modern tort law - gbv · modern tort law sixth edition vivienne harpwood prof essor of law cardiff...
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MODERN TORT LAWSixth Edition
Vivienne Harpwood
Prof essor of Law
Cardiff University
CavendishPublishing
Limited
CONTENTS
Preface v
Table of Cases %xv
Table ofStatutes \xi
Table ofStatutoiy Instruments Ixvii
Table of European Legislation Ixix
1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAW OF TORT 1
1.1 Whatistort? 1
1.2 Tort and contract 1
1.2.1 Duties fixed by law 1
1.2.2 Duties to whom? The relationship between thè parties 2
1.2.3 Redressable by an action for unliquidated damages 2
1.2.4 Unliquidated damages 4
1.3 Tort and eliminai law 5
1.4 Insurance and thè law of tort 5
1.5 An overview of thè law of tort 6
1.6 Case law 8
1.7 Other systems of compensation 9
1.8 Torts of strict liability 9
1.9 Human Rights Act 1998 10
1.9.1 The future of human rights and tort law 11
1.10 A summary of thè objectives of tort 12
1.10.1 An illustration of thè operan'on of thè tort System 13
1.10.2 The scenario 13
1.10.3 Are thè objectives of tort met in this case? 14
Summary of Chapter 1 16
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 19
2.1 Fault 19
2.2 Donoghue v Stevenson and thè modern tort of negligence 19
2.2.1 The policy arguments 20
2.2.2 The significance of thè decision 21
2.3 Establishing liability for negligence 21
2.3.1 What must be proved: duty; breach; damage 22
2.3.2 Dury of care 22
Modern Tort Law
2.3.3 Breach of duty 23
2.3.4 Causation and remoteness of damage 24
Summary of Chapter 2 25
3 DUTY OF CARE - GENERAL PRINCIPLES 27
3.1 Duty of care 27
3.2 The test for determining thè existence of a duty of care 27
3.2.1 Foresight 27
3.2.2 Proximity 28
3.2.3 What is fair, just and reasonable 29
3.3 The operation of judicial policy in negligence 30
3.4 Definition of 'policy' 30
3.5 Factors influencing judicial policy 31
3.5.1 Legai reasoning 32
3.6 Latent policy decisions 33
3.7 Explicit policy decisions 33
3.8 The incrementai approach - thè three-stage test 34
3.9 Human Rights Considerations 34
Summary of Chapter 3 35
4 DUTY OF CARE - PSYCHIATRICINJURY 37
4.1 What is 'nervous shock'? 37
4.1.1 Recognised symptoms of psychiatric injury 38
4.2 Development of thè law 40
4.2.1 Fear for relatives and friends 40
4.2.2 The impact theory 41
4.2.3 The 'area of shock' theory 41
4.2.4 Rescuers 42
4.3 Expansion of liability 43
4.3.1 Cases involving thè 'immediate aftermath' 43
4.4 Contraction of liability for nervous shock 44
4.4.1 Restrictìons on thè scope of thè duty 44
4.4.2 Proximity 45
4.4.3 The dose rie of love and affection 46
4.4.4 The means by which thè shock was sustained 46
4.4.5 Breaking "bad' news 46
Contents
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
The Immediate effects of Alcock
4.5.1 Pre-accident terror
More Recent developments
4.6.1 Primary and secondary victims
4.6.2 Rescuers - a new approach
4.6.3 The role of foresight
4.6.4 Employees
4.6.5 Sudden shock or slow appreciation
4.6.6 The immediate aftermath
4.6.7 A summary of developments sirice Alcock
The Law Commission report
The future of psychiatric injury claims - a developing area of law
4.8.1 Psychiatric injury suffered in thè workplace
The law in Scotland
Human Rights Act claims
Summary of Chapter 4
5 DUTY OF CARE - ECONOMIC LOSS
5.1
5.2
Economie loss caused by careless statements
5.1.1 Statements made by thè defendant
5.1.2 The special relationship
5.1.3 Reliance
5.1.4 Reliance must be reasonable
5.1.5 Discharging thè duty
5.1.6 A 'case by case' approach
5.1.7 Summary of Caparo v Dickman
5.1.8 Further developments
5.1.9 Wrongful birth cases
5.1.10 Statements made by a third party
5.1.11 Advise as opposed to information
5.1.12 Judicial discretion
5.1.13 Misrepresentation Act 1967
Economie loss caused by negligent acts
5.2.1 'Pure' economie loss distinguished from othertypes of economie loss
5.2.2 Expansion of liability
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5.2.3 The 'high-water' mark 91
5.2.4 Contraction of liability 91
5.2.5 The courts recognise thè artificial distinctionsmade in previous cases 92
5.2.6 The new limits on liability 93
5.2.7 Summary 94
Summary of Chapter 5 95
6 MISCELLANEOUS SITUATIONS 97
6.1 The 'no duty' cases 97
6.1.1 Lawyers 97
6.1.2 Legai proceedings 98
6.1.3 Other causes of action 98
6.1.4 Other sources of compensation 98
6.1.5 Claimant is a member of an indeterminately
large class of persons 99
6.1.6 Wrongful life 99
6.1.7 The polke 99
6.1.8 The human rights arguments 107
6.2 Claimant caused his or her own misfortune 108
6.3 Rescue cases 108
6.4 Public authorities 1096.4.1 Health authorities and locai authorities 109
6.4.2 Duty of thè emergency services 118
6.5 Additional siruarions 121
6.6 Conclusion 124
Summary of Chapter 6 125
7 BREACH OF DUTY - THE STANDARD OF CARE 127
7.1 The 'reasonable man' test 127
7.2 The cases 128
7.2.1 Reasonable assessment of risk 129
7.2.2 Unforeseeable risk cannot be anticipated 130
7.2.3 The utility of thè conduct 131
7.2.4 The expense of taking precautions 132
7.2.5 Lackof special skills I 3 3
7.2.6 Contributory negligence and thè standard of care 133
Contents
7.2.7 Children 134
7.2.8 The sick and disabled 135
7.2.9 Carers and organisers 135
7.2.10 Drivers 136
7.2.11 Experts, professionals and people with special skills 138
7.2.12 Some criticisms of Bolam 139
7.2.13 Challenges to Bolam: thè Bolitho test 140
7.2.14 Acceptable professional standards 144
7.2.15 Failure to warn 145
7.2.16 Trainees 149
7.2.17 Professional negligence claims generally 150
7.3 Proof of breach and res ipsa loquitur 151
7.3.1 Unknown cause 152
7.3.2 Lack of proper care 152
7.3.3 Control by thè defendant 152
7.4 Res ipsa loquitur and medicai cases 153
7.5 Effects of res ipsa loquitur 153
7.6 Consumer Protection Act 1987 154
Summary of Chapter 7 155
8 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 157
8.1 The relarionship between causation and remoteness of damage 157
8.2 Causation 157
8.2.1 A typical examination problem 157
8.2.2 The 'but for' test 158
8.2.3 Novus actus interveniens 161
8.2.4 The 'dilemma' principle 161
8.2.5 The claimant was not responsible for his own acts 162
8.2.6 The foreseeability of thè intervening act 162
8.2.7 Omissions 163
8.2.8 Several causes 164
8.3 Problems in proving causation 165
8.4 Contributory negligence and causation 172
8.5 Remoteness of damage 173
8.5.1 Direct consequences 173
8.5.2 Was thè direct consequences rule fair? 173
xii
8.5.3
8.5.4
8.5.5
8.5.6
8.5.7
Modern Tort Law
What damage must be foreseeable?
Confusion between thè duty and remoteness levels
The thin skull rule
Policy issues in remoteness
Applying thè rules: an example
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8.6 Justification for thè remoteness rules 179
Summary of Chapter 8 180
9 BREACH OF STATUTORY DUTY 183
9.1 What must beproved? 184
9.1.1 The statute was intended to create civil liability 184
9.1.2 The statutory duty was owed to thè individuai claimant 187
9.1.3 The statutory duty was imposed on thè particular defendant 188
9.1.4 The defendant was in breach of thè statutory duty 188
9.1.5 The damage must be of a type which thè statute contemplated 191
9.1.6 The injury must ha ve been caused by thè defendant'sbreach of statutory duty 192
9.1.7 Breaches of European legislan'on 192
9.2 Defences 192
9.2.1 The employment context 193
9.2.2 Contributory negligence 193
9.2.3 Delegation 193
9.3 Human Rights Developments 193
Summary of Chapter 9 194
10 OCCUPIERS'LIABILITY 197
10.1 Introduction 197
10.1.1 Application of common law 197
10.2 Liability under thè Occupiers' Liability Act 1957 199
10.2.1 What is meant by thè word 'occupier'? 200
10.2.2 What is meant by thè word'premises'? 200
10.2.3 What is'thè common duty of care'? 201
10.3 Children 201
10.3.1 The allurement principle 202
10.3.2 Duties to contractors 203
10.3.3 Risks ordinarily incidental to particular occupations 203
Contents
10.4 Discharge of thè duty of care 203
10.4.1 Examples of warning notices 205
10.5 Exclusion of liability 206
10.5.1 Business occupiers 206
10.5.2 Private occupiers 206
10.5.3 The Occupiers' Liability Act 1984 concession tobusiness occupiers 207
10.5.4 Exclusions of liability to contractors 207
10.5.5 Liability of occupiers for damage and injury caused byindependent contractors 207
10.6 Defences available under thè Occupiers' Liability Act 1957 208
10.6.1 Volenti (consent) 208
10.6.2 Contributory negligence 209
10.7 Liability for persons other than 'visitare' 209
10.7.1 Trespassers defined 209
10.7.2 The harsh common law cases 210
10.7.3 A change of policy 210
10.7.4 The duty of common humanity 211
10.8 Liability under thè Occupiers' Liability Act 1984 212
10.8.1 Persons exercising a statutory right of way 212
10.8.2 Persons exercising a private right of way 212
10.8.3 Trespassers, both children and adults 213
10.9 The nature of thè statutory duty 216
10.10 Excluding liability under thè Occupiers'Liability Act 1984 216
10.11 Liability of people other than occupiers for dangerous premises 216
10.11.1 Independent contractors 217
10.11.2 Landlords 217
10.11.3 Builders 219
10.11.4 Developments at common law 219
10.11.5 Limitations to s 1 220
10.12 Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 222
Summary of Chapter 10 223
11 TORTS RELATING TO LAND 227
11.1 Introduction 227
Modern Tort Law
11.2 Trespass to land 227
11.2.1 Outline definition 227
11.2.2 Direct interference 228
11.2.3 Entering upon land 228
11.2.4 Trespass to thè airspace 229
11.2.5 Trespass to thè ground beneath thè surface 229
11.2.6 Trespass by entry onto thè land itself 230
11.2.7 Trespass by remaining on land 230
11.2.8 Trespass by placing things on land 231
11.2.9 Trespass to thè highway 231
11.2.10 In thè possession of thè claimant 232
11.2.11 Withoutlawfuljustification(defences) 232
11.2.12 Trespass is actionable per se 235
11.3 Remedies for trespass 235
11.3.1 Damages 235
11.3.2 Injunctions 236
11.3.3 A claim for recovery of thè land 236
11.3.4 Re-entry and defence of property 236
11.3.5 An action for mesne profits 237
11.3.6 Distress damage feasant 237
11.4 Nuisance 237
11.5 Statutory nuisance 238
11.6 Public nuisance 238
11.6.1 Outline definition 238
11.6.2 Materiality 238
11.6.3 Reasonable comfort and convenience 239
11.6.4 A class of Her Majesty's subjects 240
11.7 Highway nuisance 240
11.7.1 Unreasonable use and obstruction of thè highway 240
11.7.2 Threats to thè highway from adjoining premises 242
11.7.3 Defences to public nuisance 243
11.8 Remedies for public nuisance 244
11.8.1 Damages 244
11.8.2 Injunctions 245
Contents xv
11.9 The distinction between public and private nuisance 245
11.10 Private nuisance 245
11.10.1 Outline definition 246
11.10.2 Continuous interference 246
11.10.3 Unlawful interference 247
11.10.4 Indirect interference 252
11.10.5 Interference with thè use or enjoyment of land
or some right over or in connection with it 253
11.10.6 Who can sue in private nuisance? 256
11.10.7 Proof of damage is usually necessary 257
11.10.8 The relationship between private nuisance andnegligence 257
11.10.9 Who can be sued for private nuisance? 259
11.11 Defences to private nuisance 261
11.11.1 Prescription 261
11.11.2 Statutory authority 262
11.12 Remedies for private nuisance 263
11.12.1 Damages 263
11.12.2 Injunction 236
11.12.3 Abatementof thè nuisance 236
11.12.4 Anti-Social Behaviour Orders 264
11.12.5 Party Wall, etc, Act 1996 and High Hedges Bill 2003 264
11.13 The rule in Rylands v Fletcher 264
11.13.1 Facts of thè case 265
11.13.2 The rule 265
11.13.3 The person who brings onta his land 265
11.13.4 For his own purposes 265
11.13.5 Non-natural user 266
11.13.6 Something likely to do mischief 266
11.13.7 Escape 266
11.13.8 Who can sue under Rylands v Fletcher and for whatdamage 267
11.13.9 Is prima facie answerable for ali thè damage which isthè naturai consequence of thè escape 267
11.13.10 Defences 268
11.13.11 What will become of thè rule in Rylands v Fletcher? 269
Modern Tort Law
11.14 Liability for fire
11.14.1 Common law
11.14.2 Statute
11.15 Distinguishing between various torts to land
Summary of Chapter 11
12 LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS
12.1 Common law relating to animals
12.1.1 The common law rules
12.1.2 Nuisance
12.1.3 Trespass
12.1.4 Defamation
12.1.5 Statutory nuisances
12.2 The Animals Act 1971
12.2.1 Dangerous species
12.2.2 Non-dangerous species
12.2.3 Damage
12.2.4 Characteristics of thè particular animai
12.2.5 The likelihood of thè damage being caused or of itsbeing severe
12.2.6 Characteristics known to that keeper, etc
12.2.7 Defences
12.2.8 Damage by dogs to livestock
12.3 Livestock
12.3.1 Trespassing livestock
12.3.2 Definition
12.3.3 Defences
12.4 Remoteness of damage
12.5 Damages
Summary of Chapter 12
13 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The relationship between civil law and criminal injuries compensation
13.3 The Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme
13.4 Compensation orders
13.4.1 An important drawback
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Contents
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
Actions against thè police
Assault and battery
13.6.1 Assault
13.6.2 Battery
False imprisonment
13.7.1 Restraint is necessary
13.7.2 Restraint must be 'total'
13.7.3 Knowledge of thè restraint at thè rime is not necessary
13.7.4 Examples
Defences to assault, battery and false imprisonment
13.8.1 Self-defence
13.8.2 Consent
13.8.3 Sports
13.8.4 Brawls
13.8.5 Reasonable chastisement
13.8.6 Medicai treatment
13.8.7 Children
13.8.8 Emergencies
13.8.9 Consent to thè taking of bodily samples
13.8.10 Lawful arrest, detention and stop and search
13.8.11 Proportionality
13.8.12 Limitations
Remedies
The tort in Wilkinson v Dovmton
Summary of Chapter 13
14 EMPLOYERS'LIABILITY
14.1
14.2
14.3
An Overview
Primary liability
14.2.1 Independent contractors
14.2.2 Non-delegable duties
Common law duties of employers to employees
14.3.1 Duty to employ competent staff
14.3.2 Duty to provide proper plant and equipment
14.3.3 Duty to provide a safe workplace
14.3.4 Duty to provide safe work systems
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xviii Modern Tort Law
14.3.5 Duty to ensure health and safety 322
14.3.6 Mutual duty of trust and confidence 330
14.4 Breach of statutory duty 331
14.5 New statutory duties 331
Summary of Chapter 14 333
15 PRODUCT LIABILITY 335
15.1 The position in contract 335
15.1.1 Disadvantages of contract 335
15.2 Credit users 335
15.3 The position in tort 336
15.3.1 Disadvantages of tort 336
15.3.2 Continued relevance of negligence 338
15.4 Consumer Protection Act 1987 338
15.4.1 Whoisliable? 338
15.4.2 Joint and several liability 339
15.4.3 Definition of a product 339
15.4.4 Definition of a defect 340
15.4.5 Warnings, labelling and get-up 341
15.4.6 Timing 341
15.4.7 The type of damage to which strict liability applies 342
15.4.8 Limitarions 343
15.4.9 Defences under thè Consumer Protection Act 1987 (s 4) 343
15.5 What difference does thè Consumer Protection Act 1987 really make? 345
Summary of Chapter 15 348
16 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 351
16.1 Vicarious liability 351
16.2 Employees or independent contractors? 352
16.3 The nature of thè employment test 352
16.4 The control test 353
16.4.1 Professional people's perceptions and thè control test 353
16.4.2 Skilled workers' perceptions and thè control test 354
16.5 The 'integrai part of thè business' test 355
16.5.1 Who owns thè tools? 356
16.5.2 Is thè worker paid a wage or a lump sum for thè job? 356
Contents
16.5.3 Was thè worker in business on his own account?
16.5.4 Who had thè power to hire and fire thè employee?
16.6 Some miscellaneous matters
16.6.1 Employees on loan
16.6.2 Cars on loan
16.7 The course of employment
16.7.1 Authorised and unauthorised acts
16.7.2 Wrongful modes of doing authorised acts
16.8 The Lister v Romford Ice principle
Summary of Chapter 16
17 TRESPASS TO GOODS
17.1 The common law
17.1.1 Trespass to goods
17.1.2 Conversion
17.1.3 Action for damage to reversionary interests in goods
17.1.4 Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977
17.1.5 Remedies for conversion
Summary of Chapter 17
18 DEFAMATION AND OTHER TORTS AFFECTING THE REPUTATION
18.1 Freedom of speech, thè media and thè law
18.2 Libel and slander
18.2.1 Distinction
18.3 Who can sue for defamation?
18.4 A working definition of defamation
18.4.1 Publication
18.4.2 Examples of publication
18.4.3 Statements which were not 'published'
18.4.4 A defamatory statement
18.4.5 Who decides?
18.4.6 Innuendo
18.4.7 Referring to thè claimant
18.4.8 Malice
18.5 'Without lawful justification' - defences
18.5.1 Innocent dissemination
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18.5.2 Volenti (consent) 381
18.5.3 Accord and satisfaction 381
18.5.4 Apology and payment into court 381
18.5.5 Apology and mitigation 382
18.5.6 Offer of amends procedure under s 3 of thè Defamation Act 1996,embodied in CPR Pt 53 382
18.5.7 Unqualified offer of amends under s 2 of thè Defamation Act 1996 382
18.5.8 Justification or truth 382
18.5.9 Unintentional defamation 385
18.5.10 Absolute privilege 386
18.5.11 Qualified privilege 387
18.5.12 Fair comment on a matter of public interest 391
18.5.13 Limitatìon period 393
18.6 Remedies for defamation 393
18.6.1 Injunctions 394
18.6.2 Damages 394
18.7 A new approach relying on Art 10 of thè European Conventionon Human Rights 396
18.8 Proposals to reform thè law of defamation 398
18.8.1 The Faulks Committee's proposals 398
18.8.2 The Lord Chancellor's proposals 399
18.8.3 Defamation Act 1996 400
18.9 Malicious falsehood 400
18.10 Malicious prosecution 401
18.10.1 A prosecution 402
18.10.2 Without reasonable and probable cause 403
18.10.3 Initiated by malice 403
18.10.4 The case must be resolved in thè claimant's favour 403
18.10.5 Damage 403
18.11 Malicious abuse of process 403
18.12 A wider protection for privacy? 404
Summary of Chapter 18 405
19 REMEDIES IN TORT 409
19.1 Damages 409
19.1.1 How accurate is tort compensation? 409
Contents xxi
19.1.2 How fair is tort compensation? 410
19.1.3 How efficient is tort compensation? 411
19.2 Types of damages 413
19.2.1 Nominai damages 413
19.2.2 Compensatory damages 413
19.2.3 Contemptuous damages 413
19.2.4 Aggravated damages 414
19.2.5 Punitive or exemplary damages 414
19.3 Calculation of special damages 415
19.3.1 Reasonable expenses to thè date of thè trial 416
19.3.2 Expenses to cover special facilities 418
19.4 Calculation of generai damages 419
19.5 Pecuniary losses 419
19.5.1 Loss of future earnings and initial care 419
19.5.2 Income tax 422
19.5.3 The lost years 423
19.5.4 Loss of future earnings and very young claimants 423
19.5.5 Deductions 424
19.5.6 Deductions from thè multiplier 426
19.5.7 Other future losses 427
19.6 Non-pecuniary losses 433
19.6.1 Pain and suffering 434
19.6.2 Loss of amenity 434
19.6.3 Levels of generai damages 435
19.6.4 Damages for thè injury itself 436
19.6.5 Damages for bereavement 436
19.6.6 Interference with consortium 437
19.7 Damages payable on death 437
19.7.1 Survival of existing causes of action 437
19.7.2 Death as a cause of action: loss of dependency 439
19.7.3 Who are thè dependants? 439
19.7.4 Adjusting thè multiplier 441
19.7.5 Financial dependency 441
19.7.6 Non-financial dependency 441
19.7.7 The Law Commission reports 443
xxii Modern Tort Law
19.8 Interest on damages 443
19.9 New methods of paying damages in personal injury cases 443
19.9.1 Split trials and interim damages 443
19.9.2 Provisionai damages 445
19.9.3 Structured settlements 446
19.10 Property damage 447
19.11 Economie loss 447
19.12 Injunctions 448
19.13 Other remedies in tort 449
19.14 Joint and several tortfeasors 449
Summary of Chapter 19 450
20 DEFENCES 453
20.1 Contributory negligence 453
20.1.1 Development of thè law 453
20.1.2 The last opportunity rule 453
20.1.3 Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945 454
20.1.4 The standard of care in contributory negligence 454
20.1.5 Causation in contributory negligence 455
20.1.6 Drunk drivers 456
20.1.7 Who benefits from thè rule? 457
20.2 Volenti nonfit injuria (consent) 458
20.2.1 Dangerousjobs 459
20.2.2 Dangerous sports 460
20.2.3 Drunk drivers 460
20.2.4 Rescuers 460
20.3 Consent in thè medicai context 461
20.3.1 Trespass to thè person 461
20.3.2 Negligence 464
20.3.3 Informed consent 464
20.4 Exclusion clauses and consent 465
20.5 Ex turpi causa non oritur actio (illegality) 465
20.6 Inevitable accident 467
20.7 Mistake 468
20.8 Necessity 468
Contents
20.9 Self-defence and defence of property 469
20.10 Limitation of actions 469
20.10.1 Limitation period in tort 469
20.10.2 Limitation period in defamation 470
20.10.3 Limitation period in personal injuries cases 470
20.10.4 Latent damage 470
20.10.5 Consumer Protection Act 1987 471
20.10.6 Persons under a disability 471
20.11 Accrual of thè cause of action 471
20.11.1 Claims outside thè limitation period 473
Summary of Chapter 20 475
21 CRITICISMSOFTORT-REFORMS 479
21.1 Some criticisms of thè rules of tort 479
21.1.1 Fault 479
21.1.2 Uncertainty 479
21.1.3 Failure to meet its objectives 480
21.1.4 Inefficiency 480
21.2 Criticisms of thè legai System 480
21.3 Reform of tort 481
21.3.1 Civil Procedure Rules 1998 481
21.3.2 Funding of claims 483
21.3.3 Reform of tort law through thè Human Rights Act 1998 484
21.4 The value of tort 484
Summary of Chapter 21 485
Index 487