Models of Curriculum Development

Ralph Tyler's Model/Rationale

Ralph Tyler considered four considerations in curriculum development:

1. purposes of the school

2. educational experiences related to the purposes

3. organization of the experiences

4. evaluation of the experiences

Hilda Taba's Linear Model

Hilda Taba believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum

should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the

"grassroots approach" where teachers could have a major input. She

presented seven major steps:

1. diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society

2. formulation of learning objectives

3. selection of learning content

4. organization of learning content

5. selection of learning experiences

6. organization of learning activities

7. determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

(From the two curriculum models, what are the three interacting processes

in curriculum development? Show its relationship)

(Source: Curriculum Development by P. Bilbao, et al., LoreMar Pub., 2008)

POSTED BY DR. OLGA C. ALONSABE AT 7:09 AM

LABELS: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS , HILDA TABA, OLGA ALONSABE,

RALPH TYLER

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Friday, February 20, 2009

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum:

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework

for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in school.I helps in

answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should

learn and what materials and methods should be used. In decision-making,

philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision-

making.

The following four educational philosophies relate to curriculum:

1. Perennialism. The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary analysis

and considers curriculum as constant.

2. Essentialism. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects of English,

Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus of the curriculum.

3. Progressivism. The curriculum is focused on students' interest, human problems

and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.

4. Reconstructionism. The focus of the curriculum is on present and future trends

and issues of national and international interests.

Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum

planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school heads, evaluator anchors

his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

(Activity: Compare the four Philosophies of Education based on the aim of

education, role of education and curriculum trends. How does a strong belief or

philosophy influence curriculum?

Historical Foundations of Curriculum.

Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in

1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit's book."The Curriculum"

Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be

traced back to the glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the

American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system.

The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum:

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes

on students' need.

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is

based on students' need, and the teachers plan the activities.

3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities

which are child-centered.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the

teacher plans the lesson in advance.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social

functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's interests.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension

of school's philosophy. based on students' need and interests.

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles

and content of the curriculum.

(Question: What are the implications of ever-changing curriculum top teachers?)

Psychological Foundations

Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies

elements of the learning process and some of the some of questions which can be

addressed by psychological foundations.

The following are the three major groups f learning theories:

1. Behaviorists Psychology - consider that learning should be organized in order

that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject

matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a step by step

manner with proper sequencing of task.

(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Edward L. Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov and

Robert Gagne to the present views on curriculum)

2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process

information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For the cognitive theorists,

learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.

Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of

problem and thinking skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by

practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery

learning, etc.

(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Howard Gardner,

Felder and Silverman and Daniel Goleman to curriculum development.

3. Humanistic Psychology - concerned with how learners can develop their human

potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of

the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the

learner is continuously reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is concerned

with the process not the products, personal needs not subject matter;

psychological meaning and environmental situations.

(Activity: Give the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to the

present field of curriculum development.

4. Social Foundations of Education.

Schools exists within the social context.Societal culture affects and shapes schools

and their curricula.

The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to

be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its

aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe the changes brought

about by the formal institutions called schools.

(Question: A school has been using the same old curriculum it has had for the past

ten years. Do you think this is a good practice? Why? Why not?)

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita Bilbao, et. al, Loremar Pub., 2008)

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Friday, February 20, 2009

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the

schools:

1. recommended curriculum - proposed by scholars and professional organizations

2. written curriculum - appears in school, district, division or country documents

3. taught curriculum - what teachers implement or deliver in the classroom and

schools

4. supported curriculum - resources-textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials

which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum

5. assessed curriculum - that which is tested and evaluated

6. learned curriculum - what the students actually learn and what is measured

7. hidden curriculum - the unintended curriculum

(Activity: Visit a school of your choice. Observe and interview the appropriate

persons (teachers, students, principals)and identify the existence of the different

curricula. Write specific examples).

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita Bilbao, et. al. Lorimar Pub., 2008)

POSTED BY DR. OLGA C. ALONSABE AT 11:56 AM

LABELS: OLGA ALONSABE, TYPES OF CURRICULUM

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Wednesday, February 18, 2009

Curriculum From Different Points of View

Traditional Points of View:

Curriculum is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the

students to learn. A "course of study" and "syllabus." It is a field of study. It is

made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological and social

foundations; domains, of knowledge as well as its research and principles.

(Give other views of curriculum as expounded by Robert M. Hutchins, Joseph

Schwab and Arthur Bestor)

Progressive Points of View:

Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. This is anchored on

John Dewey's definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective

thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from

action but tested by application.

(Give other views of curriculum like that of Caswell and Campbell as well as Marsh

and Willis)

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita P. Bilbao, et. al , Lorimar Pub., 2008)

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Wednesday, February 18, 2009

The Nature of Curriculum Development System

Curriculum

Curriculum comes form the Latin root, "currere" which means "to run", which later

came to stand as the "course of study."

Curriculum is the sum total of all learning content, experiences, and resources that

are purposely selected, organized and implemented by the school in pursuit of its

peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development.

(Why should a listing of subject areas, course of study and textbook series not

considered as a curriculum?)

Curriculum Development

Development is a specific word that connotes change. Change means any

alternation or modification in the existing order of things.

Change may not necessarily result in development. Only positive change brings

about development. For change to be positive and result in development, it must

be Purposeful, Planned, and Progressive. Positive change brings about

improvement. It takes a person or a group to higher levels of perfection.

(What then is the purpose of curriculum development? What should be the basis

for developing the learners' meaningful experiences?

Curriculum Development System

A system is an assemblage of objects in some form of regular interdependence or

interaction; an organic organized whole. It is generally defines as some form of

structure or operation, concept or function, composed of united and integrated

parts.

From systems theory, a system is characterized as having a boundary (well-defined

limits), environment (time-and-space), tension (existence and activity), equilibrium

( steady state), hierarchy ( different sizes), feedback (communication network),

synergy ( whole is greater than the sum of its parts), and interdependence

(elements cannot act on their own)

A system then is the integration of separate but interdependent and interacting

parts into an organic whole which meant to accomplish a certain purpose or

perform a specific function.

Curriculum Development System is defined as an integrated, coherent and

comprehensive program for continually updating and improving curriculum and

instruction in a school so that it can better attain its purpose.

(Show the relationship of the three important features of a system: Parts, Whole,

Function.)

Source: Curriculum Development System by Jesus Palma (1992)

POSTED BY DR. OLGA C. ALONSABE AT 7:27 AM

LABELS: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM, OLGA ALONSABE

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Friday, February 20, 2009

Elements/Components of the Curriculum

The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may

comprise which we call a curriculum design.

Component 1: Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

Aims: Elementary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Goals: School Vision and Mission

Objectives: educational objectives

Domains:

1. Cognitive – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,

evaluation

2. Affective – receiving, responding, valuing, organization, characterization

3. psychomotor – perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt

response, adaptation, origination

Component 2: Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

Information to be learned in school, another term for knowledge ( a compendium

of facts, concepts, generalization, principles, theories.

1. Subject-centered view of curriculum: The Fund of human knowledge represents

the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man down the

centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world

2. Learner-centered view of curriculum: Relates knowledge to the individual’s

personal and social world and how he or she defines reality.

Gerome Bruner: “Knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and

structure to regularities in experience”

Criteria used in selection of subject matter for the curriculum:

1. self-sufficiency – “less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s

effort but more results and effective learning outcomes – most economical manner

(Scheffler, 1970)

2. significance – contribute to basic ideas to achieve overall aim of curriculum,

develop learning skills

3. validity – meaningful to the learner based on maturity, prior experience,

educational and social value

4. utility – usefulness of the content either for the present or the future

5. learnability – within the range of the experience of the learners

6. feasibility – can be learned within the tile allowed, resources available, expertise

of the teacher, nature of learner

Principles to follow in organizing the learning contents (Palma, 1992)

1. BALANCE . Content curriculum should be fairly distributed in depth and breath

of the particular learning are or discipline. This will ensure that the level or area

will not be overcrowded or less crowded.

2. ARTICULATION. Each level of subject matter should be smoothly connected to

the next, glaring gaps or wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided.

3. SEQUENCE. This is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to

the deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.

The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that

learning will be elated to one another. This is INTEGRATION.

Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes

or values so that these will be used in daily living. The constant repetition, review

and reinforcement of learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.

Component 3 – Curriculum Experience

Instructional strategies and methods will link to curriculum experiences, the core

and heart of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into

action the goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome.

Teaching strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Among these are

time-tested methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist and other emerging

strategies that complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational

activities like field trips, conducting experiments, interacting with computer

programs and other experiential learning will also form par of the repertoire of

teaching.

Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be

some guide for the selection and use, Here are some of them:

1. teaching methods are means to achieve the end

2. there is no single best teaching method

3. teaching methods should stimulate the learner’s desire to develop the cognitive,

affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual

4. in the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be

considered

5. every method should lead to the development of the learning outcome in three

domains

6. flexibility should be a consideration in the use of teaching methods

Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation

To be effective, all curricula must have an element of evaluation. Curriculum

evaluation refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of

the program, process, and product of the curriculum. Several methods of

evaluation came up. The most widely used is Stufflebeam's CIPP Model. The

process in CIPP model is continuous and very important to curriculum managers.

CIPP Model – Context (environment of curriculum), Input (ingredients of

curriculum), Process (ways and means of implementing), Product accomplishment

of goals)- process is continuous.

Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of

action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduced. These are the steps:

1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be subject area, the

grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify objectives of evaluation.

2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed

regarding the object of evaluation.

3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and

retrieving data for interpretation.

4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.

5. Report the information. The report of evaluation should be reported to specific

audiences. It can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informally

through round table discussion and conversations.

6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modifications and adjustments

to be made.

(Activity: "Is Philippine education really deteriorating?" This is a big question

raised by many sectors of our society. Reflect and research (gather enough

data/proof in your particular school/district/division) on this issue. Choose a

particular level and a specific subject area as a point o reference).

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Sunday, February 22, 2009

Curriculum Approaches

Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in

planning, implementing and evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or

instructional material producers have different curricular approaches.

The following are the five curriculum approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach. This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives

are specified, contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning

objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives

set at the beginning. This approach started with the idea of Frederick Taylor which

is aimed to achieve efficiency. In education, behavioral approach begins with

educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the

important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning

outcomes as a change of behavior. The change of behavior indicates the measure

of the accomplishment.

2. Managerial Approach. In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader

and at the same time instructional leader who is supposed to be the general

manager. The general manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the

direction of change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and

instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the content than about

organization and implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter,

methods and materials than improving the curriculum. Curriculum managers look

at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and

restructure the schools.

Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:

a. help develop the school's education goals

b. plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders

c. design programs of study by grade levels

d. plan or schedule classes or school calendar

e. prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area

f. help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks

g. observe teachers

h. assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum

i. encourage curriculum innovation and change

j. develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation

3. Systems Approach. This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of

the total school district or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each

other. The organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. It

shows the line-staff relationships of personnel and how decisions are made. The

following are of equal importance: a) administration b) counseling c) curriculum d)

instruction e) evaluation.

4. Humanistic Approach. This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and

child-centered movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the

informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole child and believes that in

curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The

learner s at the center of the curriculum.

(Question: Does a principal with humanistic approach to curriculum emphasize

most memorization of subject matter? Does the systems approach to curriculum

consider only each part?)

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita P. Bilbao, et. al. LoreMar Pub., 2008

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Sunday, February 22, 2009

Curriculum Leadership

Leadership refers to the role or process that enables systems and individuals to

achieve their goals. Curriculum refers to all the experiences that learners have to

go through in a program of education. Curriculum leadership therefore is the act

of exercising functions that enables the achievement of a school's goal of providing

quality education.

The definition of curriculum leadership involves functions and goals. A curriculum

leader has to take charge of making sure that the curriculum goals are achieved.

That ultimate goal is to maximize student learning by providing quality in the

content of learning. Curriculum leadership focuses on what is learned (the

curriculum) and how it is taught (the instruction).

Being a school head, the principal is responsible for making sure that the school

has a quality curriculum and that the curriculum is implemented effectively.

Achieving educational excellence is the goal. To attain such goal, the principal

need to manifest curriculum leadership.

The Roles and Functions of a Curriculum Leader

Glatthorn (1997) was an educator interested in how curriculum development could

be used to make teaching effective. He provides the list of the essential functions

of curriculum leadership carried out at the school and classroom levels:

Curriculum leadership functions at the school-level:

a. develop the school's vision of a quality curriculum

b. supplement the state's or district's educational goals

c. develop the school's own program of studies

d. develop a learning-centered schedule

e. determine the nature and extent of curriculum integration

f. align the curriculum

g. monitor and assist in curriculum implementation

Curriculum leadership functions at the classroom-level:

a. develop yearly planning calendars for operationalizing the curriculum

b. develop units of study

c. enrich the curriculum and remediate learning

d. evaluate the curriculum

The roles and functions show that regardless of whether these are at the school

level or classroom level, curriculum leadership involves tasks that guarantee

quality education. The tasks and functions may further be specified into four major

tasks:

a. ensuring curriculum quality and applicability

b. integrating and aligning the curriculum

c. implementing the curriculum efficiently

d. regularly evaluating, enriching, and updating the curriculum

Exhibiting curriculum leadership means that the principal have to be vigilant in

overseeing the many instructional activities in one's school so that educational

goals will be achieved. This implies that curriculum leadership is also a component

of instructional leadership.

(Activity: Given the four major tasks of curriculum leadership, write some specific

ways in which these tasks can be manifested).

Source: Module: Lead Curriculum Implementation and Enrichment. EXCELS

Flexible Course on Leading Curricular and Instructional Processes. SEAMEO

INNOTECH, C 2005.

POSTED BY DR. OLGA C. ALONSABE AT 3:40 AM

LABELS: CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP , EXCELS, OLGA ALONSABE

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Sunday, February 22, 2009

Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation is expected to occur between component 4

(educational plan) and component 5 (evaluation and revision) of Kellough and

Kellough's curriculum development model.

Principals need to implement the curriculum with the help of teachers in an actual

school setting and find out if the curriculum achieved its goal. Implementation

refers to the actual use of the curriculum or syllabus or what it consists of in

practice. Implementation is a critical phase in the cycles of planning and teaching

a curriculum.

Implementing the curriculum does not focus on the actual use but also on the

attitudes of those who implement it. These attitudinal dispositions are particularly

important in educational systems where teachers and principals have the

opportunity to choose among competing curriculum packages.

How should curriculum be implemented?

There are two extreme views about curriculum implementation:

a. laissez-faire approach or the "let-alone" approach. This gives teachers absolute

power to determine what they see best to implement in the classroom. In effect,

this allows teachers to teach lessons they believe are appropriate for their classes

and in whatever way the want to teach such lessons. There is no firm of control or

monitoring whatsoever.

b. authoritarian control. In this view, teachers are directed by authority figures

through a memorandum, to follow a curriculum. Teachers have no control or

leeway over the subjects the are teaching. The school head exercise absolute

power in directing teachers to teach certain subjects in specified ways. In other

words, this approach is dictatorial way of imposing curricular implementation in

the classroom.

A realistic view o curriculum implementation should be between the two extremes.

Teachers are expected to follow the prescribed syllabus exactly and make sure that

they do not miss any topic/component. When teachers diligently follow a

prescribed syllabus in teaching a lesson, then they are considered to have fidelity

of use or fidelity of implementation.

To promote fidelity of use, one need to identify the topics or subjects that need

more focus. These subjects are are those that are more technical or more difficult.

A structured approach to implementation is then followed, one on which teachers

are provided clear instructions early on.

On the other hand, some topics allow or encourage teachers to be creative ad

unique in teaching these topics. Teachers implement personalized variations of the

prescribed curriculum, but still be guided by it. This is referred to as adaptation to

the curriculum or process orientation. process orientation came as a response to

the need to acknowledge different organizational concepts and varying teachers'

needs and abilities that would require on-site modification..

(Activity: If you are a teacher tasked by your school head to implement a new

curriculum, what could be your questions on the new curriculum? What would be

your concerns?)

Source: Module 2: Lead Curriculum Implementation and Enrichment. EXCELS

Flexible Course, SEAMEO INNOTECH, c 2005.

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@History of Education: Selected Moments of the 20th

Century

A work in progress edited by Daniel SchugurenskyDepartment of Adult Education, Community Development and Counselling Psychology,The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT)

1949

Ralph W. Tyler Publishes Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

With the publication of Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Ralph W. Tyler could not have suspected that his little book of only eighty-three pages would make such an indelible mark on the field of curriculum theorizing, as well as on teaching practices in the American public schools. In 1949, Tyler probably could not have predicted that in time he would become the most prominent name in curriculum studies in the United States, either. Yet, this is exactly the course his career would take through the mid-twentieth century.

A student of Charles Judd at the University of Chicago, Ralph W. Tyler graduated with a Ph.D. in 1927. Approximately ten years later, he went on to fill a prominent position on the Eight Year Study as the Director of Research for the Evaluation Staff. In this position, Tyler initially formulated his approach to education research which was grounded in the belief that successful teaching and learning techniques can be determined as a result of scientific study. By applying such methods during the Eight Year Study, Tyler soon determined that evaluation of student behaviors proved to be a highly appropriate means for determining educational success or failure. In Appraising and Recording Student Progress, Tyler wrote:

Any device which provides valid evidence regarding the progress of students toward educational objectives is appropriate...The selection of evaluation techniques should be made in terms of the appropriateness of that technique for the kind of behavior to be appraised (Tyler, cited in Pinar, p. 136).

Here we see the beginnings of Tyler's thoughts on the relevance of behavioral objectives to the teaching process. In other words, Tyler came to believe that any learning objective needed to be determined via student behavior in the classroom. In time, such objectives would mark the cornerstone of curriculum decision-making and teaching strategies for the American public schools.

A decade after completing his work with the Eight Year Study, Tyler was prepared to formalize his thoughts on educational research and behavioral objectives with the publication of Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. In this short text that was originally the syllabus for one of his courses at the University of Chicago, Tyler expanded upon concepts he began to formulate during the Eight Year Study. Specifically, this work focused on the administrative aspects of the curriculum and called for the application of four basic principles in the

development of any curricular project. These four basic principles include:

1. Defining appropriate learning objectives.2. Establishing useful learning experiences. 3. Organizing learning experiences to have a maximum cumulative effect. 4. Evaluating the curriculum and revising those aspects that did not prove to be effective.

As a result of the basic principles, the role of the curricularist and teacher shifted to that of scientist. In the development of any curriculum using the Tyler method, hypotheses are to be established in direct relation to the expected learning outcomes for students. As the curriculum is enacted, teachers and curricularists become scientific observers, determining whether or not their curricular hypotheses are in fact demonstrated by student behavior. Following the application of the curriculum, educators return to the curricular plans to make any adjustments so as to ensure the proper outcomes in the classroom. In this case, students do not participate on any level in the planning or implementation of their education; rather, they solely assume the role of object of study.

Tyler's basic principle were widely welcomed in classrooms and curriculum texts across the United States in 1949. Their functionality was well received and teachers generally appreciated the ease with which they could be applied to the daily work curriculum planning. It would be nearly thirty years, in fact, before any significant criticism were waged against Tyler's work. And by that time, his approaches were so entrenched in classroom practice that radical critiques of his approaches left few marked changes in the implementation of curriculum in the public schools.

Source:

Pinar, W., Reynolds, W., Slattery, P., and Taubman, P. (Eds.) (1995). Understanding Curriculum. New York: Peter Lang.

Prepared by Alison Kreider (UCLA)