, the opti-mum number of independent elements in a Markov parameter is m,which is regarded as a maximum number of modes to be identified.Alternatively, a single reference-based correlation can be consideredas a Markov parameter; however, using a single reference may notcapture all of the structural modeswhen a certain structuralmode hasa modal node at the reference location. The proposed ERA-NExT-AVG method addresses this problem by considering all of theMarkov parameters.
To overcome this problem, the modal properties of a system areidentified when the values in a row of the cross-covariance matricesare averaged based on the contribution of each mode as
RiðTÞ ¼ 1m
Pmj¼1
ajRijðTÞ
¼ PNr¼1
" 1m
Pmj¼1
ajQrj
!fri
mrvrdexp�2zrvr
nT�sin�vrdT þ ur
�#
(10)
In Eq. (10), the subscript i is varied from 1 to m, and aj 5 codingcoefficient associated with the jth column of the Markov parameterRðTÞ. The reason for applying this coding coefficient is to avoideliminating modes by adding all components together. For instance,antisymmetric modes for a symmetric bridge system subjected towhite noise excitation are canceled out by adding the responsestogether. The coding coefficients prevent this from happening byassigning different weights to different response signals, thusavoiding the antisymmetric sums from becoming zero and thencompensating for this by decoding the modal ordinates. The codingcoefficients can be selected based on an a priori and approximateknowledge of the mode shapes of the system to improve the per-formance of the method. For example, in the case of a long spanbridge with distributed mass and elasticity, they could be consideredto have a harmonic shape. The number of the mode shapes con-sidered here is assumed to be equal to the number of sensing nodeson the structure. The coding coefficients are obtained by post-multiplying the pseudo-inverse of the assumed mode shapes bya weighting vector as
fag ¼ fig ×
26666666664
~f11~f12 ⋯ ~f1m
~f21~f22 ⋯ ~f2m
« « ⋱ «
~fm1~fm2 ⋯ ~fmm
37777777775
†
¼ fig ×�~F�†
(11)
InEq. (11), ~fij 5modal ordinate at location i for the jth mode shape,{i} 5 weighting vector, and the ½~F�† 5 pseudo-inverse of an as-sumed modal matrix.
Theaveragecoefficient RiðTÞ, is also a function of time lagT withdecaying harmonic functions, and the average value of ajQr
j isa constant. Finally, an average correlation function that is alsoa Markov parameter can be expressed with only m terms as
RðTÞ ¼hR1ðTÞ R2ðTÞ , . . . , RmðTÞ
iT(12)
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013 / 1755
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 4: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Physically, each parameter defined previously represents the cor-relation of one node with the weighted average of every other nodein the system as a function of the time lag
RðTÞ ¼ 1m
Pmj¼1
Ehyiðt þ TÞ ×ajyjðtÞ
i
¼ E
(yiðt þ TÞ ×
"1m
Pmj¼1
ajyjðtÞ#)
(13)
The contribution of measurement noise and model error in the re-sponse at node j is difficult to evaluate, especially for field tests. Theintensity of noise, however, can be reduced by taking the average ofthe cross-correlation of the response of a nodewith every other node,which involves addition and multiplication operations. The numberof Markov parameters in a column of a Hankel matrix is chosen ashalf of the product of model order and the number of components inthe coded average Markov parameters [RðTÞ], to avoid biased in-formation on its column elements.
The SVD function creates an almost fully ranked state matrix.Therefore, the size of the estimated state matrix needs to be mini-mized to avoid identifying undesired spurious modes. The proposedERA-NExT-AVG method provides an effective solution to mini-mize the size of Markov parameters. Furthermore, it is expected thata reduced number of elements in each Markov parameter reducescomputational time, especially for the calculation of SVD, eigen-value analysis, and other matrix operations.
Stabilization Diagram
The dimension of the state matrix in the ERA affects the number ofidentified modes. As a result, this number usually exceeds thenumber of structural modes. Heylen et al. (1995) proposed usingstabilization diagrams to eliminate spurious modes and choose theminimum model order by examining the cohesion of identifiedmodal parameters. A threshold is set to monitor the convergenceof the identified frequencies as the model order is increased. Thefrequencies of the true structural modes tend to converge as themodelorder changes, whereas for the spurious computational modes, con-vergence is erratic. Similarmeasures are applied to damping ratios andthe modal assurance criterion (MAC) introduced by Allemang andBrown (1982) to identify converging structural modes. The MACvalue between mode shapes wk and ~wk is defined as
MACk ¼�wpk ~wk
�2�wpkwk
��~wpk ~wk
�, k ¼ 1, . . . ,Ns (14)
where the superscript p denotes the conjugate transpose. In each case,the three thresholds for frequency, damping ratio, and mode shapeare applied to the identified modal parameters as the model orderincreases, and once convergence is achieved, amode ismarked as anidentified structural mode.
Efficiency Evaluation
The performance of the proposed method is assessed by taking intoaccount the accuracy of the identified results and efficiency of thealgorithm for a simulated example. Accuracy and efficiency are con-flicting objectives with respect to the model order; an increase ofmodel order results in improvement of the quality of identifiedresults but an increase in the computational cost. With this
background, this section provides the comparison bases by quanti-fying the accuracy and efficiency measures for each modal identi-fication method.
Accuracy Tests
For the simulated example presented in the next section, the accu-racy of the identification method is evaluated by studying the rela-tive estimation error for the identified modal parameters comparedwith the exact values. For the frequencies and damping ratios, thenormalized relative errors are used, where the exact value of theparameter is used as the normalization factor. The errors (ɛ) innatural frequency, damping ratio, and MAC value between iden-tified and exact modes are defined as
ɛvn ¼12 ðvnÞid
ðvnÞexact
ɛz ¼
12 zidzexact
ɛMAC ¼ 12
�wpidwexact
�2�wpidwid
��wpexactwexact
�(15)
In Eq. (15), the subscripts id and exact5 identified and exact modalparameters, respectively. The estimation errors defined by thisequation are used to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed methodcompared with the other stochastic identification methods.
Computational Costs
In general, system identification methods can be computationallyintensive algorithms, and the computational cost becomes moresignificant as the size of the system increases. It is shown in therecent implementations of sensor networks that more sensor datawith higher sampling rates are required to achieve more accurateidentification results (Pakzad and Fenves 2009). This will causea heavy computational task for a desired accuracy in a monitoringsystems; doubling the model order results in quadrupling the sizeof the state matrix and a significant increase in the computationaltime. In addition, the recent applications of WSNs in vibrationmonitoring have the potential of creating a spatially dense datagrid with limited embedded computational capacity. Reducing the
Fig. 1. Simulated 5 DOF shear frame structure
1756 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 5: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
computational burden of data analysis is essential for viability ofsuch networks.
The efficiency of the proposedmethod is assessed by estimating thecomputational cost of the algorithm and comparing it to other systemidentification methods. Two different measures are used for compar-ison: (1) the total number of operations for eachmodel order and (2) theactual computational time (CPU time). Although estimating thecomputational time is an easier task, it depends on the system hard-ware, software, and the programming code.However, the total numberof operations is a more accurate measure and only depends on the sizeof the problem in hand. The uncertainty in estimating the number ofoperations comes from the fact that the eigenvalue decomposition andSVD processes include iterations and their convergences dependon the characteristics of a given matrix. The numbers of operationsfor eigenvalue decomposition and SVD procedures are approxi-mated based on the LinearAlgebra PACKage (LAPACK) benchmark(Anderson et al. 1999), which provides an estimate for the number of
operations in terms of floating point operation (flop). Therefore, thetwo approaches (number of operations and CPU time) complementeach other in estimating the computational cost for a specific algorithm.A detailed description of this comparison for different modal identi-fication methods is presented in the following sections.
Simulation and Comparison
Modal Identification Using the Modified EigensystemRealization Algorithm-Natural ExcitationTechnique Method
A 5-story shear frame structure is chosen as the simulated testbed toestimate the accuracy and computational cost of the identification.Classical damping is applied by assuming 2%damping ratio for eachmode (Fig. 1). The structural parameters including mass, damping,and stiffness matrices are specified accordingly. To generate thenumerical response of the system, Newmark’s linear accelerationmethod is used (Newmark 1959). After simulating the accelerationresponse of the system, white noise with a SD equal to 5% RMS ofthe response is added to each output signal to simulate measurementnoise.
The harmonic functions are assumed as the starting for modeshapes of a shear building model with a fixed support at base. Thecoding coefficients {aex} for the given structure are determined as
faexg ¼
8>>>>><>>>>>:
1
1
1
1
1
9>>>>>=>>>>>;
T
×
26666640:10 0:35 0:65 0:90 1:00
0:35 0:90 0:81 20:31 21:00
0:65 0:81 20:81 20:31 1:00
0:90 20:31 20:31 0:81 21:00
1:00 21:00 1:00 21:00 1:00
3777775
†
¼
8>>>>><>>>>>:
1:30
0:52
0:40
0:32
0:15
9>>>>>=>>>>>;
T
(16)Fig. 2. Stabilization diagram using ERA-NExT-AVG method for thesimulated model subjected to white noise excitation
Fig. 3. Comparison of identified modal parameters using ERA-NExT-AVG method with the true values for model order 50
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013 / 1757
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 6: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
The53 5matrix in Eq. (16) is themodal matrix of the structure. Theweighting vector is assumed to be equal to unity, assigning equalweight to all sensing nodes considered for the coding coefficients.The correlation functions are then multiplied by the coding coef-ficients {aex}. By applying different weightings for correlationfunctions, the proposed method avoids canceling modes andimproves on the quality of identification results.
The results of the modal identification using the ERA-NExT-AVG are shown in the form of its stabilization diagram (Fig. 2).In the stabilization diagram, the 3 sign indicates that the identifieddamping ratio and the frequency have converged for a particularmode. The s sign means the mode has converged for frequency,damping ratio, and MAC value. The average of the power spectraldensity of output responses is also included in the stabilizationdiagrams for reference (in dB). To identify true modes, the con-vergence thresholds for frequencies, damping ratios, and MACvalues are set to 0.05, 0.1, and 0.95, respectively.
The stabilization diagram shows that the structural modes can beconsistently extracted from the data. On the basis of the stabilization
diagram, a model order of 32 is sufficient for the first mode of thesimulated structure; similarly, the minimum model order for othermodes can be determined. The identifiedmode shapes closelymatchthe exactmodel as shown inFig. 3, which illustrates the mode shapesof a numeric model and the identified system. The frequencies anddamping ratios for the identified modes and the exact values are alsoindicated in this figure. The identified frequencies are very close tothe exact values, as their relative error is less than 1%. The iden-tification errors for the damping ratios are as high as 23%, which is
Table 1. Number of Operations for the ERA-NExT-AVG Method
Description Dimension Number of operations (flops)
SVD for Hð0Þ d3 c ½6:67d3�|fflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl}SVD
A5Sn21=2 ×RT
n ×Hð1Þ × Sn ×Sn21=2 c3 c ½2cdðc1 dÞ�|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
multiplication
1 fc½2cðc1 dÞ2 ð3c1 dÞ�g|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}summation
1 ½8c�|{z}root
C5 Ip ×Rn ×Sn1=2 m3 c ½mcðc1 dÞ�|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
multiplication
1 ½mcðc1 d2 2Þ�|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}summation
1 ½8c�|{z}root
Eigenvalue and eigenvector of A c3 c ½26:33c3�|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl}eigenvalue estimation
Modal parameters ½mc2 1 3c�|fflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}multiplication
1 ½mcðc2 1Þ1 c�|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}summation
1 ½8c�|{z}root
1 ½20c�|ffl{zffl}log
Note: c5 ,m=2. × p; d5mp.
Fig. 4.Comparison of the number of operations for output-only systemidentification methods: ERAOKID, ERA-NExT, ERA-NExT-AVG,and AR model
Fig. 5. Comparison of the CPU time for output-only system identifi-cation methods: ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, ERA-NExT-AVG, and ARmodel; in each case, the corresponding normalized estimation error forfrequency and MAC value are also included
Table 2. Efficiency of Each System Identification Method Correspondingto Certain Computation Times
CPU time (s)
Identified model order, normalized error
ERA-OKID ERA-NExT ERA-NExT-AVG AR
0.05 (8, fail) (26, 0.27%) (32, 0.26%) (10, fail)0.2 (22, 0.16%) (42, 0.17%) (56, 0.29%) (22, 0.16%)0.5 (40, 0.13%) (62, 0.27%) (90, 0.27%) (40, 0.13%)
1758 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 7: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
consistent with the performance of other stochastic modal identi-fication methods.
Efficiency Comparison
Table 1 presents the number of operations in each task for the ERA-NExT-AVG method as a function of the number of outputs (m) andthemodel order (p). Themajor contributors to the computational costare the eigenvalue decomposition and SVD, which comprise nearly80% of the total number of operations. Minka (2010) providesfurther information about the flops for each operation. To comparethe performance of several system identification methods, a similarapproach is applied to estimate the number of operations for theERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, and AR method. The number of oper-ations shown in logarithmic scale versus model order demonstratesthat the ERA-NExT-AVG is the least computationally intensivemethod among the ones investigated in this study as shown in Fig. 4.Because the operations for eigenvalue decomposition and SVD areeach a cubic functions of themodel order, themodal identification ofthe simulated 5 DOF system in this numerical example with theERA-NExT-AVG requires less than 1% of operations comparedwith the ERA-NExT.
The CPU time is measured using the built-in function inMatlab(MathWorks 2009) for each identification method applied to this5 DOF numeric example, and the results are plotted in Fig. 5 inlogarithmic scale versus the model order. The normalized error(ɛnorm) between the exact and estimated modal parameters are alsoplotted in the same graph and considered as a measures of accuracy.This measure is defined as the average value of errors in identifiedfrequencies (ɛvn ) and MAC values (ɛMAC) for each model order as
ɛnorm ¼PNid
i¼1
�ɛvn , i þ ɛMAC, i
�2Nid
(17)
In Eq. (17), Nid is the number of identified modal parameters fora particular model order. For this simulated example, the ERA-NExT-AVG method takes the least CPU time, which means thismethod is the most efficient among the methods considered. Theoverall trend of the CPU is very similar to the plot for the number ofoperations.
Table 2 shows the highest model order that can be achieved forthe 5 DOF simulated system for specific CPU times and its cor-responding normalized estimation errors. The results indicate thatthe errors in frequencies and MAC values are less than 0.3% for themethods that identify the structural modes successfully. Althoughfor a specific CPU time the proposed method shows similar resultscompared with the ERA-NExT in terms of estimation accuracy, itsefficiency improves over the ERA-NExT by allowing for a highermodel order. Considering that the field tests normally require manysensors, the efficiency of identification algorithm becomes a sig-nificant factor for a robust method. The accuracy of the proposedmethod in estimating modal parameters is consistent with the otherstochastic system identification methods that were considered.
Verification of the Method with Field Experiments
To evaluate the performance of the proposed method using fielddata, ambient vibrations of the GGB obtained by a wireless sensor
Fig. 6. Locations of 10 wireless accelerometer nodes on the main span of GGB
Fig. 7. Stabilization diagram using ERA-NExT-AVG method forambient acceleration data from GGB
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013 / 1759
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 8: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
network are used. The acceleration data were measured using 65wireless sensing nodes during a 3-month deployment period(Pakzad et al. 2008; Pakzad and Fenves 2009; Pakzad 2010). For thisapplication, vertical acceleration data from 10 sensor nodes on themain span of the bridge are considered to investigate the vertical andtorsional vibrationmodes with frequency up to 1Hz. The location ofthe sensor nodes is shown in Fig. 6, where seven nodes are mountedon thewest side of the bridge and the other three sensors aremountedon the east side. The sensors on the east side serve to distinguishbetween the vertical and torsional modes. Each node collected80,000 samples of ambient vibrations at 50-Hz sampling frequencyover 26.5 min.
In this section, the identified modes using the ERA-NExT-AVGmethod are presented and compared with the modes identified using
the ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, and AR methods. Overall, eightvertical and six torsional modes with a frequency , 1 Hz wereidentified. The convergence thresholds for stabilization diagram,shown in Fig. 7, were set to 0.1, 0.3, and 0.9 for frequency, dampingratio, and MAC value, respectively. In the stabilization diagram,identified modes present a very good match with the peaks of thepower spectral density function. The identified modal frequenciesand damping ratios are summarized in Table 3. The largest esti-mation errors occur for the damping ratios, which is consistent withthe findings of Sun and Lu (1995) about the sensitivity of thedamping estimates to the measurement noise. Figs. 8 and 9 showthe changes in frequencies and damping ratios when the modelorder increases from 60 to 100 for the first three vertical andtorsional modes. These figures show that a consistent and stableidentification is achieved through the ERA-NExT-AVG method.The identification results using the ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, andAR methods are also included in these figures, which show similarestimation behavior.
Fig. 10 shows a comparison of the first three vertical modesobtained from the ERA-NExT-AVG method, as well as ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, and AR methods. The identified modes aregenerally consistent for all fourmethods. However, theCPU time forthe ERA-NExT-AVG is consistently smaller than the other threemethods (approximately 20% of the ERA-OKID, 27% of theERA-NExT, and 50% of the AR method). Fig. 11 shows similarresults for the first three torsional modes. The CPU time comparisonfor other stochastic identification methods supports the hypothesisthat the proposed ERA-NExT-AVG method is more efficient inmodal identification compared with the existing methods and canreduce the number of computation flops for eigenvalue estimationprocedures.
Table 3. Identified Frequencies andDamping Ratios for Eight Vertical andSix Torsional Modes from the Acceleration Response of the Main Span ofGGB
Vertical mode Torsional mode
ModeFrequency
(Hz)Dampingratio (%) Mode
Frequency(Hz)
Dampingratio (%)
1A 0.1062 0.48 1A 0.2298 0.702S 0.1324 0.93 2S 0.3399 0.263S 0.1683 0.45 3A 0.4442 0.344A 0.2173 1.20 4S 0.5622 0.405S 0.2693 1.37 5A 0.6799 0.126S 0.3000 0.61 6S 0.8131 0.377A 0.3686 0.358S 0.4608 0.60
Note: A 5 antisymmetric mode; S 5 symmetric mode.
Fig. 8. Convergence of the identified frequency and damping ratio forthe first three vertical modes of GGB as a function of the model order
Fig. 9. Convergence of the identified frequency and damping ratio forthe first three torsional modes of GGB as a function of the model order
1760 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 9: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Conclusion
As a global health monitoring measure, a new modal identificationmethod for the output-only systems is proposed, which is based onthe ERA-NExT method. The proposed method, called the ERA-NExT-AVG, reduces the size of Markov parameters to formulatea Hankel matrix. The coded average of each row vector of the cor-relation functions in Hankel matrix tremendously reduces thecomputational cost of the identification algorithm especially for theSVD and eigenvalue decomposition procedures. Computer simu-lations are performed for a shear structure subjected to Gaussianwhite noise. The stabilization diagram and accuracy plots for eachmode are used to demonstrate that the proposed method identifiesthe structural modal parameters accurately. To evaluate the effi-ciency of the proposed method, its computational cost is comparedwith the ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, andARmethods in terms of boththe number of operations and CPU time for different model orders.In both comparisons, with a consistently smaller computational cost,reliable modal identification is achieved using the proposedmethod.Application of the ERA-NExT-AVG to the ambient accelerationdata from GGB is used to evaluate its performance for field data byestimating the vertical and torsional modes of the bridge. Theidentified modes are compared with the results from other stochastic
identification methods. The results show that with a smaller CPUtime, the ERA-NExT-AVG is able to achieve robust modal identi-fication that is comparable with other methods in accuracy and isconsistent with the behavior of the monitored structure.
Acknowledgments
This work reflects the advice of Professor Gregory Fenves. Dr.Sukun Kim developed the software and closely collaborated in de-sign of hardware and deployment of the network on Golden Gatebridge. The authors thank the staff and management of Golden Gatebridge, Highway and Transportation District, in particular DennisMulligan and Jerry Kao, for close cooperation in installation andmaintenance of theWSNonGGB. Jorge Lee provided extraordinaryhelp in the deployment, which made this project possible. This re-search was partially supported by National Science FoundationGrant No. CMMI-0926898 by Sensors and Sensing Systems pro-gram and a grant from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Depart-ment of Community and Economic Development, through thePennsylvania Infrastructure Technology Alliance. The authorsthank Dr. Shih-Chi Liu from the National Science Foundation forhis support and encouragement.
Fig. 10. Comparison of the first three identified vertical modes and thecorresponding CPU time for ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, ERA-NExT-AVG, and AR model
Fig. 11.Comparison of thefirst three identified torsionalmodes and thecorresponding CPU time for ERA-OKID, ERA-NExT, ERA-NExT-AVG, and AR model
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013 / 1761
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
![Page 10: Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic ...pakzad.atlss.lehigh.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Modified-Natural... · Modified Natural Excitation Technique for Stochastic](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022041802/5e51c5f31f3fe747862f7197/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
References
Allemang, R. J., and Brown, D. L. (1982). “A correlation coefficient formodal vector analysis.” Proc., 1st Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Society forExperimental Mechanics, Orlando, FL, 110–116.
Anderson, B. D. O., and Skelton, R. E. (1988). “The generation of allq-Markov covers.” IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst., 35(4), 375–384.
Anderson, E., et al. (1999). LAPACK users’ guide, 3rd Ed., SIAM,Philadelphia.
Arici, Y., and Mosalam, K. M. (2005a). “Modal identification of bridgesystems using state-space methods.” J. Struct. Control Health Monit.,12(3–4), 381–404.
Arici, Y., and Mosalam, K. M. (2005b). “Statistical significance of modalparameters of bridge systems identified from strong motion data.”Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dynam., 34(10), 1323–1341.
Brownjohn, J. M. W. (2003). “Ambient vibration studies for system iden-tification of tall building.”Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dynam., 32(1), 71–95.
Caicedo, J. M., Shirley, J. D., and Johnson, E. A. (2004). “Natural excitationtechnique and eigensystem realization algorithm for phase I of the IASC-ASCE benchmark problem: simulated data.” J. Eng. Mech., 130(1),49–60.
Chen, C. W., Huang, J. K., Phan, M., and Juang, J. N. (1992). “Integratedsystem identification and state estimation for control of flexible spacestructures.” J. Guidance, 15(1), 88–95.
Farrar, C.R., and James,G.H., III. (1997). “System identification fromambientvibration measurements on a bridge.” J. Sound Vibrat., 205(1), 1–18.
Heylen, W., Lammens, S., and Sas, P. (1995). Modal analysis theory andtesting, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Katholieke Univ. Leuven,Leuven, Belgium.
James, G. H. I., Carne, T. G., and Lauffer, J. P. (1993). “The natural ex-citation technique (NExT) formodal parameter extraction fromoperatingwind turbines.” SAND92-1666 UC-261, Sandia National Laboratories,Albuquerque, NM.
Juang, J. N. (1994). Applied system identification, Prentice Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ.
Juang, J. N., Cooper, J. E., and Wright, J. R. (1988). “An eigensystemrealization algorithm using data correlations (ERA/DC) for model pa-rameter identification.” Control Theory Adv. Technol, 4(1), 5–14.
Juang, J. N., and Pappa, R. S. (1985). “An eigensystem realization algorithmfor modal parameter identification and model reduction.” J. Guid.Control Dyn., 8(5), 620–627.
Lew, J. S., Juang, J. N., and Longman, R.W. (1993). “Comparison of severalsystem identification methods for flexible structures.” J. Sound Vibrat.,167(3), 461–480.
Li, J., and Zhang, Y. (2006). “Prediction error method-based second-orderstructural identification algorithm in stochastic state space formulation.”Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dynam., 35(6), 761–779.
Ljung, L. (2008). “Perspectives on system identification.” Proc., 17th IFACWorld Congress, Curran Associates, Seoul, 7172–7184.
MathWorks. (2009). “MATLAB 7 getting started guide.” Æhttp://www.mathworks.com/access/helpdesk/help/pdf_doc/matlab/getstart.pdfæ (Mar.30, 2011).
Minka, T. (2010). “The lightspeed Matlab toolbox.” Æhttp://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/minka/software/lightspeed/æ (Aug.30, 2011).
Mohanty, P., and Rixen, D. J. (2004). “Operational modal analysis in thepresence of harmonic excitation.” J. Sound Vibrat., 270(1–2), 93–109.
Mohanty, P., and Rixen, D. J. (2006). “Modified ERA method for opera-tional modal analysis in the presence of harmonic excitations.” Mech.Syst. Signal Process., 20(1), 114–130.
Moonen, M., De Moor, B., Vandenberghe, L., and Vandewalle, J. (1989).“On- and off-line identification of linear state-space models.” Int. J.Control, 49(1), 219–232.
Newmark, N. M. (1959). “A method of computation for structural dy-namics.” J. Engrg. Mech., 85(3), 67–94.
Pakzad, S. N. (2010). “Development and deployment of large scale wirelesssensor network on a long-span bridge.” Smart Struct. Syst., 6(5–6),525–543.
Pakzad, S. N., and Fenves, G. L. (2009). “Statistical analysis of vibrationmodes of a suspension bridge using spatially dense wireless sensornetwork.” J. Struct. Eng., 135(7), 863–872.
Pakzad, S. N., Fenves, G. L., Kim, S., and Culler, D. E. (2008). “Design andimplementation of scalable wireless sensor network for structuralmonitoring.” Infrastruct. Syst., 14(1), 89–101.
Peeters, B., De Roeck, G., Hermans, L., Wauters, T., Krämer, C., and DeSmet, C. A. M. (1998). “Comparison of system identification methodsusing operational data of a bridge test.” Proc., ISMA 23 InternationalConference onNoise and Vibration Engineering, ISMA23(2), 923–930.
Petsounis,K.A., and Fassois, S.D. (2001). “Parametric time-domainmethodsfor the identification of vibrating structures – A critical comparison andassessment.” Mech. Syst. Signal Process., 15(6), 1031–1060.
Phan, M., Horta, L. G., Juang, J. N., and Longman, R. W. (1993). “Linearsystem identification via an asymptotically stable observer.” J. Optim.Theory Appl., 79(1), 59–86.
Sun, C. T., and Lu, Y. P. (1995). Vibration damping of structural elements,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Van Overschee, P., and De Moor, B. (1991). “Subspace algorithms for thestochastic identification problem.” Proc., 30th IEEE Conf. on Decisionand Control, IEEE, New York, 1321–1326.
1762 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013
J. Struct. Eng. 2013.139:1753-1762.
Dow
nloa
ded
from
asc
elib
rary
.org
by
LE
HIG
H U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y o
n 11
/18/
13. C
opyr
ight
ASC
E. F
or p
erso
nal u
se o
nly;
all
righ
ts r
eser
ved.