Models: Useful primarily in Free Response Section

Understand that it is not enough to know what the models/theories are, but that you should be able to

understand the assumptions made, applicability, and limitations of the models. Most questions ask you

how readily the can be applied to a certain issue….

MALHTUS:

I. Early warnings

A. Thomas Malthus: concerned over the population spiral

1. Wrote an essay in 1798: Population was increasing faster than the means of subsistence

3. Recognized the nature of exponential growth

4. Suggested population growth in Britain might be checked by hunger within 50 years

5. Malthus could not foresee the future

a) Multiple impacts of colonization and migration

b) He was incorrect about the linear growth of food production

(1) More acreage put under production

(2) Improved strains of seed and fertilizer

B. Those who continue to share Malthus's concerns are sometimes called neo-Malthusians

1. Their numbers are growing

2. Point out human suffering is now occurring a scale unimagined by Malthus

3. Difficult to apply Malthus's ideas below the global scale

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL:

I. Demographic change

A. The three demographic variables

1. Births

2. Deaths

3. Migration (immigration and emigration)

B. The demographic transition: a multistage model based on Western European experiences

of changes in population growth, often seen in countries undergoing industrialization

1. The four stages: underwent as countries develop

a) High stationary stage—high birth and death rates

b) Early expanding stage—high birth and declining death rates

c) Late expanding stage—declining fertility, but already declining mortality show

continuing significant growth rates

d) Low stationary stage—low fertility and mortality, with a low rate of growth

2. Demographic transition is represented by stages 2 and 3, during which there are high

birth rates and death rates decline

C. Demographic change in developing countries

1. The developing countries have not had the advantages afforded the developed countries

a) Industrialization, Urbanization and general modernization

b) They are starting with a much higher base population

2. It cannot be assumed all countries will go through all four stages

3. Some countries may have subsiding population growth without economic growth

D. Epidemiological Transition Model: a shift in a country away from infectious disease and

towards degenerative diseases, often occurring as a country develops

RAVENSTEIN’S LAWS OF MIGRATION AND GRAVITY MODEL

I. Theories about migration

A. Ravenstein’s “laws” of migration

1. Net migration amounts to a fraction of the gross migration between two places

2. The majority of migrants move a short distance

3. Migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations

4. Urban residents are less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas

5. Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults

B. Gravity model defined: larger and closer together two cities are, the greater the

interaction between the two (predicts measure of interaction between two places)

CATALYSTS OF MIGRATION:

A. Economic conditions

1. Poverty

2. Perceived opportunities in destinations

B. Political circumstances

1. Oppressive regimes, Cuba, Vietnam's "boat people", Uganda

C. Armed conflict and civil war

1. Three million people driven from their homes in former Yugoslavia

2. Civil war in Rwanda

D. Environmental conditions

1. Potato famine in Ireland in the 1840s

2. Major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

3. Many emigrants return home after the crisis is over

E. Culture and tradition

1. Muslims migrated out of India when it was partitioned

2. Jews left the former Soviet Union for Israel

3. Whites left South Africa during the turbulent political transition of the 1990s

F. Technological advances

1. Modern transportation makes migration easier

2. Air conditioning reduced return migration from the Sunbelt back to the north

G. Flow of information

1. Fast transmission of information by television, radio, and telephone

2. Allows people to migrate where jobs available: Examples: Turks, Algerians, Haitians

H. "Push" and "pull" factors

1. Usually push and pull factors are combined in a person's decision to migrate

2. Push factors

a) Likely to be more accurately perceived

b) Include individual and personal considerations

3. Pull factors

a) Likely to be more vague

b) Many move on the basis of excessively positive images and expectations

POPULATION POLICIES

A. Three groups of population policies

1. Expansion population policies

a) Encourage large families

b) Use of tax incentives and other fiscal means to encourage more children

c) Used by countries where the population has stopped growing: example of

Singapore

2. Eugenic population policies

a) Some were designed to favor cultural sector of the population over another

b) Until the time of the Civil Rights movement, some accused the United States of

pursuing social policies tinged with eugenics that worked against interest

of African-Americans

c) Japan’s nearly homogeneous culture is sometimes said to result from deliberate

eugenic social policies

These policies can be practiced covertly through discriminatory taxation

3. Restrictive population policies

a) Toleration of officially unapproved means of birth control

b) Outright prohibition of large families

c) Can have unintended consequences (aging population, lack of labor force)

CONQUEST, AGRICULTURE, RENFREW, GREENBERG

I. Theories of language diffusion

A. Roots

1. Proto-language had words for certain landforms and other features of the landscape

2. More specifically some contained words for certain types of vegetation–trees, grass, etc.

3. Such information helps indicate the environment in which a language may have

developed

B. Conquest theory

1. Some believed the Proto-Indo-European language originated somewhere north of the

Black Sea in the vast steppes of Ukraine and Russia

2. The language then spread west judging by the sound shifts

3. More than 5000 years ago, these people used horses, developed the wheel, and traded

widely

C. Agriculture theory

1. Some felt the spread of agriculture, not conquest, diffused the Proto-Indo-European

language through Europe

a) Postulated the source area as the hilly and mountainous terrain Anatolia in Turkey

b) Proto-Indo-European language has few words for plains but many for high and low

mountains, valleys, mountain streams, rapids, lakes, and other high-relief landforms

c) Language also has words for trees, and animals that never lived on the plains

d) The realm's leading hearth of agricultural innovation lay in nearby Mesopotamia

2. Support for the theory

a) Research proved the existence of distance decay in the geographic pattern

(1) Certain genes become steadily less common as one moves north and west

(2) Farming in Anatolia led to overpopulation, which led to outmigration

(3) Farming peoples of Anatolia migrated in a slow moving wave into Europe

b) Nonfarming societies held out, and their languages remained unchanged

3. Drawbacks of the theory

a) Anatolian region is not ideal for farming

b) Some believe the proto language(s) was first carried eastward into Southwest Asia,

then across the Russian-Ukrainian plains and on into the Balkans (Figure 9-2)

c) May be some truth in both hypotheses (Figure 9-3)

d) An eastward diffusion must have occurred because of relationships between Sanskrit

and ancient Latin and Greek

II. The search for the superfamily

1. Language development and divergence have been occurring for 90,000 or more years

2. Renfrew proposed three agricultural hearths gave rise to language families (Figure 9-5)

3. RENFREW MODEL: 3 hearths: Anatolia, E arc of fertile crescent and W. arc of fertile

crescent, each spreading in different directions and accounting for the widespread nature

of the Indo-European Family

3. Russian scholars have long been in the forefront of research on ancient languages

a) Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky

(1) Studied independently of each other yet came to similar conclusions

b) Established the core of a pre-Proto-European language named Nostratic

B. Nostratic

1. vocabulary revealed much about the people speaking it

2. No names for domestic plants or animals

3. People were hunters and gatherers, not farmers, May date back 14,000 years

5. Believed to be the ancestral language for many other languages

6. Nostratic links widely separated languages

III. The Greenberg hypothesis

1. Proposed there are only three families of indigenous American languages

2. Each corresponds to a major wave of migration from Asia

a) Amerind, the superfamily, is the most widely distributed

b) Na-Dene, spoken by indigenous people in northwest Canada and part of Alaska

c) Eskimo-Aleut is still concentrated along Arctic and near-Arctic shores

3. Many linguists disagree with Greenberg b/c he did not follow proper reconstruction

4. Implies an earlier than 12,000-to-13,000-year-ago immigration into Americas

a) Archaeological dating in Pennsylvania (16,000 B.P.), and Chile (poss. 33,000 B.P.)

b) May lend credibility to Greenberg's hypothesis, if proved beyond a doubt

c) May mean the first wave came across the Bering Strait more than 40,000 years ago

d) Dental data gathered by Christy Turner conclude that three waves of immigration

took place over a longer period that 12,000 years

LINGUA FRANCA, PIDGIN, CREOLIZATION

A. Lingua franca

1. Created by traders before the Europeanization of the world

2. The term lingua franca comes from the Mediterranean Sea and its trading ports

a) A mixture of Frankish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, and Arabic

b) A product of linguistic convergence

3. The term is used to denote any common lang. spoken by peoples w/ diff. native tongues

4. Swahili has become the lingua franca of East Africa

a) Developed from African Bantu languages, Arabic, and Persian

b) Has a complex vocabulary and structure

c) Even used in eastern Congo

5. In West Africa Hausa is a regional tongue

B. Creolization

1. Pidgin—a language modified and simplified through contact with other languages

a) Common in the Caribbean region

b) English and African languages combined to form a pidgin English

2. May sometimes become a mother tongue

a) The process is known as Creolization

b) Pidgin becomes a lingua franca

3. Important unifying forces in a linguistically divided world

4. Sometimes difficult to distinguish between a dialect and a pidgin or creole language

5. Pidgin and creole languages are important unifying forces

UNIVERSALIZING AND ETHNIC RELIGIONS

A. Universalizing religions

a) Global religions

b) Actively seek converts

c) Spread of Christianity was important consequence of colonialism

d) Relatively few in number and of recent origin (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism)

e) Often seen in syncretic religions: overlying universalizing religion with underlying

animist beliefs

B. Ethnic religions

a) Sometime called cultural religions, do not seek converts outside the group

b) Tend to be spatially concentrated (Hinduism, etc)

c) Main exception is Judaism (spread due to diaspora)

ORGANIC THEORY, HEARTLAND THEORY, RIMLAND THEORY

A. Geopolitics

1. Ratzel's organic theory

a) Held that a nation which is an aggregate of organisms would itself function and

behave as an organism

b) Gave rise to a subfield of political geography called geopolitics

c) Term geopolitics fell into disuse after World War II

d) Geopolitics is now used for the study of spatial and territorial dimensions of power

relationships past, present, and future

3. Heartland theory—Sir Halford Mackinder

a) Believed a land-based power, not a sea power, would ultimately rule the world

b) Pivotal area extended from Eastern Europe to eastern Siberia

4. Rimland Theory—Nicholas Spykman, a critic of Mackinder, argued that the Eurasian

rim, not its heart, held the key to global power (RIMLAND THEORY)

4. Spykman coined the world "rimland," which is still used today

B. World Systems analysis: See core Periphery model in development section…

CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCES

A. Centripetal forces

1. Forces that promote unity (Example of Nigeria, past and present)

2. Governments everywhere seek to promote nationalism to overcome more local loyalities

3. Try to ensure minorities are represented in government

4. Need for a charismatic individual as leader to unite the people

5. Real or perceived threats to a country can unite

6. Education from institutions or the church

7. A national ideology

8. Circulation—people moving about the country diffusing national norms

B. Centrifugal forces

1. All states must deal with centrifugal forces

2. States collapse when they outweigh centripetal forces

3. In the early twenty-first century, centrifugal forces seem to be on the rampage

DEVOLUTION:

I. Forces of devolution

A. The counterforce to supranationalism

1. Today, many states are afflicted by internal centrifugal forces

2. No New World Order can be established as long as destabilizing forces exist

3. Even some the world's oldest states are subject to devolution

4. Time has failed to submerge regionalism in the United Kingdom

a) Rising tide of separatism in Scotland and Wales

b) Underscores the cultural forces at work in many states

B. Ethnonational forces

1. Ethnicity is often based on cultural commonalities

2. Peoples sharing a strong sense of ethnicity feel they are part of a group

3. Ethnonationalism can be a fundamental force promoting devolution

4. Canada—the French speaking province of Canada

5. Devolutionary forces exist in Europe

a) Spain—greater autonomy desired by Basques and province of Catalonia

b) Belgium—Flanders and Wallonia

c) Czechoslovakia—peacefully divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia

d) Discussion on the break-up of Yugoslavia

6. Devolution elsewhere

a) Sudan—Muslim north and non-Muslim south

b) Sri Lanka

7. Ethnonational differences are weakening the fabric in many states today

C. Economic forces

1. Catalonia, discussion of Italy, France, Corsica, and Brazil

D. Spatial Influences

1. Devolutionary events occur on the margins of states

2. Many islands are also subject to devolutionary forces

3. Discussion of devolutionary forces in the United States

4. Gateway states—political entities situated in border zones between geopolitical power

cores

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:

I. Classifying economic activities

A. Primary activities

1. Hunting and gathering

2. Farming of all kinds

3. Livestock herding, fishing, forestry, and lumbering

4. Mining and quarrying

5. All are activities in the extractive sector

B. Secondary activities

1. Concerned with the conversion of raw materials

2. An infinite range of production from simple to complex

C. Tertiary activities

1. Service industries

2. Connect producers to consumers

D. Quaternary (and quinary) activities

1. Quaternary—economic activities concerned with information and exchange of money or

capital

2. Quinary—spheres of research and higher education

LAND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS:

I. Patterns of settlement and land use

A. Influence of physical environment

1. Limitations on types of agriculture that can be practiced

2. Numbers of people the agriculture can support

B. Property inheritance

1. Primogeniture—all land passes to the eldest son

2. Where land is divided among heirs considerable fragmentation can occur over time

C. Cadastral system—delineates property lines

1. Rectangular survey system

a) Adopted by the U.S. government after the American revolution

b) Known as the township-and-range system

c) Basic unit is the one square mile section, a similar system is used in Canada

3. Metes and bounds survey

a) Natural features are used to demarcate irregular parcels of land

b) Used along the eastern seaboard

4. Long-lot survey

a) Used in Louisiana and Texas

b) Divides land into narrow parcels along roads, rivers, or canals

VON THUNEN:

A. Understanding the spatial layout of agriculture

1. Discussion of Von Thünen's Spatial Model of Farming

a. Concentric zones of differing agricultural activities

i. Governed by land rent and perishablility

ii. Nearest city: dairying and market produce

iii. Further: wheat and then cattle

b. assumptions: flat terrain, uniform soils and environmental conditions

2. Many factors have combined to produce the spatial distribution of farming systems

existing today (Refrigerated shipping, core-periphery relations, cheap labor/land costs)

3. Decisions made by colonial powers led to the establishment of plantations

4. Food-poor countries continue to grow commercial crops when food crops are needed

SJOBERG:

A. Models of urban places

1. Gideon Sjoberg

a) Cities should be viewed as products of their societies

b) Argued city levels could be divided into four categories

(1) Folk-preliterate

(2) Feudal

(3) Preindustrial

(4) Urban-industrial

2. A European city during feudal times was little more than a village

3. Cities grew during the consolidation of political power and the expansion of states

5. The dominant aspect of the pre-industrial city was the imposing complex of religious

and governmental structures at its heart

TYPES OF CITIES:

A. Primate cities

1. Sjoberg recognized emergence of the primate city

2. Not always largest but dominant, their influence underscored by the cluster of religious

or governmental buildings at their center, spaciousness, and wealth

3. Generalizations about pre-industrial cities are always open to debate

a) Not all cities were structured as Sjoberg suggested

b) Examples: Muslim cities, city centers in Middle America, black African cities

4. Another viewpoint holds that the term "preindustrial" represents an inaccuracy

B. The global spread of urbanization

1. Oases and resting places along the Silk Route grew into towns and some into cities

2. Urban banana—a crescent-shaped zone of early urbanization extending across Eurasia

from England to Japan

3. Effects of European maritime exploration and overseas colonization

a) Ushered in an era of oceanic trade

b) Coastal cities gained prominence

4. The mercantile city of the colonial era brought revival and sometimes prosperity

a) A central square became what we today call “downtown”

b) Became nodes of a global network of regional, national, and international commerce

c) Powerful trading companies and wealthy merchants established settlements in

distant lands

d) Was engulfed by desperate immigrants during the worst years of the “Little Ice

Age”

5. Emergence of the manufacturing city

a) Emerged in British Midlands and spreading to Western Europe

b) Cities became unregulated jumbles of activity

c) Elegant housing was converted into overcrowded slums

d) Sanitation systems failed, water supplies were inadequate and often polluted

f) Children worked 12-hour shifts in textile mills

6. Improvements were made by government intervention and city planning

7. Many manufacturing cities in the New World never suffered as much as European cities

8. During the second half of the twentieth century manufacturing cities stopped growing

9. Today the global urban scene is undergoing another major transition

10. Cities in the developing world have been growing at unprecedented rates

11. Effect of transportation innovations

a) Dispersal of urban population creating suburbanization

b) The modern city

12. Some geographers see what is often referred to as postmodernism in cities of

technologically advanced societies, resulted in the modernization of the American

manufacturing city, importance of the electric trolley and the automobile

NORTH AMERICAN CITIES:

1. The concentric zone model (Burgess Model) discussed p. 277

a. Zones defined by their function, grew as a city grew

b. Based on Chicago

c. Encroachment of zones on one another…

2. The sector model (Hoyt’s) discussed on p. 277-278

a. Response to concentric zone model

b. Zones shaped like pieces of a pie radiating out from CBD

c. Focused on residential pattern (where wealthy in a city choose to live)

d. Land rent figures in heavily

3. The multiple nuclei model (Harris and Ullman) discussed on p. 278

a. Later model that asserts that the CBD is losing its dominant position as the

nucleus of the Urban area

4. Urban realms—components of giant conurbations that function separately in certain

ways but linked together in a greater metropolitan sphere, much more modern model,

each realm a separate entity but functioning in a loose wat together

a. Early post-war period, reduced volume and level of interaction between the

central city and suburban cities

b. Outer cities became more self-sufficient

i. Began to duplicate certain functions of the central city

ii. Regional shopping centers were becoming the CBDs of the outer nuclei

iii. Business and industrial parks were locating outside the central city

iv. The term urban realm came into use in the 1990s

5. Growth of outer cities has been the hallmark of the American urbanization since the

1960s

6. As early as 1973, American suburbs surpassed central cities in total employment

7. Outer cities became so-called edge cities

8. Outer cities have become equal partners in the shaping of the polycentric metropolis

B. Economic forces and institutions behind racial patterns that developed in cities

a) Redlining—financial institutions refused to lend money to risky neighborhoods

marked off on maps by red lines

b) Blockbusting—Offering an African-American a house in a white neighborhood at a

very low price to convince white neighbors that the neighborhood was going

downhill

b) Racial steering—used after blockbusting became illegal in the 1960s

c) Concerns about the dangers of urban life led to the proliferation of gated

communities

RANK SIZE RULE:

VII. Patterns of cities

A. Rank size rule— a model of urban hierarchy, occurs mainly in developed core

1. The population of a city or town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the

hierarchy 2nd largest 1/2 the size, 3rd 1/3 etc…

2. Does not apply in countries with dominant primate cities

3. Tells little about the reasons behind the distribution of places at various levels

MULTIPLIER EFFECT

C. Functional specialization

1. Employment structure—data on the number of people employed in various basic and

non-basic jobs

2. All cities have multiple functions—the larger the city larger the number of functions

3. Functional specialization

a) A characteristic of European cities even before the Industrial Revolution

b) Association between the names of cities and their functional specialities has little

relevance today

c) There was a time when many cities were identified with certain products

4. Three 1943 maps by Chauncy Harris of distribution of United States' cities according to

their dominant functions

a) Reveal a situation that no longer exists

b) Only slightly more than a dozen northeastern cities could still be mapped as

manufacturing centers

5. Explanation of the multiplier effect (each basic job creates two nonbasic jobs)

6. Every city and town has an economic base

a) Basic sector—work that results in exports and inflowing money

b) Non-basic sector—also called the service sector

7. The number of non-basic workers is always greater than the number of basic workers;

the ratio tends to increase as city grows

CHRISTALLER”S CENTRAL PLACE THEORY:

I. Central place theory

A. Developed by Walter Christaller

1. Spatial distribution of one place in the hierarchy to another (services offered)

2. Began with a simple set of assumptions

a) Surface of ideal region would be flat and have no physical barriers

b) Soil fertility would be the same everywhere

c) Also assumed an even distribution of population and purchasing power, and uniform

transportation network

d) Assumed a constant maximum distance for sale of any good or service produced in a

town would prevail in all directions from urban center

3. He wanted a means to calculate the degree of centrality of various places

4. What distance people would travel to acquire goods and services

5. Because circles overlapped or left spaces hexagons were used (Figure 22-9)

6. His model yielded some important conclusions that had practical application

B. The real world

1. Physical barriers, resource distributions, etc. create modification of the spatial pattern

a) Geographers were divided on relevance of the model

b) Some saw hexagons everywhere, others saw none

2. Some areas do tend to confirm the model

2. Christaller stimulated urban and economic geography in general and location theory in

particular

MODELING MODERN CITIES:

I. Modeling the modern city

A. Introduction

B. The Ibero-American city

1. South and Middle America are urbanizing rapidly

a) Especially in cities where “Latin” cultures dominate

b) Urban population grew from 41 to 77 percent between 1950 and 2002

c) Discussion of the model proposed by Ernst Griffin and Larry Ford

2. Cities of South and Middle America display so much diversity no model will encompass

all aspects

II. The Southeast Asian city

A. Besides Singapore, other cities are growing and modernizing

1. Example of Kula Lumpur, capital of Malaysia

2. First megalopolis is emerging centered on Jakarta, Indonesia

3. Urbanization in this realm was just 36 percent in 2002

4. The cities exhibit similar land use patterns

III. The African city

A. Sub-Saharan Africa is the least urbanized and the fastest urbanizing realm in the world

1. Colonial imprints remain in many African cities

2. Traditional cities occur mainly in the Muslim zone in the west

3. South Africa's major urban centers are essentially Western with elements of European as

well as American models

B. Difficult to formulate a model African city

1. In African cities the central city often consists of three CBDs

a) Remnant of colonial CBD

b) An informal and sometimes periodic market zone

c) Transitional business center where commerce is conducted

2. Many cities are ringed by satellite townships

LEAST COST THEORY:

A. Weber's model

1. Least cost theory

2. Minimization of three critical expenses

a) Transportation costs— most critical

b) Labor costs

c) Agglomeration—when a substantial number of enterprises cluster in the same area

3. Some argued his theory did not account for variations in costs over time

B. Factors of industrial location

1. Most, but not all economies are guided by market mechanism and relationships between

supply and demand

a) Some evolved under state planning—example of the former Soviet Union

b) Discussion of capitalists who built great iron works in Europe and practice of

moving iron ore to coal fields

2. Raw materials

a) Transportation costs affect industry location

b) Example of steel plants along the U.S. northeastern seaboard

c) Example of Japan, which has few raw materials

d) Example of colonial powers that controlled raw materials

e) Wealthy countries can keep prices lower for raw materials by finding other

sources

3. Labor

a) Availability of cheap semiskilled labor has had an immense impact on regional

b) Example of Japan's development

c) Example of Taiwan and South Korea competing with Japan

d) Economic development on the Pacific Rim

e) Example of China with its huge labor force

f) Industry keeps shifting as new low-cost labor locations are found

g) Intense debate about the United States moving factories to Mexico

h) Cost of labor still looms large in location of industry

4. Transportation

a) Crucial to industrial location

b) Enables manufacturers to purchase raw materials from distant sources

c) Allows for distribution of finished products to dispersed populations

d) Location of industry also needs an alternative system of transportation

e) Container systems allow for bulk transport

f) For most goods, truck transport is cheapest over short distances

g) Railroads are cheapest over medium distances

h) Ships are cheapest over longest distances

5. Infrastructure

a) Includes all the different kinds of services offered by an area or city

b) Without needed services industries cannot succeed

c) Example of Southeastern China trying to industrialize without needed infrastructure

d) Vietnam has infrastructure problems that will not soon be overcome

e) In many Western cities excessive agglomeration is driving firms away from

crowded decaying urban areas

6. Energy

a) Not as important as it once was

b) Can be brought from long distances over electrical lines

c) Industries needing exceptionally large amounts of energy still locate near sites of

abundant available energy

d) A huge system of pipelines and tankers delivers oil and natural gas to manufacturing

regions throughout the world

e) In the early 2000s the United States’ reliance on foreign energy resources was even

greater than in the 1970s

7. Other factors

a) Some similar industries tend to cluster together

b) Political stability and receptiveness to investment

c) Taxation policies

d) Environmental conditions

e) Hong Kong's success and the role of geographic location is discussed

HOTELLINGS LOCATIONAL INTERDEPENDENCE:

I. Locational Interdependence (ice cream vendors on the beach ending up back to back)

LOSCH’S MODEL:

I. Emphasizes profit maximization

a)Includes spatial influence of consumer demand

b)Establish a zone of profitability

c)Other businesses can come in a shift the zone of profitability

DEVELOPMENT MODELS:

I. Concepts and approaches

A. Classifying countries into categories of development

1. Developed countries—countries with high levels of urbanization, industrialization, and

high standards of living

2. Underdeveloped countries—opposite end of the development scale

3. Concept of development is complicated

4. The GNP index is commonly used to measure development

a) Criteria used for comparison will influence the outcome

b) Data is not always reliable

c) Discussion of the use of the GNP and its problems

5. Other measures of economic development

a) Occupational structure of the labor force

b) Productivity per worker

c) Consumption of energy per person

d) Transportation and communications facilities per person

e) Consumption of manufactured metals per person

f) Dependency ratio

g) Social indicator rates

6. Some countries come out in approximately the same position no matter which measure

is used

a) None of the approaches produces a clear dividing line between levels

b) Classifying countries became more acute in the 1960s and 1970s

c) Some countries classified as underdeveloped began shooting ahead

d) The term developing countries came into use

e) Examples of South Korea and Taiwan

7. Term underdeveloped has a negative connotation and has been replaced with developed-

developing

8. Discussion of how the effort of classifying countries in terms of levels of development

has come under attack

II. World Systems Analysis: (Wallerstein’s core-periphery model)

1. Some scholars have argued for a new approach to describing global economic disparities

2. They have proposed the core-periphery model: a three tier structure

a) Core regions are those that have achieved high levels of socioeconomic

prosperity

b) Periphery regions are poor and dependent in significant ways on the core, and do

not have much control over their own affairs

c) Semi-periphery regions exert more power than peripheral regions, but are

dominated to some degree by core regions

3. A key component of many theories because it focuses attention on economic

relationships among places

4. Does not assume socioeconomic change will occur in the same way in all places

5. Has the advantage of being able to describe developments at any spatial scale

C. Patterns on the map

1. Development concepts are still widely used despite their limitations

2. Character and extent of economic disparities at the state scale

LIBERAL AND STRUCTURALIST DEVELOPMENT MODELS:

I. Models of development

A. Liberal models: Assume that all countries follow the same stages along a development

trajectory, economic disparities are a result of short term market inefficiencies

1. Rostow’s modernization model (also known as the ladder of development)

2. One of the most influential liberal models

3. Formulated by Walt Rostow in the 1960s

4. Suggests all countries follow a similar path through five stages of

development

1. Traditional

2. Preconditions of takeoff

3. Takeoff

4. Drive to maturity

5. High mass consumption

D. Structuralist models: regional economic disparities are a structural feature of the global

economy, disparities are a result of inequality during the development of the global economy

and the unequal relationships make it difficult for poorer regions to improve their situations

1. Dependency theory

1. Holds that political and economic relationships between countries

and regions of the world control and limit economic development

possibilities of less well-off areas

2. Sees very little hope for economic prosperity in regions and

countries that have been dominated by external power

3. Like modernization theory, is based on generalizations about

economic change

4. Pays very little attention to geographical differences in culture,

politics, and society (need to consider core-periphery for that)