model of technological creativity based on the …model of technological creativity based on the...

Model of Technological Creativity Based on the Perceptions of Technology-Related Experts 115

1. Introduction

Facing the beginning of 21st century, invention, innovation and creativity

were the most important keywords that have been emphasized in the education

and society-wide all over the world. Creativity was historically emphasized in

several reports including the ‘TfAA(Technology for All Americans) Project’

report of ITEA(International Technology Education Association), and SCANS

report in USA, Core Skill in England, and key competencies in Germany and

Australia.

Technological creativity cannot be divided strictly, but we can easily found

from human history that we certainly have technological creativity based on

technological thinking and technological activity, which directly have brought

us so many kinds of revolutions in human history. One of the most important

issues about this technological creativity is that what kinds of creativity factors

exist and how they affect each other, because identifying the particular

constituents is the urgent academic research topic especially when the creativity

and the problem solving ability are more emphasized in 21st century than ever.

The purpose of this study was to develop a model of technological creativity

based on the perceptions of technology-related experts. Research questions

were used to guide the study:

□ Technological creativity constituents can be extracted and categorized.

□ Technological creativity constituents can be re-categorized based on the

perceptions of technology-related experts.

□ A model of Technological creativity can be developed based on the

technological creativity constituents.

This approach of identifying the constituents of the technological creativity

can make the abstract aspect of creativity clear, broaden the understanding of

Hyunjin Kwon, Changyol RyuDaejeon Technical High School, Chungnam National University

KOREA

Model of Technological Creativity Based on thePerceptions of Technology-Related Experts

the creativity and, finally, is expected to help understanding the intrinsic

natures included in the technological creativity.

2. Research Methods

2.1 Literature Review

In the literature review, 1) the definition of technological creativity, 2) the

process of technologist’s creativity procedure, 3) the principle of invention, 4)

the creativity for an engineer are focused for the extraction of technological

creativity constituents.

2.2 Questionnaire Survey

By categorizing the extracted technological creativity constituents, surveys to

the technology-related experts were conducted to ask its correctness and

importance. We conducted the survey on three kinds of experts; invention

teacher group over the country who is interested in invention education,

researcher group in research institutes who works their specific research

activities, and researcher group in venture companies. By scrutinizing and

grouping the survey results(208 questionnaires) into original species and

literature analysis, we linked the proposed theoretical analysis result and

allocated technological creativity constituents. Consequently, we summarized

the technological creativity constituents, and finally developed a model of

technological creativity.

Under these approaches, one of conventional statistical program,

SPSSWIN(ver. 12.0) was used. To analysis of the date, basic descriptive

statistics including frequency, average, percentage, and reliability test were

performed. Inferential statistics such like factor analysis was adopted too.

3. Academic Findings

3.1. Categorization of Technological Creativity Constituents Using

Literature Research

In order to extract the technological creativity constituents, the recent

literatures about the creativity of technologists, engineers, and inventors were

surveyed. The definitions of technological creativity which have been defined

by several researchers(Moon, 2001; et al.) and which are verified at the creating

116 Condition and Situation of International Technology Education

progress of technologist(Halfin, 1973; et al.) were inspected. The elements

which was suggested in the principle of invention(http://www.aitriz.org) and

creativity elements which is expressed through the work of modern

engineers(http://www.discoverengineering.org) were also investigated. As a

result, the summarized elements can be grouped into two different properties.

The first is the element which is related to the term ‘to do something’. It is

the element which shows activity, skill, or ability based on the technological

knowledge to solve a given problem. The meaning of capability can be mainly

consisted of knowledge, function, and attitude, and, by combining them, it can

be observed as role activity which can be observed(Kim, 2004, p. 13).

Therefore these 23 elements are named ‘capability’ constituent. In this

research, it is also analyzed about what kinds of capability constituents can be

utilized in four stage of technological problem solving progress, which are

consisted of ‘perception’, ‘plan’, ‘execution’, and ‘evaluation’(Choi, 1995;

Welch, 1996; Yi, 1996).

Secondly, this is related to the term ‘nature like something’. Among these

seven elements, ‘originality’, ‘sensitivity’, ‘fluency’, ‘flexibility’, and

‘delicacy’ are normally suggested as elements of creativity(Guilford, 1967;

Torrance, 1976; Williams, 1980) in the domain-general creativity. They are the

key elements in creative thinking. Most of creativity development, training

material, and programs(Kim, 1999, p 124) are designed to develop these

creativity elements. In this research, since these aspects to show the

technological creativity include quality, trend, personality, aptitude, and

attitude, this group is called ‘inclination’ constituent.

Each element of ‘inclination’ can be required and/or expressed when

performing the technological creativity. Therefore, it is more proper to analyze

this ‘inclination’ constituent in the viewpoint of the relation to the ‘capability’

constituent. In Table 1, what kinds of ‘inclination’ constituents can be required

to express a certain ‘capability’ constituents is summarized.


Table 1 Categorization of Technological Creativity Constituents

3.2 Re-categorization of Technological Creativity Constituents Based on

the Perceptions of Technology-related Experts

After surveying the questionnaires to technology-related experts, the

responses were factor analyzed. It is also noticeable that each divided factor

does not mean a unique concept but a mixture of several concepts. Therefore,

each factor is named to express its various properties, as shown in Table 2.

The ‘capability’ constituent and ‘inclination’ constituent from the literature

research are allocated in the horizontal axis. The seven categories of the factor

based on survey research, and its sub-items are displayed in the vertical axis.

Under this process, it is additionally found that the ‘inclination’ elements also

need to be grouped like the four divisions at problem solving procedure for

‘capability’ element. The ‘capability’ elements are grouped by using the

relationship among the problem solving progress, and they are grouped again

based on each step and its factor. Finally, the analysis results are shown in

Table 2.


3.3 Model of Technological Creativity Based on the Perceptions of

Technology-related Experts

By reconstructing the literature research and survey research, technological

creativity constituents are shown like Figure 1. The conceptual structure of

technological creativity constituents are grouped into ‘inclination factor’ and

‘capability factor’.

‘Inclination factors’ are the factors which mean personal trend, aptitude,

personality, and become the key element of technological creativity when

performing technological creativity. ‘Fluency’, ‘flexibility’, ‘delicacy’,

‘sensibility’, ‘originality’ are the ones which are normally referred as general

creativity constituents, but ‘practicality’ and ‘challenge’ are proven to be the

unique elements which reflect the intrinsic properties of technology area.

Table 2 Re-categorization of Technological Creativity Constituents


Figure 1 Conceptual Structure of Technological Creativity Constituents

‘Capability factors’ are the factors which becomes the power or ability to be

performed when solving the problem through technology creativity. Each 12

element is strongly related to four steps(perception, plan, execution, and

evaluation) of problem solving procedure. Firstly, under the stage of

‘perception’, ‘recognition’ and ‘analysis’ are strongly related rather than other

elements. Under the stage of ‘plan’, ‘concept’, ‘collaboration’ and

‘categorization’ show strong relations. Under the stage of ‘execution’,

‘fabrication’, ‘summarization’, ‘modification’, ‘application’ and

‘determination’ show strong relations. At the last stage of ‘evaluation’,

‘communication’, and ‘judgement’ have strong relations.

In this problem solving progress, ‘capability factors’ and ‘inclination factors’

are performed interactively. The evaluation result at the last stage of problem

solving can be feedback to ‘perception’ at its first stage, and each stage is

strongly related each other. Based on these findings, the final model for

technological creativity is shown in Figure 2.


From the developed model, it is also found that each capability element can

be grouped and expressed precisely for each step of problem solving procedure.

Strong relationship can be shown as a darker cell applied. This can be

expressed as shown in Figure 3. The ‘inclination factors’ can be understood as

a core in a pencil and its surroundings are the ‘capability factors’ which shows

the intimate relations between them. In other words, the model shows that the

technological creativity can be performed optimally when the traditional unique

elements for creativity and the properties for technology area are combined

effectively. Additionally, by applying this model to different domain of study

using the extraction of creativity constituents, different and unique model also

can be developed such like mathematical creativity and scientific creativity.

4. Conclusions and Discussions

Based on this research result, the conclusion can be summarized as follows.

First, technological creativity consists of inclination factors and capability

factors. The inclination factor is required or dominant when showing

technological creativity as a crucial factor for technological creativity. It was

verified that the inclination factor is a main framework for the technological


Figure 2 Technological CreativityModel

Figure 3 Capability elements in the stageof (a) Perception, (b) Plan, (c)Execution, (d) Evaluation

creativity as well as fundamental factor to desire to perform creativity.

Second, the capability factor is related to the practical reaction, functionality,

and ability which based on specific knowledge for solving the problems.

Capability factors are the power of creativity which is dominant at the stage of

performing creativity through the problem solving process by technologists.

The particular characteristics in the field of technology are well represented in

these capability factors.

Third, technological creativity model constitutes inclination factors and

capability factors. Capability factors are located around a center which

constitutes inclination factors, can be grouped into twelve sub-constituents.

These inclination factors and capability factors make effects on the problem

solving stages of perception, plan, execution, evaluation. Technological

creativity is ultimately performed when these two factors are efficiently

reflected on the problem solving process.

Base on the results of this research, the resultant effective model of

technological creativity constituents are recommended to be adopted into

technology educational curriculums, to develop a standardized measure for the

technological creativity, and to propose practical education programs or

projects for enhancing and developing technological creativity.

References

1) Choi, Y. (1995). Effect of instructional strategy of problem solving for

technological literacy in technology education. Unpublished Doctoral

dissertation, The Seoul National University.

2) Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of intelligence. N. Y.: McGraw Hill.

3) Halfin, H. H. (1973). Technology: A Process approach. Unpublished

Doctoral dissertation, University of West Virginia.

4) Kim, Y. (1999). Creative problem solving. Seoul: Kyoyookbook.

5) Kim, H. (2004). Constituent factors of technological capability for the

construction of educational objectives and contents in technology education.

Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Chungnam National University.

6) Moon, D. (2001). The effect of adaptor-innovator role division problem

solving activity to develop technological creativity of elementary and


secondary school students. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The

Chungnam National University.

7) Torrance, E. P. (1976). Guiding creative talent. New York : Robert E. Krieger.

8) Welch, M. (1996). The problem solving strategies of young designers.

(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 401 491)

9) Williams, F. (1980). Creativity assessment packet. Buffalo, NY: Dok.

10) Yi, S. (1996). Problem solving in technology education at the secondary level

as perceived by technology educators in the United Kingdom and the United

States. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.


A Study of Students’ Concept Learning Performances and Misconception in the MST Integrated Curriculum 125

1. Introduction

The background of this study was based on the results of National Science

Council (NSC) Projects which the researcher had participated in the past five

years. Among these results of NSC Projects, the main purposes were focused

on developing a Mathematics, Science, and Technology (MST) Integrated

Curriculum. However, some questions were occurred to the researcher’s mind:

1.1 When did the students utilize their MST concepts that they had learned

in the MST integrated curriculum?

There were more and more positioned papers put emphasis on the efforts in

the Mathematics, Science, and Technology integrated curriculum, and the

National Science Council in Taiwan also took this as an important issue in

2006. Besides, Foster (1994) proposed the importance of subject-matter

integration, and Davies and Gilbert (2003) also stated that the integration of

science and technology could retrieve the shortcomings of lacking theory in

technology and practical skills in science. Due to the ideal of bridging the

science and technology, Tsai and Yu (2003) tried to develop a web-based MST

integrated curriculum and the results of teaching experiment showed that most

students had positive reactions. According to the idea of Tsai and Yu (2003),

Yu, Lin, and Wang (2004) put their emphasis on developing the MST

integrated curriculum according to the nine-year articulate competency

indicators which could also be taken as the national standards in the middle

school level. Furthermore, Yu, Lin, and Wang (2007) conducted a cooperative

action research for the purpose of implementing and reflecting the effects of the

MST integrated curriculum, and Yu and Lin (2007) conducted an experimental

research in examining the learning performances of students with different

learning styles in the web-based MST integrated curriculum. It seemed that

Kuen-Yi Lin, Kuang-Chao YuHuangKuang University, National Taiwan Normal University

TAIWAN

A Study of Students’ Concept Learning Performancesand Misconception in the MST Integrated Curriculum

there were a lot of research results in the MST integrated curriculum, but most

of these results were focused on developing the MST integrated curriculum, or

exploring the effects of the MST integrated curriculum in cognitive learning

achievements.

Aiming at the present research results of MST integrated curriculum, there

are many important issues worthy of further exploring. For example, Zuga

(2004) stated the researchers of technology education should put their emphasis

on exploring students’ concept learning process, and Cajas (2002) also believed

that the researchers of technology education should focus on solving the

question of how to improve students’ performance in concepts and skills in

technology education. Therefore, according to the analysis of related literature

of MST integrated curriculum, the first important task is to clarify when do

students apply the MST concepts during the process of making technological

products in the MST integrated curriculum, then the effects of the MST

integrated curriculum will have the chance to be proved.

1.2 How did the students utilize their MST concepts that they had learned

in the MST integrated curriculum?

In continuing to the previous question, the second important task is to explore

that how do the students utilize their MST concepts in the MST integrated

curriculum? Dow (2006) argued that the technology teachers should reflect that

how to encourage students have meaningful learning actively. In recalling to

the research results of the MST integrated curriculum, most of these results

were lacking of exploring how to encourage students have meaningful learning

actively. This situation may lead to the question that students can not have the

chance to learn how to integrate scientific theory and practical skills in the

MST integrated curriculum. In other words, if the students do not integrate

scientific theory and practical skills as the ideal of MST integrated curriculum,

the technology teachers should develop the appropriate teaching strategy in

assisting students in utilizing their MST concepts in the MST curriculum and

having a more meaningful learning. So the second important task is to explore

that how do the students utilize their MST concepts in the MST curriculum.


1.3 Was it possible that the students had misconception in the MST

integrated curriculum?

A lot of scholars believed that the concept learning was difficult. Chou

(2000) took science as an example, and argued that the reasons of difficulties in

concept learning were at least including of: (1) personal experiences; (2)

concept itself was abstract; (3) concept itself was complicate; (4) concept itself

was microcosmic. Therefore, the ideal of MST integrated curriculum was

believed that students had to learn the MST concepts and utilized all concepts

in making technological products, but according to Chou’s (2000) arguments,

the students may have the chance to have misconceptions in the MST

integrated curriculum. Vosniadou (1994) stated that many learners made

mistakes in assorting concepts and led to misconceptions. Therefore, the third

important task is to explore that what kinds of teaching methods can help

students in clarifying misconceptions for the purpose of increasing the effects

of MST integrated curriculum.

Take a real students’ technological product for an example (Figure 1),

students had great score in answering about MST concepts’ cognitive test. But

when they utilized these MST concepts in making technological product- crane,

they made a big mistake and this could be called students’ misconceptions in

technology education. That is, students understood the truss theory, but they

applied it in the wrong way. They should rotate the truss in 90 degrees and the

truss can carry more loads. So students may have chance to have

misconceptions when they are making technological products, and the

technology teachers should have the responsibilities in helping them in

clarifying these misconceptions.

To sum up, these questions were corresponding to the important research

issues of students’ learning process (Zuga, 2004) and students’ concept

learning (Cajas, 2002) in technology education. According to the background

mentioned above, the purpose of this study was focused on exploring students’

concept learning performances and misconceptions in the MST integrated

curriculum.


Figure 1 Students’ technological product: Crane

2. Literature Review

2.1 Issues of concept learning in technology education

There are many position papers argued that it was lacking of research results

in exploring students’ understanding in technological knowledge and concept

learning (Bennett, 1996; Davis, Ginns, & McRobbie, 2002; Gustafson, Rowell,

& Rose, 1998; Levinson, Murphy, & McCormick, 1997; Twyford & Järvinen,

2000), so more and more research scholar put their emphasis on these two

aspects. de Vries and Tamir (1997) believed that the concept learning and the

skill learning had to be connected, and if students could understand the nature

of technology and its relationship with science and society, they will

understand more technological concepts. Lewis (1993) also argued that the

scholars in science education focused on exploring abstractive concepts but

lacking of practical skills. However, the practical knowledge was the key point,

as to most people, instead of the abstractive concepts, in the real workplace.

McCormick (2004) had the same viewpoint as Lewis (1993) and proposed

some important topics and issues for research in technology education:

(1) further clarify student experience of procedural knowledge, such as

problem solving and design; (2) delineate other procedural knowledge

relevant to technology (e.g. systems analysis), perhaps through studies of


experts in industry; (3) investigate how students use both scientific and

technological knowledge in technology classroom; (4) investigate student

understanding of systems ideas and how they relate them to their use in a

variety of areas of technology; (5) investigate the nature of qualitative

knowledge particularly as used by expert technologists; (6) investigate the

kinds and uses of qualitative knowledge that occur in the classroom and

how it can be encouraged and developed by teacher and students (p.41).

The previous topics and issues that McCormick (2004) had proposed were

corresponding to the trends of technology education and the purpose of this

study. Besides, Davis, Ginns, and McRobbie (2002) believed that the

technology researchers could adopt the scientific research methods in

conducting researches in technological concepts, because there were many

contributions in scientific theory and practical science (Yager, 1991),

curriculum development and scientific achievements (Driver, Leach, Scott, &

Wood-Robinson, 1994).

2.2 Issues of concept learning process in technology education

The major purpose of technology education was focused on assisting students

in learning technology, and the content of learning technology was including of

not only traditional process of making, technical and procedural knowledge in

operating machines, but also theoretical technology knowledge. That is,

students should learn all kinds of technological concepts (Ihde, 1997;

McCormick, 2004). There were many scholars focused on exploring students’

learning process in conducting researches in technology education (Hansen,

2000; Zuga, 2004). In recent, the technology scholars in Taiwan also put their

emphasis on exploring students’ learning process, so it was not hard to notice

the importance of students’ learning process in technology education.

In general, when it was mentioned to the researches in students’ learning

process in technology education, the problem solving strategy always came into

most people’s mind. This is because that most technology scholars had interests

in studying the problem solving strategy. For example, Chang (2004) tried to

develop a web-based problem solving activity in order to explore its effects in

students’ creativity, and Chang (2001) also tried to conduct a study in children


for the purpose of analyzing and exploring the process of creative problem

solving. Besides, Lin (2001) tried to develop children’s ability in problem

solving by using the worldwide web, and Lee (1998, 1999) put his emphasis on

conducting an experimental research in problem solving and its effects to

students’ learning effects. However, according to these researches about

students’ learning process in problem solving, it was still hard to understand

students’ learning process in solving problems and led to make students’

learning process as a black box Figure 2).

Figure 2 A black box in students’ learning process

Source: Weiss, Knapp, Hollweg, & Burrill, 2001, p.12.

Fortunately, the study of learning process was not stopping ahead. Lin (2003)

tried to explore students’ learning process in technology curriculum according

to the constructivism for the purpose of finding the effective approaches in

improving students’ learning. Lin’s (2003) research could be taken as a good

example in exploring students’ learning process, so if the technology

researchers could put their emphasis in students’ learning process, it will not be

difficult in improving students’ learning achievements in technology education.

2.3 Issues of misconceptions in technology education

More and more scientific scholar focused on exploring the issues of concept

learning and misconceptions, and there were also more and more position

papers focused on exploring students’ misconceptions (Liang & She, 2006; Lin

& Chou, 2005; Tseng & Hsu, 2006). But when it was tracing back to the past

few decades, there were a few technology scholars focused on exploring the

nature of technology and the technological concepts (Cajas, 2002; de Vries,

1997; Ihde, 1997; McCormick, 2004), not to mention of misconceptions.

The importance of misconceptions was not unrelated to technological

learning, Yang, Yu and Lin (2007) tried to explore students’ misconceptions in


communication technology in middle school level. They proposed two

conclusions about misconceptions: (1) students’ misconceptions in

communication were related to encoding, receiving, and reading; (2) the

teaching of communication technology should focus on exploring the radical

conceptual change (which was also called across ontological conceptual

change). Therefore, according to Yang, Yu, and Lin’s (2007) research results,

there were misconceptions for students in learning technology education.

3. Research Design and Implementation

3.1 Research framework

The purpose of this study was focused on exploring the concept learning

process and misconception in the MST integrated curriculum. In order to

achieve the research purpose, an action research method was employed.

Figure 3 Research framework

3.2 Participants

There were thirty three students in grade 8 participated in this study in

Kaohsiung in Taiwan. All students were distributed randomly in this school, so

these thirty three students should have difference performances in MST

integrated curriculum. According to their performances, the researchers can

also generate different research results.

3.3 Research tool

The MST integrated curriculum employed in this study was developed by Yu

and Lin (2007) as Figure 4. Students had to learning the MST concepts of


glider firstly, and utilized web-based online simulation in designing their glider.

Moreover, students had to make their own glider according to their design in

computer simulation, and then tested and adjusted their glider as the final

technological product.

Figure 4 The MST integrated curriculum: Glider

3.4 Data analysis

As for the quantitative data, the mean, average, and standard deviation were

utilized, on the one hand, and as for the in-depth interview and portfolio, the

qualitative data analysis steps were utilized in order to generate the results with

good validity.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Students’ concept learning performances in the MST integrated

curriculum

According to Yu and Lin’s (2007) design, there were five major MST

concepts in the glider MST integrated curriculum: (1) Dihedral angle; (2) X, Y,

Z axis control; (3) Bernoulli; (4) Aspect ratio; and (5) Center of gravity. The

researchers designed a portfolio in exploring student concept learning

performance, that is, students had to describe how do they utilized MST

concepts in designing glider. Then the researchers will evaluate the concept

learning performance according to their description in words. The thirty three

students’ concept learning performances in the glider MST integrated

curriculum were listed as Table 1.


Table 1 Students’ concept learning performances

It was not hard to find that students had good performance in learning the

concepts of XYZ axis control and center of gravity, but they also had

difficulties in leaning the concepts of Bernoulli, dihedral angle, and aspect

ratio. Especially in the concept of Bernoulli, Yu and Lin (2007) designed many

interesting scientific experiment, such as blowing the coin experiment, in

assisting students in learning this concept. But students’ concept learning

performances were not reached the researchers’ standards. Therefore, the

technology teacher had to utilize other teaching strategy in helping students in

learning these concepts of glider.

4.2 Students’ self-evaluated results of their concept learning performances

Except to the data analysis in students’ concept learning performance, the

researchers also designed a self-evaluated scale for students in evaluating their

own concepts in the glider MST integrated curriculum. The thirty three

students’ self-evaluated results of their own concepts in the glider MST

integrated curriculum were listed as Table 2.

Table 2 Students’ self-evaluated results of their own concepts

According to students’ self-evaluated results, there were around 70%

students understand how to utilized their MST concepts in making glider, and

the other rest of students have no idea about how to utilized their MST concepts

in making glider. Therefore, according to this result, the technology teachers

should put their emphasis on guiding students in utilizing MST concepts in

making glider, especially in the concepts of dihedral angle, Bernoulli, and

aspect ratio.


4.3 Students’ misconceptions in the MST integrated curriculum

In addition to the previous quantitative data analysis, the researchers also

conducted the qualitative data analysis according to students’ learning

portfolio. There were many students had wrong MST concepts across

ontological concepts; that is, they were confused by different MST concepts

and had no idea about how to utilize these MST concepts.

Q: Please describe that how do you utilize the Bernoulli in making your

own glider?

A1: I designed the wing in a controllable state (50019).

A2: I increased the area of airfoil? (50024).

In accordance with the description of students’ understanding of utilizing

Bernoulli in making glider, students had misconceptions in Bernoulli and how

to adjust these misconceptions should be put further emphasis in future study.

But as the Chou (2000) argued that the radical conceptual change (which was

also called across ontological conceptual change) was hard to be done. The

technology teachers have to use different theory, just like Lin (2003) employed

constructivism in teaching, in adjusting their teaching strategy.

5. Conclusions

The main purpose of this study was focused on exploring students’ concept

learning performances and misconceptions in the MST integrated curriculum,

and after the action research study, the follow conclusions were made.

5.1 Students had difficulty in learning the concepts of Bernoulli, dihedral

angle, and aspect ratio in the glider MST integrated curriculum

According to the researchers’ analysis in students’ concept learning

performances and students’ self-evaluated results of their own concepts in the

glider MST integrated curriculum, there were same results that students had

difficulty in learning the concepts of Bernoulli, dihedral angle, and aspect ratio.

Therefore, if the technology teachers plan to utilize Yu and Lin’s (2007) glider

MST integrated curriculum, they have to try more hard in helping students in

learning the concepts of Bernoulli, dihedral angle, and aspect ratio.


5.2 There were misconceptions in the glider MST integrated curriculum

and how to help students in the radical conceptual change should be

put more emphasis in the future

According to the qualitative data analysis, students had wrong MST concepts

across ontological concepts; that is, they were confused by different MST

concepts and had no idea about how to utilize these MST concepts. Therefore,

the technology teachers and researchers should put more emphasis on helping

students in across ontological conceptual change.

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1. Introduction

Education must aim to the development of the people psychologically and

physically in good health, working for the perfection of their nature, as

development and peace makers, as citizens in love of truth, justice, deep

respect for oneself and the others, of total freedom, and people able to think and

act by themselves, with an importance attached to work well done and the

responsibilities. “

Such an Education must be practical, realistic and be directed initially

towards student’s fundamental and positive own culture and local needs

before opening on the external world. In other words, pupils must learn only

what is necessary and useful for their harmonious insertion in socio-economic

and technological level

In addition, in the context of the globalization which imposes the control and

the optimal use of Communication and Information Technologies, the school

syllabus of the countries around the world in generally, and developing

countries, in particular, should be reformed.

Great Developed Countries as Japan, which have understood earlier, are

practicing deeply Industrial Technology Education in the heart of their

Educational and training system.

Indeed without the practice of Industrial Educational Technology, no

country, nowadays, can reach truly the industrial development which is the

base of the total development.

It is shown that when the practice of Technology Education starts especially

Stakes of Educational Technology for Developing Countries: Case of Cote D’Ivoire 139

Kouadio The AugustinMinistry of National Education

COTE D’IVOIRE

Stakes of Educational Technology for DevelopingCountries: Case of Cote D’Ivoire

Chapter IIIChallenge and New Idea for Industrial Technology Education

early (between 10 and 15 years), this one is ensured to be effective and

sustainable. Because, according to distinguished Researchers as Tsunesaburo

MAKIGUCHI, FROBEl and DEWAY, between 10 and 15 years, every child is

curious about nature; so any practical activity is more favorable. And such

adequate activities develop its skill, its agility, its patience, its spirit of

creativity, its social feeling, its sense of responsibility and cooperation, its

scientific, technical and technological culture, and then its future professional,

social and universal competences as a conscientious peace Maker, a global

development Maker ... Beyond 16 years, this pupil wakes up with the concept

of economy; consequently, he is afraid to dismount and go up the objects which

surround him; in other words, he is afraid of practicing handling. However at

this age, he is rather busy, worried to understand theoretically laws and

functionalities of things discovered during previous handling.

Thus, it is favorable to the study and the formalization of physical,

mathematical, ecological, technological and socio cultural laws which surround

him and under tightens his previous discoveries. Consequently, it is crucial and

better that the integration and the practice of Education Technology through

educational system, become effective at the beginning of Education and the

Basic training. It is easy to understand, from this point of view; why Industrial

Technology Education is the base of Education system of the countries which

constitute today undeniably, the models of development all over the world.

The maladjustment of any training educational curricula and methods

generate certainly, not only the school failure, but especially, move away, the

ambition of any developing countries to reach to the industrial development

and thus to the prosperity.

What happen to Cote d’Ivoire?

2. Geographical situation and overview of general data regarding Côte

d’Ivoire

(Please, you can consult my country report presented in July 2005).

3. Presentation of the Education system of Côte d’Ivoire

3.1 administrative organization levels

140 challenge and New Idea for Industrial Technology Education

In Côte.d’ivoire, each order of Teaching corresponds more or less with an

autonomous ministry. Also each ministry has to develop real and complete

administration on the level of Education and Training sector which belong to it.

Three main ministerial departments are in charge of education:

� The Ministry of National Education:

It is in charge of preschool and primary school Education and of general

secondary school and literacy.

� The Ministry of Technical Teaching and vocational Training:

It is in charge of secondary technical teaching and vocational Training.

� The Ministry of higher education and Scientific Research:

It is in charge of higher Education and research and professional high

training.

In addition to those three ministries, other ministerial departments are in

charge of specific educational programs and the training of adaptive agents and

officers.

It is about the Ministry of Civil service and employments, the Ministry for

Agriculture, Animal Production and aquatic resources, the Ministry for

Public health, the Ministry for Family and Women Promotion, and the

Ministry for youth, leisure and sports.

3.2 Educational system:

Educational system is compulsory Education in Côte d’Ivoire. More is the

basic Education which speeds from the pre-school Education to junior high

school Education

3.2.1 About the general primary and secondary school system:

3.2.1(1) Levels of education

The service of education has three levels:

3.2.1(1.1) Kindergarten and primary school level

This pre school cycle hosts children from 3 years old.

This cycle has three levels lasting one year each: the small section, the

medium section and the high section.

3.2.1(1.2) The primary school (6 years)

The primary cycle hosts children whose ages are between 6 and 7. It has 6


levels of one year each: Preparatory stage (CP1 and CP2), Elementary stage

(CE1 and CE2) and Intermediate stage: CM1 and CM2 (10 or 12 years old

students).

The general primary studies prepare the best pupils after examination

(contest) for the secondary general school. The bad ones have to abandon their

study and join their families, the “road teams” or vocational training Centers if

possible.

3.2.1(1.3) Secondary schools :

It is composed of specialized streams classified in tow cycles:

� Streams of general studies through the secondary general schools;

� Streams of technical and vocational studies throughout Junior or

higher vocational Centers and technical teaching grammar Schools.

About the Secondary general school (from 11 to 19 years old students):

This teaching order allows primary school pupils who have passed an

achievement test at the end of the cycle. The number of successful students

depends on the number of places in hosting schools. It extends on seven years

including four years for junior general High school and three years for

grammar general school.

It includes two cycles:

� The first cycle or junior high secondary school.

This cycle provides general training and is certified by the BEPC (Diploma

or Certificate for junior High School Studies).

It has four levels lasting one year each: 1st form (Sixième), 2nd form

(cinquième), 3rd form (quatrième) and 4th form (troisième)

The general junior high studies prepare pupils for the higher general

secondary school, for the technical or vocational training or the famiy’s

activities after their failure.

� The 2nd cycle or grammar schools

This second half (higher school) speeds on tree years and concerns students

whose ages are between 15 years old and 18 years old for 19 years olds.

It is a cycle of 3 levels lasting one year each: 5th form (Seconde), 6th form

(Premiere) and 7th form (Terminale)


It aims at reinforcing knowledge and pre-specializing students. At the end of

the cycle there is their first university degree: the baccalaureate. After success,

the have to inter by orientation, universities, Colleges to be trained in

vocational, technical superior competencies or to continue with the general

studies.

This orientation depends any way on the national system of selection

3.2.2 About the technical and vocational secondary Education and training

According to the ministry in charge of technical education and vocational

training, it concerns two levels through the secondary teaching:

The first level concerns some students (12-15years olds) who are generally

unable to continue studies at the first part of general secondary school of

the Ministry in charge of National Education.

Few students choose to enter a vocational center after two unsuccessful years

in the junior high schools. Moreover, at the end of Junior high school very few

students whose ages are more important and who are not good at school are

screened or chosen for high vocational training or technical high studies in the

secondary teaching.

They receive a vocational training and technical teaching. After several

successful years’ training, they have two choices:

➢Integrating the work market, generally creating their own job after

the lower, middle or high technical or vocational certificate (CAP,

BEP, BP, BT, and BTS) or the technical Baccalaureate.

➢Continuing their studies through the second part of secondary

teaching of the Ministry in charge of technical Education and

vocational training. In this case, they reinforce their competencies in

technical Education or vocational training. This level concerns high

schools (16-19 years olds) who prepare middle technical certificate.

After their certificate, there are also two choices:

Really, ministerial department aim to make students to develop their

creativity sense by “making things”. But the implementation in practice is

difficult or non-existent.

Let’s consult as follows, Cote d’Ivoire education system Organization


3.2.3 High school education (university, colleges and institutes);

Two categories of students:

3.2.3(1) General higher studies students (for universities, professional

institute for teaching, health,..) :

Most of those students come from the Ministry in charge of National

Education after the Baccalaureate (18-19 years olds).

However, few students from the Ministry in charge of technical and

vocational Teaching can also study general Superior Education (at universities

Institutes)

Any way, in this case, they will continue with the general Education as

English study, social studies economical science, psychology, mathematics,

natural science, physics and chemistry, medical studies...

They can prepare bachelor, master, post degree or doctorate. Some of them

choose teaching studies in some specifics and educational Institute.

3.2.3(2) Vocational and technical higher training students:

Essentially, they come from the Ministry in charge of technical and

vocational Teaching. Moreover, huge part of student from the Ministry in

charge of National Education includes after contest or orientation, Vocational

or technical Colleges or Institutes in order to prepare enough chance to find job

after their study. More than 166 private Colleges or Institutes try to fill the

basic gaps and to give satisfactory technological trainings to all these many

students coming from the General education.

After two or three years of superior Education, students whose ages are

between 19 and 22 years can prepare: BTS or DUT (superior certificate) for

technical or vocational training.

At the second and the third stage of the superior teaching: Five years in

total for engineer or post degree, six years in total for Master’s degree (25-26

years olds) and seven years in total for doctorate (26-27 years olds).

After this technical and vocational higher degree (BTS and DUT) they can

continue tree years for engineer degree, four years for Master degree, five years

for doctorate

Some of them are trained in vocational teaching Institute (IPNETP) in order

to become Vocational or Technician teachers.


4. The current situation of Industrial Technology Education in Cote

d’Ivoire

4.1 About the Ministry for National Education

According to the national Education Ministry, it spreads for pre-school to

secondary school since 1960. It essential mission consists to make student, at

the different steps, to develop basic Education though general teaching. It

develops student’s spirit; it makes students have theoretical basic knowledge

useful to his insertion through the society.

Nowadays and precisely after 2002, National Education system from this

Ministry is making, some Educational reforms useful and in accordance with

the main realities of Cote d’Ivoire are being implemented. The main objective

is to make students become, after the studies, more and more useful, competent

throughout Ivorian and world Communities.

Moreover, it is always better for students to start ITE at their small age (9-5

years old). So the Ministry in charge of National Education has to introduce

ITE through its Teaching System.

Making things subjects are not nowadays really taught compulsorily in any

general primary and secondary Education. Any way this important educational

reform in progress takes in count mainly the teaching of Information and

Communication Technologies (ICT) at school.

In this field as iTE Researcher in my Department, my team and I have

already elaborated curricula and methods for ICT from the end of the Primary

school to the end of the secondary school. In this case, ITE will be promoted

and applied at the basic of students Education.

Now the main difficulties are on financial and infrastructural aspects.

4.2 About the Ministry for Technical Teaching and the Vocational training

Concretely, secondary Industrial Technology Education is implemented

really in the Ministry in charge of Technical teaching and Vocational Training.

It unfortunately concerns few students are interested every year: around 20.000

students from the Ministry in charge of Vocational Training and Technical

teaching each year against 791.143 from (in 2007) the secondary schools of

National Education. In other terms around 2% of the students population

that spread from the end the whole secondary school.


Their ages are situated between 16 and 29 years.

4.2.1 Courseware core-curricula and school hours

Core curricula and diplomas awarded by Vocational training

administration

Globally the main subjects of vocational training are focused on two fields:

� Science and industrial Technologies;

� Tertiary science and Technologies and associated fields.

According to the Tertiary science and Technologies and associated fields:

Administrative techniques and Office automation: Office automation

Secretariat (BEP, BP and BT diplomas);

Economy and Management: Accounting (BEP, BP), Accounting and Trading

(BT), transit - transportation (BT), Sale study (CAP);

Hotel trade and Tourism: Professional kitchen (BT), Hotel techniques (BT),

Hotel employee (CAP), Patisserie (CAP), Bakery - Pastry making (CAP);

Family and social life: Social and health sciences (BT), Medical and Social

(CAP); woodworking, ceramic

Stylism, model making and associated activities: Coiffure (CAP), Esthetique

(CAP), Designing and Dress Making (CAP)

According to Science and industrial Technologies

Mechanic Genie: General mechanics (CAP, BP), Maintenance of vehicle

Machine (BEP, BP, BT), Machine tools (BT), Maintenance mechanic (BEP,

BT), Production control (BT), Maintenance machines and marine machines

(CAP, BT), Printing works (BT, BEP), Electricity-car and developed activities

(BEP), Jewellery (CAP), Clock industry (CAP), Agro- mechanics (CAP), Body

painting (CAP);

Civil engineering: Measured building -Large Works (BEP, BT), building sites-

Large Works, Topography (BT), Painting of building/ putting staff ceiling

(BT), Sanitary facilities (BEP, BT), Wall and floor covering (BT), Painting of

building (CAP, BEP), Masonry (BEP), Building designing, Sanitary Plumbing

(CAP), Ceramic (CAP) (CAP)

Metalworking: Chaudonnery (BP), chaudonnery mechano welding (BT), Metal

construction (BEP), Metals and sheets (CAP);


Civil engineering:

Electric Genie: Electronics (CAP, BEP, BT), Electro technical (BEP, BT),

Electro mechanical (BT), Production and Distribution of the fluids (BT),

Electricity building (BEP), electricity equipment (CAP), Cold and Air-

conditioning (CAP);

Wood industry (Woodworking): Joinery and Cabinet work (CAP, BT),

Joinery- Carpentry (CAP, BT), Sharpening-Sawmill (BEP, BT), Basket making

(CAP), Tapestry -Cabinet work (CAP); COREN wood (CAP);

Science and Food Technology: Quality Control (BT), Transformation,

Stabilization and Storage of food (BT), fishing (BT), Aquaculture (CAP, BT),

Technician of manufacture.

After analysis, we can point out that these two big areas correspond, in the

form, almost to Industrial Technology Education areas:

� Industrial arts whose areas concerned are: Machines, metalworking,

Electricity, information Technology (sometimes); Cultivation (not depend

on the ministry in charge of Agriculture and Aquatic Resources

� Home making whose areas concerned are: Home life, Food, Clothes,

Housing and Nursing

4.2.2 Technical courseware ad diploma awarded by Technical Teaching

administration

This courseware is also based on two important areas:

1- Science and industrial Technologies;

2- Tertiary science and Technologies and associated fields.

The core curricula resulting of Tertiary science and Technologies include:

Economic and Social Science (Baccalaureate B), Administrative techniques

and Office automation (Baccalaureate G1), Quantitative techniques

Management (Baccalaureate G2)

The core curricula resulting of Science and industrial Technologies include:

Mathematics and Techniques (Baccalaureate E) Mechanical Constructions

(Baccalaureate F1), Electronics (Baccalaureate F2), Electro technical

(Baccalaureate F3), Civil engineering (Baccalaureate F4), Biochemistry

(BaccalaureateF7)

In total, 101 specific diplomas are awarded at the end of each training cycle.


Generally, on average 35 hours of training course per week of which

more than twenty for the technology taught.

4.2.3 How to Access to the training conditions?

5. Weaknesses of the Education system of COTE D’IVOIRE

5.1 In the general plan:

a) The causes of high failure rate in Ivorian School system:

- Lack of teaching infrastructures; maladjusted teaching materials or lack of

most of the best ones;

- More and more than 80 students by class in big towns according to

National primary and secondary Education;

- Lack of financial resources needed to improve the school performance;

- Lack of continuing training for teachers so the quality of teaching is in

trouble;

- Students are not motivated because they are not sure that they could find

adapted work after their studies;

- Student’s parents have not enough money to assure school fees;

- Vocational and Technology Education are more regarded after the

baccalaureate (at the end of the secondary school), so no basic skills before


starting these important studies

- And so on...

b) Completions profiles maladjusted to the employment market:

This means that the school curriculum and methods are not unfortunately

adapted actually to the employment market and there are many unemployed after

studies General Education students have to learn after their studies vocational

competencies in order to find job because they are not operational in industrial

field that has to be diversified. Then, they can’t create any thing to develop and

promote industrial and information Society.

In additional the training system is essentially tertiary sector or post industrial

oriented and does not insist on the teaching of socio-cultural values. This means

that industrial school education is not developed. Few students are concerned and

the lack of the teaching of social cultural values as technology ethics, humanisms,

home making or economics is a big issue for students after their studies. The

students’ insertion in the economical or industrial community is very difficult.

“The non-implication of corporate or professionals” means that the teaching

system should implicate not only professional teachers, but some Experts with

many experiences from specific fields studies at school. In this way teaching

would be more practical and more efficiency.

5.2 In the plan of Technology education

The real problems in terms of the Industrial Technology Education are

focused on the following facts:

✓ The traditional vision of school Education in Cote d’Ivoire. This school

Education mainly is based of French school Education system that is not

presently adapted to our realities. But it is very difficult to change radically

the mentality of our school authorities.

✓ Some difficulties are related to the partition of the whole Education

system; no true connection between the different Ministry departments.

Traditionally, basic Education is focused on General Teaching that aims to

develop spirit and intellectual skills of students, whereas Technical Teaching and

Vocational Training aim to prepare students to vocational and professional

careers. But the period of ages favorable to learn the basic of Industrial

Technology Education concerns the ministry in charge of national Education


which is unfortunately now, based only on general Education system.

Specifically, secondary vocational Training is a Sector of the Education /

formation that is not yet very attracting today in Cote d’Ivoire. Some

fundamental reasons of this fact are justified as what follows:

� The colonial system (French) which the education system of the Cote

d’Ivoire inherited privileged the intellectual training (university

knowledge and diploma) more than vocational training; consequences:

� Ivorian mentality builds the scale of social success in the type of diploma

obtained at school. Is or not this a university diploma?

� The wage grid in Cote d’Ivoire basically takes more account university

diploma obtained than of professional competence or qualification;

� Entrepreneurship is not yet sufficiently promoted and the insufficiency of

specific companies being able to integrate the future graduates discourage

some students to go in for any specified study, even the vocational trainings;

� Students who left vocational training Centers have true difficulties in

integrating the labor market, for some of them who wish it; the others

who want to create their own small company have difficulties to succeed;

those finally who succeed in their creation cannot resist so longer because

Ivorian consumers are attracted more and more towards the foreign

products which considered more competitive and more powerful;

� The curricula are sometimes not really adapted and quite in twin with the

trades and the labor market;

� Information and Communication Technologies are not yet correctly learnt

throughout the each step of the education and training system. No real

national ICT Education policy in this system despite the real goodwill of

Ivorian Government.

� The contents of the core-curricula are sometimes discontinuous

throughout the progress from occupation developed by junior vocational

training Center to a more complex occupation resulting of the same sector

that is learned in higher professional or technical teaching. For example, a

primary graduated pupil or a pupil from the fifth (second year of junior

high school) who chooses the masonry, which result of the building

sector, finishes his formation after three or two years and cannot


systematically continue this training program through the superior

studies if he wishes to become an engineer, an architect, a professional

expert in this cardinal sector. As immediate consequence, much of

descolarized (failed) pupils prefer not to integrate a vocational training

Center which is expensive besides the learning with a particular

professional of the student’s village or local district. It is moreover what

generally explains the fact that awaited manpower is higher than real

manpower (reception facilities are filled with less of the two thirds

(2/3) of their real capacity of reception);

� Career guidance is not organized and ensured throughout the all training

cycles so that the pupils could better operate, by themselves, the choice of

their future occupation;

� The quality of teaching training is not very reassuring throughout the

whole Ivorian territory: the quality of the contents of the curricula, the

professionalism of the professors, the scarcity of supports and didactic

materials adapted cannot guarantee formation in twin with the true needs

of students and the Ivorian Society;.

� Lack of adapted financial, materials and human resources to design;

implement and promote Industrial Technology Education.

� The period student’s age resulting of vocational and technical teaching is

situated between 15 and 29 years. According to eminent researchers, this

period is not adapted to a good and efficient industrial Technology

Education.

6. Proposals for Ivorian educational reform.

The importance of ITE for any Nation, in particular developing countries, is

not any more to show. Only the effective implementation of the great, pertinent

and humanist project presently envisaged by Japan could save these developing

countries as Cote d’Ivoire.

Some proposals and recommendations:

1. Elaborating a pertinent, coherent and adapted courseware and core-

curricula in accordance with Japan ITE project;


2. Allowing every student to progress, with the same fields, systematically

from junior high vocational and technical training to the superior one;

3. Sensitizing the whole Ivorian population to the importance of Information

Technology and Making things (ITE) and elaborate a national pertinent and

coherent policy according to ITE;

4. Increasing ITE infrastructure and adapted supports and didactical teaching

materials;

5. Allowing the Ministry in charge of Technical Teaching and Vocational

Training to receive systematically at least half of the primary school pupils

every year. This number can increase gradually until the disappearance of

general teaching from National Education Ministry; Radical introduction of

ITE will generate many difficulties; this disposal could reduce positively

the present manpower (80 students per class) of the classes in general

secondary schools.

6. Supporting the implementation of ICT project throughout Secondary

General Education; Now ICT curricula from the end of primary school to

the end of secondary school is already worked out;

7. Dispatching some administration Managers (decision makers) and some

teachers or teaching advisers in Japan to learn really the importance and the

implementation of ITE;

8. Give a powerful and adapted training course to teachers and teacher

advisers throughout their speciality

9. Dispatching some ITE in Cote d’Ivoire for judicious time some ITE

Japanese Experts in accordance with the different areas needed;

10. Researching and allocating for this big project, financial support very

useful from the Government and any Cooperation Agency as JICA (Japan).

7. Conclusion

The fact that the school rate of promotion in some developed countries, as

Japanese, is 100% should challenge any actor of Education System of

developing countries (as Cote d’Ivoire) where elitist politic of evaluation

involved nowadays, unnecessarily increasingly vertiginous rejection rates.

So, we have to understand that the performance of the “products “ output of


any Education system does not depend on its degree of selectivity but rather of

the quality of its curricula, of its teaching methods, training and evaluation

system, the quality of its teachers and its outside contributors, partners and of

the integration policy of these “achieved products “ or “semi-finished product”

throughout the labor market.

Indeed, giving a training to three years old Childs during more than 21 years

(so that he reaches the Master level) and obtaining finally “output products”

who can nothing make with ‘’his ten fingers’’ appear hard to bear as well for

the native Government than these many years for these students. It is indeed a

true wasting in the economic plan and human resources.

Of course Ivorian Government is very interested in industrial

Technology Education. Several measures to maladjustment have been

developed and undertaken by the Government. Now many reforms are

implemented in order to revitalize the system.

But these measures are not deep enough to start sustainable changes.

I am sure that Cote d’Ivoire needs the new project that Professor Miyakawa

and his staff are developing (in twin with the MEEXT) for developing

countries. This project is welcome for my country in the research of it real

and sustainable development.

References

1) Ministry in charge of National Education, survey, statistic document (1996-

2006);

2) Ministry in charge of Technical and Vocational Training Mission and

Attributions (2006-2007);

3) Educational Model for Vocational Training and Technical Teaching,

Educational instructions (2006, October);

4) Koyo KITSUTA, Department of Technology Education. Monozukuri

(Making Things Education in Japan, Aichi University for Education.

5) Hidetoshi MIYAKAWA and Chie TSUZUKI. (2002) Industrial Technology

Education for all.


155

1. Introduction

Since the implementation of decentralization program and anticipating the global

competition, Indonesia has carried out several significant policies; among other thing

is repositioning of Technical and Vocational Education (TVE). Globalization is not

anymore something that will occur in distant future; it is already a reality, today.

Globalization needs multi-skilled, flexible, true learner human resources with

entrepreneurial skills. To fulfill this challenges, in 2005 Indonesian national system

experienced significant changes in effort to anticipate the globalization era. In this

globalization era where competition is fierce and tough, the challenge of workforce

is to be able to obtain qualified graduates. Therefore, currently the government of

Indonesia has given high priority to foster the technical and vocational education

(TVE) in which TVE system shall be able to respond to the increasing demand for

skilled workers. TVE as the forefront of national education system in Indonesia has

tried to prepare skilled workers with the support of the government among other

things such as upgrading obsolete facilities, providing more TV schools, developing

mutually beneficial partnership with the work of world, and providing easy access

for students to study at TV Schools (TVS). Realizing that the TVE as a sub system

of national education system plays a very strategic role in creating skill human

resources in Indonesia, the government of Indonesia through the Ministry of

National Education (MoNE) has put continuous effort to increase the number of

vocational students so that the proportion specified in the future will be 70%

vocational school students and 30% the senior high school students (see Figure 1).

Why the government does this, because at this time the ratio between TV Schools

(TVS) and Senior High School (SHS) is 40% and 60% and it means that this

conditions does not support the government policy to create labor force due to SHSs

are prepared to continue their study to the university.

Repositioning of Industrial Technology Education in Indonesia for Year 2020

Hasanuddin MukhtarDirectorate of Technical and Vocational Education, MoNE

INDONESIA

Repositioning of Industrial Technology Education inIndonesia for Year 2020

Considering the globalization has become a reality, the government of Indonesia

(GOI) need human resources not only skillful but also has entrepreneurial flair.

Providing ready-for-employment, smart and competitive graduates constitutes the

main target of the DTVE for that reasons. The MoNE together with industry

partners has continuously empower the TVE students along with improvement in

their quality. And to pursue the 70% target, the GOI has done variety of promotion

of TVE for attracting the Junior High Schools students to enter the TV Schools

and as to promise the graduates with a bright future. To implement this, the

government has given rashness for TVE variety ways policy.

2. The Reposition of Technical and Vocational Education (TVE)

The reposition of the TVE is aimed at restructuring the concept, design and

implementation of TVE in order to improve the quality of human resources in

accordance with the trend of market needs in local, national, regional and

international areas. We are now entering the third millennium where globalization

is now a reality to live through. In global era, efforts to improve the quality of

human resources through education and training should be continuously

undertaken in accordance with the working market demand in local, national,

regional and international scales. TVE and its training system as the main


Figure 1

institution to improve the quality of human resources play an important role in the

following two developments that should be complementary to one another. First,

the policy of local economy. The government policy in recovering Indonesia

economic stability will selectively utilize the quality production factors including

manpower. The government’s macro policy in local autonomy and local-central

equitable fiscal share should be supported by technical know-how and capable

management. These two supports could revitalize the national economic cycle

which was stagnant since the economic crisis. Second, the demands and problems

of the global era. Fast paced global competition has resulted in very fast changes

in science and technology. On the one hand, this condition opens the opportunities

for Indonesia to accelerate the development growth, but on the other hands, it

poses new challenges to the quality improvement of human resources. The births

of multinational companies also cause tight competitive business activities in

regional, international and even global scales. Indonesia is situated between Asia

and Pacific Regions faces a variety of global implications that cannot be avoided.

In this respect, Indonesia can take the benefits from the economic development

and industry in this region; on the contrary it can be the victim of competitions

among the countries if Indonesia is not well prepared for such competition. As

information prior to 2005 Indonesia implemented centralization program in which

during this decentralization era, the central government carries out the

management of the education quality, while the regional government manages

facilities, infrastructure and the operations of education services. In recent years,

Indonesia has started its effort to shift from being an agricultural country to the

one focusing on industrial and services sectors. Since a decade ago, the

contribution of industrial, manufacturing and services sector has far exceeded that

of the agricultural sector. This means that there will be more job opportunities in

the industrial and services sectors. At the same time, the world economies show

flexible character; it changes dynamically as countries becoming independent to

each other.

2. The National Education System of Indonesia

The national education based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution of the

Republic Indonesia is explained in Law Number 20 Year 2003 about National

157Repositioning of Industrial Technology Education in Indonesia for Year 2020

Education System. The National Education functions to develop capability

character, and civilization of the nation for enhancing its intellectual capacity, and

is aimed at developing learners’ potentials so that they become persons imbued

with human values who are faithful and pious to one and Only God; who process

morals and noble character; who are healthy, knowledgeable, competent, creative,

independent; and as citizens, are democratic and responsible.

2.1 Streams, Levels and Types of Education

Educational streaming consists of formal education, non formal education, and

informal education, which can compliment and enrich each other. Education can

be provided with an open system through face to face and/or distance learning.

Level of education consistents of basic education, secondary education, and higher

education. Type of education includes general education, TVE, religious

education, and special education. The streams, levels and types of education can

take the form of an educational unit organized by the government, local

governments, and/or community.

2.1.1 Nine-Year Compulsory Basic Education Program

The purpose of this program is to ensure equity and expansion of access to

quality affordable basic education services, in both formal or non formal context,

which includes the elementary education and the non-formal education programs

equivalent to the elementary education, this nine-year compulsory education

program consists of 6-years of primary and three-years of junior secondary

education. Basic education takes the form of primary schools, that is Sekolah

Dasar (SD) and Junior Secondary Schools, that is, Sekolah Menengah Pertama

(SMP). In addition to the types of education above, there is also an Islamic

Primary School administered by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. They are

Islamic Primary School (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah or MI), equivalent to SD and

equivalent to Packet A in Non Formal and Informal Education, and Islamic Junior

Secondary School (Madrasah Tsanawiyah or MTs), equivalent to Junior

Secondary School or equivalent to Packet B in Non Formal and Informal

Education. Currently, this basic education constitutes a compulsory education in

Indonesia. Therefore, all children aged 7 to 15 years, boys and girls, and special

needs children within this age bracket are entitled to education until junior high

school or its equivalent.


2.1.2 Non Formal and Informal Education

Non formal education is provided for community members who need

education services which functions as a replacement, complement, and/or

supplement to formal education in the frame of supporting life-long education.

Non formal education is aimed at developing learners’ potentials with emphasis

on the acquisition of knowledge and functional skills and professional attitudes.

Non formal education comprises life-skill education, literacy education, youth

education, women empowerment education. Literacy education, vocational

training and internship, and other kinds of education aimed at developing

learners’ ability. Informal education can be in the form of self-learning,

provided by families and surroundings. The outcomes of informal education

shall be recognized as being equal to the outcomes of formal education and non

formal education after passing successfully in an assessment according to the

national education standard. Both of the above programs (Non formal and

Informal education) are administered by the Directorate General of Non Formal

and Informal Education, Ministry of National Education.


Figure 2

2.1.3 Secondary Education

Secondary education is the continuation of basic education. Secondary

education is available to graduates of basic education. The objective of secondary

education is:

(a) to develop students’ knowledge to continue their studies to higher levels of

education and to develop themselves in accordance with the development of

science, technology and arts;

(b) to develop students’ ability as members of the society to interact with their

social, cultural and natural environment.

The types of secondary education include general secondary school (SMA),

vocational secondary school (SMK), and religious secondary school (MA) and

equivalent to Packet C in Non Formal and Informal Education (see attachment 1).

General Secondary Education gives priority to expanding knowledge and

developing students’ skill and preparing them to continue their studies to the

higher level of education; Vocational Secondary Education gives priority to

expanding specific occupational skills and emphasizes the preparation of students

to enter the world of work and expanding their professional attitude. Religious

Secondary Education gives priority to mastery of special religious knowledge.

Secondary education comprises general secondary education and vocational

secondary education. Secondary education takes the form of senior general

secondary schools, that is, Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) as well as Madrasah

Aliyah (MA), and Senior Vocational Secondary Schools, that is, Sekolah

Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) as well as Madrasah Aliyah Kejuruan (MAK) or

other schools of the same level.

3. Directorate of Vocational Schools (previously known as Directorate of

Technical and Vocational Education/DTVE)

In line with the implementation of decentralization program, the central

government also experienced some changes especially in organization structure,

besides the establishment of a new directorate general is that the Directorate

General of Teacher Development. Under the Ministry of National Education,

currently there are 4 Directorate Generals namely: Directorate General for Higher

Education, Directorate General for Non Formal and Informal Education,


Directorate General for Teacher Development, and Directorate General for

Management of Primary and Secondary Education (see attachment 2). Currently

Since the implementation of the decentralization program the task of the central

government is now to develop national standards as guidelines for local

governments, and conduct general supervision of school education. Adjusting to

these new functions, the organization structure of the Directorate General of

Primary and Secondary Education was recently changed. It is now divided

according to the types and level of schooling, with a Directorate of Primary

School, Directorate of Junior Secondary School, Directorate of Senior Secondary

School, and Directorate of Special School, and Directorate of Vocational Schools.

Each directorate is responsible for developing policy, curriculum, and Minimum

Service Standards in its own area of education, and for monitoring performance in

regions. Monitoring is assisted by Provincial Dinas Pendidikan through

deconcentrated functions. Although this Directorate General is no longer

providing routine budget to general schools, it still manages a development budget

to support a number of activities, many of them not at all for investment. They

include textbooks, contracted teachers, school operating cost grants, rebuilding

damage schools and classrooms, and other quality improvement programs. Most

are managed through deconcentrated project managers in provincial government,

who then create contract agreements with district Dinas Pendidikan for districts to

utilize the funds. Some of these funds have been extended to Madrasahs in some

regions, as was witnessed by the research team’s field visits. This process has been

endorsed by the DPR (House of Representatives) through approval of the budget

though it diverts from the funding channels approved by Law 25/1999 on fiscal

balance between center and regions.

3.1 Vocational Secondary Education (SMK)

Referring to the Law No.20on National Education System in 2003, Technical

and Vocational Education is defined as “an education to prepare students to be

able to work in certain fields”. More specifically, the Government regulation

“A unit of education organizes Vocational Secondary Education is called

Vocational Secondary Education”. The vocational secondary education

programs are classified into 4 big fields, i.e:

(1) Industrial Technology (machinery, automotive, electricity, electronics,


building construction, water works, mining, ship building, maritime, graphics,

chemistry, textile, cooling system technology, aviation, informatics, and

industrial instruments);

(2) Business and Hotel Management (office administration, secretarial skills,

accounting, economics and banking, commerce, travel agency and

cooperatives, hotel, cookery, dressmaking and beauty care);

(3) Agriculture (agribusiness, agronomy, agriculture, fishery, management of

agriculture product, and agriculture mechanization); and

(4) Arts and crafts (applied fine arts, handicraft industry and performing arts).

There are a total of over 6,450 public and private SMKs with total students of

over 2.86 millions, private SMK comprises 77% of institutions and 71% of

students.. The SMK system in Indonesia provides courses for over 2.86

millions young people, mostly 16 to 18 years old. Students enter SMK after 9

years of basic education and SMK courses are mostly 3 years of full time study.

Completion of an SMK course can lead on to some forms of higher education;

however, most SMK students enter the labor market. At present time the labor

market outcomes for SMK graduates are not satisfactory; this is a concern

which the government policy is addressing. SMK graduates comprise 7.1 of the

paid workforce but they are 9.1% of the unemployed workforce. In part of this

because relatively few SMK graduates opt for entrepreneurship in the form of

self-employment. Overall, in Indonesia,39% of workers are classified as self-

employed (on their own or with others); corresponding figure for SMK

graduates is 24%. Clearly, as the SMK system expands to meet the

government’s target, SMK graduates will need to become a higher proportion

of the entrepreneurial (self-employed) workforce.


3.1.1 Curriculum 2004

In line with the industry demand and the autonomy spirit, the government

revised the curriculum 1999 with the curriculum 2004. In curriculum 2004 (see

attachment 3) is much more emphasis with the local-based superiority

orientation. The 2004 Curriculum consists of adaptive, normative and

productive programs. The normative subject is intended to mold the character

and personality of students, the normative consists of the following subjects

(see attachment 4). The vocational program that compose basic and

professional vocational subject matters aim at forming an ability to develop

adapt in accordance with the development of science, technology and arts. The

professional subjects aim at generating a productive ability to apply in the

concerned fields. The SMK system in Indonesia’s largest investment is sub-

professional skills development.

3.1.2 Strengthen School-Industry-Linkages (Pendidikan Sistem

Ganda/Dual System Program/Apprenticeship Program)

To give more experiences and increase the students’ skill, the SMK build up

relationship with industries which two-way advantages; industry will benefit by

having workers’ skill upgraded and the schools will benefit by having workers’

skill upgraded and the schools will gain a better knowledge of industries in

which it will give mutual benefits government has given opportunity to the

SMK to make cooperation with the respective industries. Efforts to establish

the institutionalized cooperation are not easy. In general the job market are hard

to reach out as they have not seen benefit that are going to get, the presence of

students is still considered as burden an d industry has not yet trusted schools.

In this condition schools should be independent. From the school perspective,

the cooperation will support schools to produce qualified graduates and

acceptable to the job market. Therefore competence must be set together by the

institutions that produce and hire the graduates. To reach agreed-upon

competence, the teaching learning process is conducted in school and industries

by way of Pendidikan Sistem Ganda (Dual System/Apprenticeship Program,)

see figure 2. PSG constitutes an innovation in SMK under which students

undertake work experience in industries as an integral part of their courses. In

Indonesia the students are undertaking work experience for periods of several


months during the three years of their SMK courses. PSG is substantial move to

make the TVE system more relevant to the world of work and to link SMK and

employers. The significance of PSG is that the training is not only implemented

at training institution but also at partner institutions which are industries and

other institutions that bale to provide real experiences to students to suit the

agreed competence ( see Figure 3).

3.1.3 Enhancing Entrepreneurship Focus

A quarter of TVS graduates go on to become self-employed. Therefore they

will require general business skills in their technical skills. For new graduates

the job search can be lengthy as they lack basic workplace skills.

Entrepreneurship training, ‘business incubators’ and production unit’s basic

workplace and business experience needed for self-employment and the

workplace. This activity will involve the creation of business incubators or

initiatives which will be designed at the local level to suit the actual

opportunities available locally. In some cases, a group of students might be

assisted to rent premises or hire equipment or they may be given access to VS

equipment after teaching hours. In all cases they will be mentored by a staff

member or a community expert. Each model school will have to make its own

assessment of the opportunities in its region for successful student businesses

and include its proposals in the business plan. It is expected that some model

schools will enter partnership agreements with local chambers of industry or


Figure 3

other private entities which have similar objectives. The need for an increase in

entrepreneurship education has been recognized by the International Labor

Organization (ILO) which has developed two excellent programs for young

people to teach them about business and give them the skills to plan and open

their own business.

3.1.4 The Utilization of Information and Communication Technology

(ICT)

Another matter in connection with education facilities and infrastructure is the

use and utilization of ICT. As of now, in general, the utilization of ICT in

Indonesia still lags far behind compared to other countries. Some measures have

been taken to begin to improve the condition in Indonesian context. Although still

limited in scope, education in Indonesia has already begun utilizing ICT in

management and learning. By year 2004, the programs already carried out the

following things: (a) internet network connecting 784 SMK; (b) school

information network in 137 districts/municipalities; (c) 31 Wide Area Networks at

31 districts/cities; (d) 44 ICT centers at 44 districts/cities; (e) 8 Mobile Training

Units at 8 locations; (f) School Mapping which has been developed by 271 SMK

throughout Indonesia. This activity consists of the development of systems,

methods and learning materials by the use of information and communication

technology (ICT). This activity will also develop SMKs information network,

infrastructure and human resource to support its implementation, both for the sake

of education management as well as learning process. By using and empowering

the ICT, the SMK students as well as the teacher can utilize for their own purpose

especially to improve their capabilities.

3.1.5 The Development of SMK with International Standard

To improve the competitiveness of he nation in its many aspects among other

nations in the world, it will be necessary to develop schools with international

standards at the level of district. To this end, consistent cooperation will

necessary between the central government and the respective district to develop

the SMK. The improvement of quality, relevance, and competitiveness of

secondary education will be implemented by way of the following activities:

Developing the competency-based curriculum, instructional materials, teaching

models, and evaluation/assessment systems. In order to become a national and


international standard, all parts of systems and learning contents are developed

to achieve a meaningful and effective learning. At the secondary education

level, the basic learning contents have a decreasing portion, whereas the

academic contents and the life skills arose. To further motivate students with

high academic achievement, the government will provide an enrichment

program and various kinds of assistance to better prepare students with

extraordinary achievement to join both national and international competitions,

such as Science and Mathematic Olympiad for SMA students; whereas for

high-achieving SMK students are encouraged and supported to join national

level Student National Skills Competition (LKS) activities, ASEAN Skills

Competition (ASC) and World Skills Competition (WSC). In relation to

improvement of quality, it is also necessary to repair slightly? damaged

classrooms (4,400 units for SMA; 4,800 units for SMK) and heavily-damaged

classrooms (1, 600 units for SMA; 3,000 units for SMK). Additionally, the

government will also increase the number of SMK proportionally, including the

setting of expertise and study program fields in SMK, and apprenticeship

facilities to ensure their relevance with needs of the job market. The

development of the quality and superiority of the Secondary School is also to

encourage potential schools to improve themselves so that they can step up to

the category of “above the national standard (SNP)”. These types of schools

will be continually developed to become model schools at the national and

schools with international standards. It is already targeted that, by 2009, at least

one SMA/SMK in every districts/city will become model school with locality-

based superiority and one school (SMA/SMK) with international standards.

Both central and regional governments will work together to develop the local

superiority, and will cooperate with other countries in curriculum and

competence standard development in order to develop the competency of

school graduates to ensure survival in a global competition. One of the

orientations to reach the international standard is to find ways to motivate the

school to reach the ISO certificate (ISO 9001:2000) and the cooperation with

Indonesia Test Center which administered the Test of English for International

Communication (TOEIC).


3.1.6 Gender Issues

With regards to gender issues, the government of Indonesia has prioritized

women to have the equity to enter the SMK, because there was a wrong

perception that the students of automotive, constructions are only men. For this

reason, therefore the government has established gender equity and justice. In

carrying out this program for SMK, opportunities are provided openly for men

and women so that they can develop their potentials in an optimal and a

balanced manner.

The senior secondary education (SSE) system consists of VS, General Senor

Secondary Schools (GS) and Madrasah Aliyah. Each offers academic

curriculum over 3 years. About 50% 0f 16-18 years old are enrolled in SSE,

with 40% of the students enrolled in VS (or 17% of the age group). In

2007/2008, there were about 6,450 public and private VS schools. About 22%

of the VS schools are public and 78% are private, Nearly 2.86 million students

were enrolled in VS schools in 2007/2008. Approximately 42% of VS students

are female who enrolled in either private or public VS schools (see Figure 4).

Figure 4


References

1) Ministry of Education and Culture 1997, Education Development in

Indonesia, 31-46.

2) Indonesia Educational Statistics in Brief 2005/20006, Ministry of National

Education, 11-14.

3) Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education, Skills Toward 2020 For

Global Era

4) Ministry of National Education, Strategic Plan 2005-2009

5) Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education, the History of

Technical and Vocational Education: Developing Productive Citizenry.

6) Ministry of National Education, Getting Acquainted with Technical and

Vocational Education in Indonesia


169

1. Background

Kenya was under British colonial rule from 1895 to 1963, when it gained

independence. The country has had stable Government for over 40 years and

became a multi-party democracy in 1992. Kenya is classified as a low-income

economy characterized by modest economic growth, rapid expanding

population, high child mortality, high unemployment rate, drought, famine,

armed conflicts, significant HIV/AIDS prevalence and increasing poverty.

During the first two decades of independence, the economy registered

impressive GDP growth averaging 6.5% in 1960 and 1970’s. The economy

stabilized in the 1980’s with the GDP growth average of 5%. However, since

1989, economic growth started to decline because of mismanagement of state

enterprises and bad governance coupled with adverse weather conditions as

well as decline in direct investment. Indeed the country’s economic

performance in the last two decades has been a disaster dropping to negative

GDP growth of 0.3% in 2000.

The decline was reflected in all the sectors of the economy especially

agriculture and manufacturing, resulting in significant unemployment rates

currently estimated at 24% with the youth accounting for 45% of the total.

Although the majority of the unemployed are educated some upto the

university level, they do not have the necessary skills to be employed in the

formal sector or to participate meaningfully in the informal sector. In addition

to high levels of unemployment, Kenya continued to face increasing levels of

poverty. The proportion of Kenyans living below the poverty line is 56% out

of the estimated population of 34 million people.

The economic decline also resulted in the breakdown of the country’s

physical infrastructure especially roads, railways, electric power, telephony.

The public sector training institutions where equipment, machinery and

The Kenya Experience

Joash N. NyamokoTechnology Development Centre

KENYA

The Kenya Experience

buildings were neglected for lack of maintenance. This problem has been

compounded by technological advances, especially developments in digital

electronics, computer technology which have rendered most of the tools,

equipment and machinery obsolete. In addition, lack of adequate tools and

equipment has adversely affected the efficiency and productivity and is one of

the root causes of low morale, idleness and underutilization of staff in the

public sector.

Since the year 2003, the Kenya economy has shown strong signs of recovery

and recorded a GDP growth rate of 5.8% in 2005 due to the reforms. The

government is credited with the implementation of free primary education a

policy that is intended to achieve a universal access to the basic education.

Despite the impressive performance of the economy, the country is still

constrained by the poor state of the infrastructure, prolonged and severe

drought, decline in set direct investments, and high cost of production, high

unemployment rates and increasing poverty. The major challenges facing the

government is to restore economic growth, provide skills training for a majority

of the children, generate employment opportunities that will absorb the large

number of unemployed population, particularly the youth and most importantly

reduce poverty levels.

The Government of Kenya has recognized the strategic importance of

improving the overall education level of Kenyans within the context of poverty

reduction and economic growth. In this regard, education and training is not

only a welfare indicator per se, but is also a key determinant of earning, and

therefore, an important exit for route from poverty. As a result, increased

investment in human capital including health and education is identified as one

of the four pillars of the Government’s overall economic recovery strategy.

Education is an investment in human capital and empirical evidence, on

endogenous growth models shows that human capital is a key determinant of

economic growth. Indeed, sustainable development is only possible if there is a

critical mass of skilled people. Studies on poverty in Kenya show that

education and training are important factors in poverty reduction.

Education and training can reduce social and economic inequalities. Today,

Kenya is characterized by large inequalities with respect to income distribution


and this has resulted in constrained economic growth. As such investment in

education and industrial training is an important strategy to address such

inequalities, and these facilitate faster economic growth. Government

involvement in education and industrial training is therefore justified on the

basis that human capital development has large social returns, and because

market fails to provide social optimal returns.

2. Technology Development Centre

Technology Development Centre was established in 1996 with a core

function of supplying competent trained manpower to the industry. The

distinctive feature of Technology Development Centre is its innovative courses

which emphasizes on holistic approach to learning. This is aimed at meeting

the challenges of the changing technology and current market needs.

Technology Development Centre is headed by a Centre Manager who is its

Chief Executive Officer. I have served in this position for the last three years

(3) within which the Institution has expanded its initial functions of offering

vocational skills to that of giving more elaborate cocktail of training

programmes based on well researched technological parameters. The

171The Kenya Experience

Institution has therefore recorded a tremendous growth in terms of trainee’s

enrolment, staff population, the number of function, and also the budgetary

levels have gone up. These added responsibilities have been as a result of the

confidence and trust that the Accounting Officer (Head of the Ministry) has in

me. My role as the CEO includes

■ Management of the day-to-day affairs of the Institution.

■ Drawing up of suitable programmes that are responsive to the market

demand.

■ Liaising closely with the stakeholders in enhancing representation by

relevant professional bodies who will play various roles in the design,

implementation and evaluation of training programmes.

■ Advise the Directorate on matters pertaining to industrial training.

■ Supervision and appraisal of staff working at the Centre

3. Problems of Industrial Technology Education

In 2001, there were 6,314,600 million children at the primary school level,

818,247 at the secondary level, over 100,000 at tertiary level including private

training providers and over 62,000 at the university level. Every year more

than 500,000 candidates sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

Examination. Only about 45% or 225,000 primary school leavers proceed to

secondary school while the rest join the youth polytechnics and the informal

sector. At the end of the secondary education cycle, about 20,000 of the nearly

200,000 candidates join Universities (Public, Private, Overseas), the rest are

catered by the middle level colleges offering Technical, Industrial, Vocational

and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) programmes.

Under the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, there are four (4)

national polytechnics, one (1) technical teachers training college, nineteen (19)

technical training institutes, sixteen (16) institutes of technology and four (4)

special vocational training centres all with a combined enrolment of 51,165

students. The Ministry of Labour and Human Resource Development only

manages one (1) Vocational Training Centre at Athi River, three (3) skills

training centres alongside three (3) industrial training centres, the Kenya

Textile Training Institute and six hundred (600) youth polytechnics (YPs) all


with a combined enrolment of 36,550 students. In addition, there are over forty

(40) other institutions that are spread over thirteen (13) other ministries. The

private sector (in-company training centres), private commercial college

owners, NGOs and religious organizations also run TIVET programmes in

about 800 training institutions whose enrolment is currently unknown.

However the Government has embarked on radical reforms on TIVET system.

Structure and Organization of Education and Training


There are a wide range of problems facing Industrial Technology Education

in the country. This problems range from poor coordination, resource

allocation, lack of coherent legislation policy and related issues, which include

the following:

� Low demand for technical workforce due to insufficient industrial base. This

has resulted in an over supply of technical work force from training

institutions against a shrinking demand from the industry.

� Lack of teaching and learning equipment that match modern technologies.

Most of the training facilities are not in keeping with the technological

developments. They cannot be appropriately used to impart skills, which can

be applied in the industry without retraining. The situation is aggravated by

lack of training resources and funds

� Negative perception towards Industrial and Technology Education. There

is a general feeling in the country that technology related training is meant

for less competent students. Most of the teachers teaching in these areas are

themselves not trainers. No deliberate attempt has been made to convert

these teachers to proper trainers. They suffer from lack of adequate practical

skills in an industrial work situation. This deprives them of the confidence to


handle practical skills training. Apart from this, attitudinal skills are also

lacking. They see themselves as teachers and lecturers and not trainers or

instructors. Teachers talk, lecturers talk even more. So these teachers and

lecturers are more inclined to work through talking as opposed to

demonstrating through performing practical tasks.

� Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

(HIV/AIDS) Preference rate among adults in Kenya is high. In 2000, it was at

14% but now is current below 9%. The increased adult mortality rate has

contributed to slow economic growth and an increased dependency ratio

among the population. This has continued to affect all the sectors of the

economy. Children affected with HIV/AIDS at birth do not live to enroll in

schools. Number of orphans in schools and training institutions increased as

parents die from HIV/AIDS. Many teachers, lecturers and instructors are also

dying or are too weak from HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases to work hence

delaying the sector of vital skilled human resource. This is threatening to

undermine the education and training sectors achievement in the sector.

� Lack of innovation and creativity. This is mainly due to the wrong

foundation of the recipients of the education system which does not lay


emphasis on industrial technology education from the onset

� Inefficient organizational and management skills.

� Poor infrastructure

� Linkages with the industry looted from the absence of representation by

relevant professional bodies in design, implementation and evaluation of

vocational training programmes.

� High cost of training in the industrial technology education in terms of

training materials

4. Action Taken After The Training Course And Achievements

The prepared action plan was revised to reflect the realities on the ground.

By doing that, we have been able to achieve the following:

■ Initiated new technology based training programmes.

■ Established ultra-modern textile training facility in partnership with Export

Processing Zone Authority, a private sector organization

■ Established an E-learning Centre which has enabled us to offer different

courses simultaneously dependent on beneficiaries abilities and entry level

behaviour.

■ We have also developed four (4) technology based modular courses, the

latest being in Motor Vehicle and Electronics Engineering. These courses

emphasize on innovativeness and creativity. This is similar to the

Japanese system of “Monozukuri”

■ Networked with colleagues and those who could support

■ Participated in both local and international workshops and seminars

■ Emphasis on industrial attachment

■ Established forward and backward linkages with the stakeholders

■ The institution has from time to time participated in technology based

competitions along side other institutions where we have been rewarded

for achieving a high degree of creativity and innovativeness.

5. Evidence to Indicate or Confirm The Above

■ Reports done from the workshops and seminars

■ Certificates of attendance


■ Tracer study reports

■ Monitoring and evaluation reports

■ We have received awards and trophies

■ Motivation of members of staff hence improved work environment

■ Initiated new courses based on the principles of monozukuri.

■ Increased enrolment

■ Recorded high level demand for tailor-made industrial related courses

6. The Way Forward

■ With the introduction of free primary education in the country, it has now

become necessary to revise budgets to cater for large enrolments being

experienced in primary schools and secondary schools.

■ The plan to acquire industrialization status the country has projected to

attain full industrialization status by the year 2020. This requires a critical

review of the education system to impipe or enrich it with the Industrial

Technology Education Subjects. The Government has already set up a

task force charged with the responsibility of undertaking this exercise.

■ Move to harmonize TIVET programs in the country

■ The development of National Training Strategy ( NTS)as enshrined in the

sessional paper No 1 of 2005

■ The establishment of TIVET Authority as an umbrella body to oversee the

development and coordination of TIVET system in the country

■ Review, harmonization and update of the TIVET curricula in order to

achieve flexibility, quality and relevance to the changing skill demands in

the labour market.

References

1) Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (August 1999) report of

the Commission of inquiry into the education system in Kenya

2) Sessional Paper No. 2 of 1996 on Industrial Transformation to the Year

2020 (November 1996)

3) National Industrial Training Council (August 2004) Strategic Intervention

in Support on Industrial Attachment


4) Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2004 on Policy Framework for Education Training

and Research (October 2004)

5) Skills Development for Self Reliance - A Report of Regional Consultations

held in Nairobi Kenya (February 2006)


179Status of Technology Education in Technical Colleges in Malawi

1. Introduction

Malawi as one of the developing countries in the world, technology

education is not at an advanced stage. Colleges are facing a number of

challenges in the implementation of technology education. The paper will

therefore highlight what the Ministry is doing to enable more youth acquire

technology education, create mutual relationships with industries, improve

skills of technical instructors and provide modern equipment in technical

colleges.

Apart from the efforts of the Government, Non-Government Organizations

and Development Partners are also assisting to improve technology education

in the country by providing financial and material support.

2. The Land and Location

Malawi is a small, landlocked country with about eleven million people. It is

situated south of the equator in southern Africa. Mozambique borders the

country to the east, south, and

southwest, Zambia to the west and

northwest, and Tanzania to the north

and northeast.

Aubrey Diverson MatembaMinistry of Education, Science and Technology

MALAWI

Status of Technology Education in Technical Collegesin Malawi

The country is 900 kilometers in length and ranging from 80 to 16 kilometers

in width. The total area of the country is about 118,500 square kilometers. The

land area is 94,000 square kilometers. A fresh-water lake called the Lake

Malawi covers the remaining area. It is about 475 kilometers long and its

eastern shore boarders Mozambique.

3. Objectives of Technology Education

Technology education is a study of technology that provides an opportunity

for students to learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology.

As a study, it covers the human ability to shape and change the physical world

to meet needs, by manipulating materials and tools with techniques. As

education, the goal is to teach the knowledge and techniques to develop

technological literacy which is accomplished by bringing laboratory activities

to students.

Technology education allows learners to explore a variety of activities related

to many areas of human endeavor. Learners can develop problem solving

strategies and work habits that will be useful in almost any career and or

occupation. Learners develop a greater appreciation for the work of craft

workers and the skill required of that work.

Within the scope of this educational program is the effort to develop “soft

skills” within the learner, as well as an opportunity for the learner to see how

systems work together and the chance to put much of the academic class

instruction to work in an applied way.

4. Importance of technology education

Technological achievements in the modern world are not only the

convenience for the people around the globe, but also an incentive for the

younger generations to review and develop their own thinking and ideas to

advance the technology even further. It is very important that every education,

may it be from the lower primary to the PhD level should all include the trace

of technology in the process according to the level most suitable.

� The use of technology in various fields has been so successful and

beneficial for us to reach the standards we have in this modern world.


� The importance of technology is seen and enjoyed in every phase of our

life these days. When we talk on the phone, or internet, it feels very

normal to us because we are in a situation where the blessings of

technology are overwhelming. Communication was never so easy, and on

our finger tips ever. The printing press, telephone, internet are all some of

the latest technologies which have lessened the barrier of location for

people in different parts of the world.

� Technology has gone as far as even saving lives of the impossible cases of

medical problems. These days hospitals and medical health care centers

are using such complicated machineries that portray the advancement of

the technological sector in this world.

� Technological powers have now lead the people to research, and predict

the natural disasters that could hit the globe causing life threatening

experiences.

� The major advancement in technology is because of the increased

scientific research these days. Science has been the pillar of technology

and therefore it is considered to be the most looked upon subject in the

modern world due to its technological success.

5. The Education System

The education system of Malawi consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary

cycles. The primary cycle is eight years of schooling, which starts from

standard 1 through to standard 8. The official age of admission to standard 1 of

the primary is 6 years. Hence, students are expected to complete the primary

cycle at the age of 13 years. Very often, this is not the case as many students

join the school at a later age or fall behind and repeat the same classes. At the

end of primary school, students sit for the Primary School Leaving Certificate

Examination (PLSCE), which is the first national examination.

The secondary school has a four-year cycle consisting two years in Junior

Secondary followed by two more years in the Senior Secondary. The official

age of admission to the secondary cycle is from 14 to 17 years and it starts from

Form I and goes up to Form IV. At the end of Junior and Senior Secondary, the

students sit for Junior Certificate of Education (JCE) and the Malawi School

Status of Technology Education in Technical Colleges in Malawi 181

Certificate of Education (MSCE) respectively. The MSCE is the second and

perhaps the most significant national examination that the students face in their

school career.

The tertiary education cycle is two -five years. The minimum entry

requirement for this cycle is a pass at MSCE examination. However, admission

to tertiary cycle of education is very competitive and a credit or higher pass at

MSCE is generally needed for admission to tertiary institutions such as the

Universities.

Diagrammatic description of education system in Malawi

Figure 1 Pie Chart(Indicating years of schooling. Pre-school has no specific period)

� Not many children attend pre-school because they are really found in

remote areas where population is high.

� Primary schools are every where hence more than half of school going age

is in primary school.

� There are not many secondary schools hence low secondary enrolment.

� Tertiary education is competitive and expensive to average Malawians.


MALAWI EDUCATION CYCLE

6. Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and Training

Authority (TEVETA)

The Government of Malawi promotes technology education through an

Authority known as Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and

Training Authority (TEVETA). In July 1997, the Ministry of Labour set up a

Task Force to review the vocational education and training system and to come

up with a policy framework to address challenges faced in implementing

technology education. The Task Force comprising stakeholders from both the

private and public sectors recommended a new policy on technical,

entrepreneurial and vocational education and training. This became known as

the TEVET policy.

In January 1999, a Bill was presented to Parliament on TEVET policy. The

Parliament passed the Bill and on 14th of February 1999 TEVET Act was

enacted. The Act created the Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational

Education and Training Authority (TEVETA), Training Payroll Levy, and the


Figure 2 Pyramid - Showing age ranges.(Very few children access pre-schools and tertiary education

is in two categories; university education and professionalcourses such as teaching, nursing, forestry)

Training Fund.

In terms of the TEVET Act, the main objectives of technical education and

training are to:

(a) Promote an integrated, demand-driven, competency-based modular

technical education and training system,

(b) Monitor gaps between supply and demand for skills,

(c) Support the adoption and application of appropriate technologies,

(d) Promote managerial and business skills, and a spirit of entrepreneurial

culture with regard to both wage and self-employment,

(e) Facilitate sound and sustainable financing and funding mechanisms for

technical education and training, and

(f) Facilitate and bring together the expertise and moderate the different

interests of stakeholders of technical education and training.

7. Roles for the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST)

in implementing technology education

MoEST has a major role in promoting technology education in the country.

MoEST through the Department of Technical and Vocational Training in

collaboration with TEVETA ensures that as many Malawians as possible

access technology education. The Ministry also recognizes impact private

sector plays in the economic development. Therefore the role of the Ministry is

to link private sector with training institutions. It is also the role of the Ministry

to ensure that training institutions have well qualified instructors and modern

training equipment.

7.1 Increase access to technology education

In Malawi, not many females access technology education. There are a

number of reasons for this development and the Ministry through the

Department of Technical and Vocational Training visits both primary and

secondary schools giving career guidance to address the situation. Presently,

secondary education is available to a much smaller percentage of girls as

compared to boys in most of the developing countries. This automatically

reflects the percentage or number of girls in the Technical and Vocational

Education (TVE) system (Ref. Figure 4, females are 27% of total enrolment).


Low enrolment of girls in technology education is attributed to various socio-

economic factors and practices. Girls, specifically rural girls are busy during

most part of the day either working to earn or caring for younger siblings. This

results in a pathetically low enrolment of rural girls in school. Withdrawal of

girls at puberty, early marriage, school location, physical facilities and hours of

instruction has been identified as barriers to girls’ education at secondary level.

In many developing countries, although there is a marked improvement in the

women’s status and role as a whole, gender disparities are still evident in the

participation of females in TVE. Even in developed countries, despite several

initiatives in the economic sector, it is disheartening to note that a very small

percentage of employed females are in the Technical and Vocational fields. In

many countries the participation rate is higher in primary and tertiary (mostly

agriculture and services) sectors than in the secondary sector of industrial

production. Technology education is still thought to be suitable only for boys,

the ultimate “bread winners”- the role of girls being largely confined to home

making and child rearing. If girls do opt for vocational courses, more often than

not, conditioned by the structure created by the society, they choose fields

traditionally stereotyped as suitable for females.

Table Technical College entrance examination results of 2007 in some

selected courses


7.2 Creating mutual relationships with industries

There are several factors behind the recent moves by the Government to

seek the collaboration of private-sector stakeholders in TVE:

� the fiscal crisis, which has resulted in a shortage of public funds to meet

the increasing demand for training;

� the rise of the market economy and the growing recognition of the

private sector’s critical role in skill development;

� he rapid and continuous changes in technology, workplace

organization and practices and skill requirements, resulting in a

demand for life-long and continuing training and a need to reform the

system of initial training.

� the inability of public TVE systems to respond quickly to new labour

market requirements

The level of development and the size and strength of the private sector

determine the respective role of the government and non-government sectors in

technology education and to what extent a demand-driven approach can be

introduced. In low-income countries with a weak private sector, for example,

the government needs to play a strong role in financing and delivering training,

until such time as the private sector is in a position to absorb a larger share of

the task. In middle-income countries with a large industrial sector and

widespread basic education, private sector can assume a more active role. In

rapidly growing economies with a strong private sector, the tendency is to leave

the delivery of TVE largely to the private sector so that business and industry

are able to assume and discharge most of the training functions. Ultimately, it is

the overall policy environment that will determine the investment decisions of

enterprises as well as of individuals to acquire skills and hence the incentive for

private training providers to offer their services.

Private stakeholders can make an important contribution to the design and

development of national TVE policies and systems, such as:


� providing relevant and up-to-date information on labour market

requirements and occupational information and guidance;

� reflecting private sector concerns in the government’s policy and

implementation strategies and in the relevant laws and regulations;

� participating in the institutional framework for policy design and

training delivery;

� determining the modes of training delivery;

� establishing standards for certifying the quality of the training

institutions, managers and teaching staff, and the level of competency

imparted;

� co-financing TVE;

� designing the content of TVE so as to reflect labour market

requirements;

� evaluating and providing feedback on the overall performance of the

system.

� donating training equipment to institutions.

The Government of Malawi through TEVETA has a number of links with the

private sector. And through these links industries have donated training

equipment such as motor vehicles and car engines to various training

institutions and also colleges have found placement places in industries for

their students.

7.3 Improving skills of technical instructors

A number of activities have been carried out in order to improve teaching

skills of our technical instructors. In 2006, technical instructors attended a two

week ICT training course that was facilitated by the Republic of Taiwan.

Stansfield Limited (a motor company) is offering Mechatronics course to some

instructors. In addition to in-service courses related to technology education,

college instructors have also undergone trainings in different fields such as

financial management, Leadership skills and conflict management. The

Ministry realizes that technology is changing therefore instructors need to

update their knowledge and skills.


1. The challenges facing the learner of the twenty-first century demand

innovative approaches in TVE. Therefore instructors need up-dated

curriculum to take account of new subjects and issues of importance.

2. The new information technology has opened up new potential in

technology-based learning. Instructors, therefore, should be able to apply

simple as well as modern technology and the new information and

communication technologies in the TVE teaching and learning

processes.

3. Given the essential need for innovation in TVE, the role of the teacher

remains paramount. New methods must be found for the initial training

of teachers accompanied by the continuous upgrading of their

competences and professional development. Instructors must be assisted

to develop new and appropriate instruments of assessment, accreditation,

articulation and certification standards.

Most TVE instructors do not have working experience in the private sector.

This makes it difficult for them to be sensitive to new teaching methodologies,

technology innovation and changes in private sector training needs. Yet it is

difficult to recruit competent instructors from the private sector as instructor

salaries are relatively low.

7.4 Providing modern equipment.

One of the mandates of the Ministry is to ensure that public training

institutions have enough and modern equipment. A number of the training

institutions have received these equipment in the recent past. In addition to

Government support, development partners and private sector have donated

various equipment. For instance, Toyota Malawi donated car engine to one

training institution.

The Government provides funding to institutions for purchasing simple

training materials, however heavy machines are purchased by the Government.

8. Recommendations

It is undisputable that technology education is key to economic growth of the

world. It is therefore, imperative that developing countries like Malawi should

adopt good policies from developed countries on technology education.


i. Developing countries need to invest in their human resources.

Technology education should be introduced in all levels of the

education system.

ii. Industries from developed countries should establish their companies

in developing countries. This will promote transfer of technologies to

the local citizens.

iii. Developed countries should open up by offering scholarships.

Technology education emphasizes on practical skills yet many

developing countries are not advanced in modern technologies.

iv. In many developing countries there is a mismatch between skills

taught in training institutions and those used in industries. This is so

because industries are well advanced in technology as compared to

institutions. This mismatch can be minimized if inventions done in

industries are passed on to training institutions.

v. Countries need to change their education policies if they want to

improve their technology education. Countries need to come up with

policies that address access and quality of technological skills imparted

in the country.

9. Conclusion

The need for skilled manpower for development cannot be overemphasized.

The evidence from around the world is clear beyond dispute that the difference

between the countries which have made it in social and economic development

and those countries which have not made it, can largely be explained by the

respective education; policies, especially those policies in science and

technology education. And looking down the vista of history in the next

generation, the difference will become even more pronounced, because science

and technology will become more dominant as the driver of economic growth

and sustainable development.

Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is part of technology education

and broadly encompasses the education of artisans, craftsmen, technicians and

technologists. The definition of TVE however varies from one country to


another depending on each country’s needs and circumstances. For practical

purposes TVE is “education given in institutions providing both scientific

knowledge and practical skills required for specific jobs (employment)”

References

1) Mr. Earle Fernando (January 2006). “Report on Present Status and Future

Directions of Technical and Vocational Education” UNESCO pp 5-12.

2) TEVETA. 2007 Entrance Examinations Results, National Pre-apprenticeship

Selection list. pp 1-35.

3) Second international Congress on technical and vocational education,

Seoul, Republic of Korea, 26-30 April, 1999.

4) Dr. K. Nsaih-gyabaah, Welcome Address, Conference of Polytechnic

Principals (COPP) ,Erata Hotel, Accra, Ghana, 22-27 August 2005.

5) Eng. Olawumi Anthony Gasper, “The Role of Technical and Vocational

Education in Africa’s Economic Development: Are Polytechnics still

relevant?” Presentation at Conference of Polytechnic Principals (COPP),

Erata Hotel, Accra, Ghana, 22-27 August 2005.

6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_education.

7) http;//www.hudtech.net/importance -of-Technology-in-education.html.


The Technological Education in Mexico 191

1. Introduction

The present project or work has the objective of show how has been the

development of the technical and technological education in Mexico and how my

Country faces the requirements of qualification and technological training of people

to cope with the challenges of the time and also with the productive sector, preparing

them with the proficiency that the contemporary society requires.

The education, in the broadest sense of the word, from the approaches of the

Science, Technology and Society, has the objective of the scientific and

technological knowledge and the alphabetization of the citizens.

A society transformed by science and technology permits the citizens respond to

the needs of the society like we mentioned before, so we can have democratic and

profitable professionals and can increase the professional and competition skills

levels even more for investigators. We recognize all knowledge to be fruitful; for

example, from the alphabetization wet can instruct to the citizens to work and

participate in different models or in every aspect like transportation, energy, health,

etc. The alphabetization is able to help us with the needs of the operative kind items

giving us the knowledge, in short, for organized learning. Finally, it also can be a

playful subject, inasmuch as a more ample understanding of science can help us to

live more comfortable in the middle of a world with numerous questions.

Other references to the scientific and technological alphabetization more exactly

define it as a process in which each citizen can participate in the democratic subjects

to make decisions to solve problems related to the scientific development of the

contemporary societies (Waks, 1990). Approaches in Science, Technology and

Society aspire the alphabetization contributes to the education and training of the

students on the search of excellent information and on sciences and technologies of

M. Rocio Serrano BarriosVocational Training Centers

MEXICO

The Technological Education in Mexico

the modern life, in a way they can analyze, evaluate and reflect this information to

define the values to make decisions.

The fields of studies in education under the approach of the Science, Technology

and Society, have been incorporated from the pre-Hispanic time to the present time,

through the different levels from alphabetization to the university formation.

2. Historical Backgrounds

2.1 Pre-Hispanic Time

In 1521 were the development of the crafts in domestics, ceremony, funeral

pottery and construction, weaving, basketwork, plumario art, crafts in musical

instruments, lapidary , painting work in statues, paper and metalwork.

2.2 Colonial Time 1521-1810

At Texcoco, Mexico, zone near the center of the country, it was learned:

carpentry, tailoring, painting, shoemaking, sculpture, also existed the manual school

of first letters and workings, also the art of weave and make multicolor textiles.

Also it’s important to mention that beginning in 1555 the main school in Mexico,

taught besides other subjects, medicine, and nowadays we know it like UNAM. So

that means that we still prepare the society to the needs that we have to face.

2.3 Post-Independence Time 1821-1876

During these years, in the Academy of San Carlos they taught agriculture,

painting, sculpture, engraving, illustration of books, also existed the School of

Commerce and Administration and for the first time, existed the Law of Public

Instruction and they increased the number of schools of arts or crafts and offices, by

1870 existed for the first time the National Crafts School.

2.4 Porefiriato`s Time 1876-1910

In the Education had an important place the graphical arts and had several

photographic courses that were in the practical school of engine drivers. And there

were also schools for make clothes, and activities for the home.

2.5 Revolution`s Time 1910-1926

During these years, there was a significant change since the School of Arts and

Offices for men, changes in Practical School of Mechanical engineers and

Electricians, providing the working young people with practical knowledge and


handcraft activities.

The education and formation of worker’s course lasted three years in turnery and

carpentry and the qualification for mechanical workers or electricians lasted 4 years.

In the year 1916 the Secretary of Public Education was created, and in 1921 the

Technological school of Construction Teachers was built, as in 1923 the Technical

Industry Institute.

During that period the schools for young ladies grew as well as the Nocturnal

Industrial Center for Workers.

2.6 Excellent Facts 1931-1937

The Federal Law of the Work allows the workers the education in arts and crafts.

The Polytechnic school reorganizes the Technical education in two cycles:

Preparatory (4 years after the primary one) and Technical studies (3 years). In 1937

the National Polytechnic Institute is founded and the rural schools and schools for

workers and women are created with the main objective of qualification and training.

2.7 Contemporary Time

In 1953 the Centers of Social Action of the Secretary of Public Education, began

the school-community and its factories so they could impart the qualification in

binding, basket-work, tapestry and industrial weave.

At the end of this period of time the paradigm of the traditional education was

over, so the schools or Institutes provided new and better tools for workers to apply

in their life and reflect them in the community.

In the 60’s a type of specific qualification is created and the learning in different

areas is promoted between the young people and complementary preparation is

offered to workers in the Centers of Qualification, with the National Program of

Qualification for the Work.

In 1963 the first 10 Centers of Qualification For the work were created

(CECATI) with the support of working organizations and the federal

government.

In 1965 the Secondary Education began technical activities, looking for overcome

the different culture levels and to develop the work force by means of the training

and the qualification.


3. Present Time Secretariat of Public Education Mexico Flowchart

4. Vocational Training Centers (General Direction of Work Centres)

The main Centers of Work Training offers, in national level, the services of

qualification in the work in a practical short time training , and getting the

development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that respond to the needs of the

social market,

� It certificates the acquired competitions in self-learning for actually labor or

work level

� It grants to students the official recognition of their studies


� It contributes to the promotion of the quality and productivity of the

companies.

It contributes to the incorporation to the work and the enterprise calling

The qualification prepare them for the social useful work and has the high-priority

purpose to promote the harmonic development of the students, so they can have all

the skills.

People since 15 years old can enter and the main requirement is that they can read

and write.

The teachers from CECATI have superior backgrounds and also have the training

and formation to teach, help and also take care of the students, and at all times are

training in several courses just to have the best results reflected in the futures jobs

their students get.

The qualification for the work is offered through the teaching of technical-

specialized. In these learning and the specialized training, a practical and fast

performance is accentuated and increased, distributing knowledge and skills,

promoting the qualification in complementary trades and crafts.

The structure of the courses does not demand academic records in its great

majority and they either do not constitute precedents for the continuation of studies

in other educative levels or for the obtaining of academic degrees. The courses that

are offered are directed, in general, to any person who knows to read and to write

and with basic knowledge of Arithmetic and geometry, but there are some courses

that, by his own characteristics or needs of the labor market, require of knowledge

corresponding to the educative level of elementary or secondary school.

A specialty is constructed from the structuring of compatible courses to a certain

branch of the productive sector of goods and services. It exists in addition

connections between the courses of a specialty with the courses of another different

one, which makes possible a greater option of qualification and later use, enabling

independently take a course from another one, without complementing a specialty or

combining but one of them. The specialties are integrated generally of 3 to 5

courses, with a duration of 120 to 600 hours on an educative watch basis, with

periods that go from 3 to 5 months. Courses are developed on the basis of


competition, which assure with a permanent entailment with the productive sector of

goods and services. Its general content considers aspects on handling of materials

and equipment; tools and accessories, use of facilities, handling of techniques and

procedures, norms, units and specifications, specific technical aspects of the

specialty, hygiene, security and conservation and the costs of the education. The

learning process is made with a 80% of practice and 20% of theory, so our students

can approach to the real needs of the contemporary society

The Main Centers of Formation for the Work offers 221 advanced training

courses, grouped in 52 specialties, according to the productive areas of the country.

5. Different Kind of Training

We offer an ample range of options for the qualification, according to the needs of

those who want the formal qualification, like the industrial sector and services and its

regional needs , in the following disciplines

A. - Courses of events

B. - Courses of extension


C. - Accelerated advanced training courses

D. - Services of the official recognition of occupational competition (ROCO)

E. - Courses with base to practical standard of work competition (NTCL)

5.1 Courses of Events

Formal Qualification, through live courses that regularly are offered in the

CECATI, whose instruction is to provide the knowledge, skills and attitudes for the

adapted performance of positions of the labor structure of the productive services

sector.

These courses are distributed in facilities of the CECATI or through Movable

Actions of Qualification. The training students that conclude studies obtain a

diploma.

5.2 Extension Courses

Like a permanent program of updating and fortification, are the disciplines of

Extension Courses (EC) to satisfy, in the society organized of some community,

their demands of qualification, updating or specialization relative to activities of a

certain locality or region. The certification of these studies takes place by means of a

certainty.

We offer an ample range of options for the qualification, according to the needs of

those who want the formal qualification, like the industrial sector and services and its

regional needs , in the following disciplines:

5.3 Accelerated Training Advanced Courses

Like a service of support to the qualification in the work, accounts the discipline of

accelerated training advanced courses specific, which are structured custom-made

for the needs of the companies, institutions, associations or organisms, directed to

their workers, in order who acquire or update their knowledge, abilities or skills in an

activity specifically related to a certain labor area, in the smaller possible time, that

helps to elevate the productivity.

This service renders by means of establishment of agreement or contract which

the CECATI subscribes with the interested part, above the contents of the course and

the conditions for their teaching program which can be made in facilities of the

contracting

part or the establishment. The certification is recognized by The Federal Law of

the Work, with respect to the qualification of the workers.


5.4 Service of the Official Recognition of the Occupational Competition

(ROCO)

When society already has the knowledge or skills, so that they are ready juts to

work, in those cases they do the Official Recognition of Occupational Competence

Exam.

The evaluation is made by means of a theoretical-practical examination that it

considers the contents of a certain program training of a course or a specialty that

corresponds to an occupation within the labor field.

The certification takes place by means of a diploma. The CECATI provide this

service in courses or specialties that they have authorized by the DGCFT.

6. Movable Action an Alternative

They were created in 1981, with the purpose of extending the cover of the services

that offer the 198 Centers of Qualification for the Industrial Work.

The basic characteristics of these actions is the one fundamentally to take the

qualification to those places that therefore require it, in the devoid regions difficult

and of institutions that provide qualification to them for the work. In order to ask for

the qualification through Movable Actions, it is required that the representative of

the public or social sector, which wants the service, goes to the Coordination State

and formulates his request in writing, coming itself to elaborate and do an agreement

of collaboration between the State Coordinator and the applicant:

� To provide during the necessary period of the courses, facilities and services

for the benefit of the service of formation for the work.

� To cover the cost with passages and foods for the instructor and the transfer of

the equipment or the Mobil Unit.

� To contract to service of monitoring and security for the equipment or of the

Mobil Unit. In order to provide these services through the two last options, it is

counted on a park in of 51 units (Movable Units), of which 14 are towed that

they requires

In the Movable Actions registered Courses of events in the effective Catalogue of

Specialties are distributed and other services, Qualification basically Accelerated

Specific by means of which are developed the knowledge, skills and attitudes of an

activity makes specific related to a certain labor or work area, and the service of


Official Recognition of Occupational Competence (ROCO), which it is evaluated to

the people interested in getting the certification of their own knowledge, skills, of the

form independently in which they were acquired, applying to get a practical and

theoretical examination that it contemplates in his totality the sub-objectives of the

training programs.

The Main Principal of Centers of Formation for the Work, has civil employees of

support inside the Mexican Republic, under the heading of Subdivisions of

Operative Connection of the DGCFT, according to the graph

The Federal District is the most extensive representation in the number of

establishments, being the unit of connection between the establishments official and

incorporated meaning of the management, consultant’s office, continuous planning,

contributes to the improvement of the services of formation for the work of the

federal district, in benefit of the community and all the society.

7. Main Actions

・Educational update

・Magisterial Carrer

・Accreditation and egression local


・Advanced Training Courses

・Teaching Archetype Contest

・Develop the Skill

We counted on 36 academies by specialty


The number of training students by years. In the training centers of Mexico City,

with total of almost 75,000 students in the last year.

With the main objective to prepare the society to the future, our training programs

of work for cycle 2007-2008 goes in different areas: The coordination project wotk

of operative connection and cecati of D F training students by training programs

cycle 2007-2008

8. Special and High -Priority Programs

Qualification or Grades in Alternation

With this program, we can promote or increase the knowledge and the

development of skills through the theoretical knowledge practical experience. We

prepare our training students with the knowledge that require a professional sills, so

that they have not only the theory but the practice they need just to be in the

factories, enterprises, that demands the labor situation or the situation of daily life,

interchanging experiences for the construction of the knowledge in “doing”, tying

daily situations with the new learning through different strategies, instruments and

techniques. Our objective, is to manage to implant the model and also the discipline

in all the establishments

8.1 Attention to Adult Groups

�Attention to everybody with out discrimination

�Women Support


WORK COMUNICATION

- EXPO-TRAINING

- WEEK INNOVATION, QUALITY AND

CULTURE

- HUMAN PROJECT

DEVELOPMENT

- SUPPORTING PROGRAMS

- INCUBATORS BUSINESSES PROGRAM

QUALITY

- PURSUIT OF THE IMPLANTATION OF SGC

- MODEL FAIRNESS AND I GENERATE MEG

- SECURITY AND HEALTH

- SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE INSTITUTION

- QUALIFICATION

DIAGNOSIS

- DIAGNOSIS BY ESTABLISHMENT

- EVALUATION AND PURSUIT OF PROJECTS AND

PROGRAMS

- STRATEGIC PROJECT BY ESTABLISHMENT

- EXERCISE OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ACADEMY

- PROGRAM OF WORK OF ACADEMIES

- EDUCATIONAL CERTIFICATION

- UPDATING PROGRAM ATTENDANCE

AND SUPPORTING PERSONNEL

� School for Parents

Our objective is to contribute with the joining of the groups in disadvantage

situation, to the productive life of the country by means of the qualification from an

integral scheme that involves the formation and education and the developed in all

the establishments.

8.2 Be Always the Best

� Incubators for Companies

� Training of Microenterprises

Our objective is to offer to qualification and advising for the creation, operation

and organization of incubators and micro enterprises and supporting training

students and of the establishments.

We have to say that we have agreements with several Enterprises and also we’ve

improved in the tailoring, and dressmaking area, just to put or connect our training

students in the competitive society, so that’s why we do care about the final results,

because we know the several areas that day by day we have to be ready and work for

Mexico.

Now we are in a society that not only has several skills but academic work, and

besides that we also are in a period of time that the scientists call “multiple

intelligences” or we know that we are in a “critical teaching” like the professional

teachers call So we must be ready to receive the marketing demanding in this

cultural society, with out discrimination

So we must be ready to receive the marketing demanding in this cultural society,

with out discrimination.


The Technology Education Program in Paraguay: Issues and Possibilities 203

1. Introduction

The development of technological competencies from early stages of formal

education has been recognized as a strategic long-term measure to promote

economic growth and improve quality life in developing countries. These

competencies include not only proficiency in particular fields of knowledge but

also wider aspects embedded in the notion of what is today defined as

“technological literacy” and are regarded as essential to become a productive

and responsible member of a technological society.

Formal spaces to work on practical skills for everyday life at school have a

relatively long history in Paraguay. In fact, early attempts to introduce manual

or industrial arts in public schools reach as far back as the 1920’s; when a

movement christened “The Active School” gained ground in the country to

thwart the effects of the prevailing bookish and passive style of education. A

number of transitions and paradigm shifts can nevertheless be identified along a

time line that has shaped the particular nature of the current model, rendering

distinctive historical patterns of artistic, technical or pragmatic elements

according to conditions of the context.

The most recent landmark signalizing a momentous change in the

evolutionary path of Technology Education in Paraguay can be recognized in

1994, when a comprehensive educational reform was initiated providing new

directions for the field of Industrial Arts and its school workshops, as they had

been established in the previous educational innovations of 1972. Although

major conceptual transformations are evident in the new curricular guidelines; a

certain degree of skepticism still prevails concerning the extent to which these

Ramon Anibal Iriarte CascoKagoshima University

PARAGUAY

The Technology Education Program in Paraguay: Issues and Possibilities

ideas have been embraced by teachers and educational authorities in actual

school praxis.

This document provides a concise excursion into rationales underpinning

current developments in the field of Technology Education in Paraguay,

pointing out major challenges currently facing teachers and educational

authorities working on the development of this field and suggesting some

peremptory lines of action to address problems that may pose serious threats for

its future consolidation as school discipline.

2. The Present Curricular Model

Figure 1 Technology Education in Paraguay

Technological contents and processes are formally covered since the last

educational reform in Paraguay, within the context of a curricular subject called

“Work and Technology”. The subject is introduced over a 6 year period

covering the second and third stages of the 9-year Elementary School system


from grades 4 through 9, as shown in Fig. 1. Educational targets are

differentiated along these stages; while the first years are devoted to introduce

general concepts and particular technological contents, the last years intend to

provide a more vocational direction; encouraging opportunities to get a first

insight into the world of work. As the denomination suggests, two major

aspects of the study of Technology can be perceived: on one side, the

conceptual background required to stimulate appropriate discourse on

technological issues and on the other the technological processes and

operations surrounding that particular kind of human activity known as “work”.

A particular feature of contemporary paraguayan model is that contents

formerly set apart such as Home Economics, Industrial Arts, Manual Arts,

Technical Drawing, etc. are brought together under a unifying notion of

“technological competency”. According to this position, a house, an industrial

setting or a crop field would be mere spaces where humans can employ

different kinds of technological strategies to solve particular problems or

improve their living conditions.

Therefore, a reasonable approach to address the complexity of the

technological world would involve a single theoretical framework within which

knowledge, skills and attitudes can be formally developed.

Contents established in curricular guidelines for technology classes reflect

the comprehensive nature of advanced rationales, extending over a wide range

of concerns to include household activities, industrial processes, agricultural

production and commercial transactions. The instrumental nature of

Technology advocated by curricular definitions is evident in this diversity and

highlights the role assigned to this sort of knowledge for different contexts of

everyday life (family, community, country).

Projects at different levels (class, school, community, regional, national and

international) are strongly recommended in curricular guidelines as appropriate

methodological approach to reach established educational goals, along with

similar strategies that stimulate cooperative teamwork, social responsibility and


integration with family and community life. Evaluation guidelines emphasize

the importance of the teaching and learning process, focusing on historical

achievements of students rather than on the quality of final products.

3. Current Implementation Issues

Enforcing a curricular design with the complexity and scope described in the

new paraguayan guidelines can become an overwhelming task for educational

authorities. A survey carried out in 2006 and extended in 2007 to explore

current implementation of Technology Education in the country revealed that

there is still much work to do on several fronts to take the study of Technology

to the level of theoretical analysis and practical work that documents suggest.

One of the most difficult obstacles to overcome seems to be the confusions

surrounding rationales proposed for the new field of “Work and Technology”

with the educational reform. Since it resulted from the merger of several

disciplines (i.e. Home Education, Technical Drawing, Workshops, Plastic Arts,

etc.) teachers from very diverse backgrounds have been reassigned duties as

technology teachers, the majority of them still have a hard time digesting the

more complex nature of guidelines and finding proper ways to relate their

former skills to the new scheme.

At the same time, the variety of contents prescribed for “Work and

Technology” implies acquaintance with knowledge and skills teachers are for

the most part unfamiliar with. The need for consistent teacher preparation

programs is thus evident, and appropriate funding strategies need to be found to

improve currently adopted mechanisms and the quality of skills formation and

update programs. On this regard, the role of the Ministry of Education has been

questioned, as there is a generalized position that the system was installed

without having taken necessary provisions to ensure successful outcomes. As a

result, teachers seem to emphasize competencies they are familiar with to the

detriment of others that might result equally relevant for students.

In general, most teachers seem to prefer topics related to household activities,

as teaching materials to work on these topics are more accessible for students,

the kind of processes involved are more familiar and they can be experienced in


everyday life. On the other hand, contents related to industrial production or

agricultural processes are usually less attractive as they involve more complex

operations and require the use of expensive infrastructure that very few schools

can afford.

Another source of distress among technology teachers has been reported

recently concerning integration of Information Technology into the wider

rationale defined for Technology Education, as these have gradually grown

apart and computer-related topics are currently claiming their own curricular

space with the argument that they have constituted a body of knowledge to a

level of complexity that deserves independent treatment. As a result, several

schools struggling with budget pressures and social demands have gradually

taken down the old workshops, turning them into “more profitable” computer

laboratories where investments made to purchase technological equipment can

have an immediate and tangible return in the short term.

Despite these negative factors, some aspects are still encouraging for

sustained work in the development of Technology Education in Paraguay. One

of them is the amount of curricular hours allocated for technology classes,

especially during the last years of elementary education. The development of

technological competency requires a careful articulation of learning activities in

a process that usually calls for considerable school time, and the allocation of

sufficient class time to properly organize this process can be a relevant factor to

reach educational goals with higher levels of success.

Technology teachers seem also very enthusiastic and willing to collaborate

with educational authorities in the promotion of Technology Education. In fact,

there is a manifested desire for more participation in curricular decisions

through open debates, workshops, seminars, conferences, etc. as most teachers

are convinced that unilateral decisions downplaying experiences from real

school life will eventually turn out to be unrealistic or little practical.


4. Actions and Priorities

Given the current scenario of Technology Education in Paraguay, several

lines of actions can be envisioned to produce adequate solutions in the short-,

middle-, and long-term; as shown in Figure 2. An immediate concern is

undoubtedly the training of teachers, both at the pre-service and in-service

levels. The relevance of this aspect is evident; as properly qualified teachers

will be better prepared to improve implementation and identify what sort of

measures need to be taken in order to collaboratively generate a curricular

design that is more appropriate for the particular conditions of the country.

There is a compelling work to be done among technology teachers to reach a

more comprehensive understanding of contemporary concepts concerning their

field.

Figure 2 Focus of Priority to Enhance Technology Education in Paraguay

Pre-service training is still carried out in a limited number of teacher training

institutions in Paraguay, because of the particular demands on infrastructure

and qualified personnel associated with the field of Technology Education.

This has a particular effect on rural areas, where the supply of technology

teachers is at times non-existent and staff with alternative backgrounds must be

hired in order to provide technology classes. Measures need to be taken in order

to ensure that the supply of pre-service technology teacher training properly

correlates with local demands. In-service training opportunities are mostly

provided by the Ministry of Education; however the cascade strategy that is

regularly employed for these sorts of events, in which a selected number of

“good” technology teachers are trained and later requested to replicate the


experience with their colleagues, has proven ineffective to reach a majority of

technology teachers with comparable levels of quality. At the same time, large-

group training measures in which all technology teachers gather for 2 or 3 days

of lectures provides little opportunity for participation or insightful reflection.

Alternative methods needs to be found, perhaps taking advantage of facilities

provided by computer technologies to provide personalized assistance to

practicing teachers, while reaching at the same time everyone in need of

support anytime anywhere.

Experience has shown that in most countries where Technology Education

has reached important levels of development, teachers, researchers and

educational authorities are working in collaboration through organizations

formally constituted. On this regard, the establishment of an Association of

Technology Teachers in Paraguay is seen as a propitious opportunity to

promote a stronger foundation for the consolidation of the field through

relevant research works and the promotion of a variety of events concerning

Technology Education. Given its more frequent contact with teachers on

training events, the Ministry of Education can act as facilitator to initiate this

kind of professional collectivities.

Thematic diversity currently observed in the course of study needs to be

seriously examined in order to optimize the use of class-time available to

address different kinds of technological contents, processes and products.

Contents should be selected based on their relevance concerning global

technological competencies and contextual features.

Standardization of technological contents should be avoided, as these become

rapidly obsolete and their significance may vary with the context. It might be

interesting, for example, to know that humans in other parts of the world

developed technologies to produce electricity using tidal power, however;

being Paraguay a landlocked country this should never overshadow the study of

technologies that are locally used to meet the same needs.

Partnerships with public, private and non-governmental organizations can be


an important asset to address a number of issues arising in the implementation

of Technology Education programs, especially concerning financial assistance

to provide, upgrade or maintain infrastructure and keep curricular designs

updated. Strategic alliances with technological universities and/or institutes can

become suitable facilitators to promote enhanced professional performance on

technology teachers.

Finally, Technology Education has often been regarded by the layman as an

arcane field of questionable cost-benefit correlation, as its study object is at

least misunderstood (recently associated with the development of computing

skills), considerable amount of resources needs to be invested to provide

adequate implementation of curricular guidelines and the claims on its

contribution to general education is still scarcely documented. Teachers,

researchers and educational authorities involved in the promotion of this field

need to intensify their efforts to present precise and clear information that better

justifies the need for technological competence beyond the hype of computer

literacy and the significant efforts required to produce functional citizens for a

technological society.

5. Conclusions

The historical development of Technology Education in Paraguay has

imprinted particular features evident in the present scheme to deal with

technological contents at school. Prescriptions in curricular guidelines seem to

mostly correspond with contemporary notions of technological literacy and

competence adopted in most countries around the world. However, there is still

an important gap to be closed between formal definitions and the reality

experienced in schools across the country.

Major issues to be addressed for further development of the field include

challenging aspects such as the provision of quality pre-service and in-service

training for technology teachers, an important amount and diversity of

technological contents that need to be dealt with in a limited amount of school-

time, the allocation of a substantial part of school budgets to cover the high


costs usually associated with setting up, maintaining and updating facilities for

technology classes and the production of more scientific evidence through

research work concerning the benefits of technological literacy for human

development. Strategic alliances between educational authorities, technology-

teacher organizations, private companies and international organizations may

provide the appropriate context in which the consolidation of Technology

Education as school subject may in the short future be realized.


Technical and Technology Education in Pakistan 213

1. Introduction

New creation and innovation in technical fields is a sign of development in

modern world. Engineers, Scientist and well skilled work force are the assets of

the nation, they can convert the soil in to the gold by utilizing their expertise.

Many countries got benefits and improve economic by boosting skill expertise,

provided incentives and encouraging their creations and innovations. In our

country there is not an impressive improvement in technical fields, we have to

review the reasons, facts and grounds for development of technical and

technology education, status and wages of technical persons in the country.

2. Technical and Technology Education

Poly technics started in sixth decade of 19th, centaury and numbers of

institutions has increased gradually, another stream vocational training

institutions offers lower level education and training for the preparation of

semi-skilled & skilled work force in various trades.

Technical education at poly/mono technic institutes in Pakistan is started

after secondary education, specialized in techniques and produce middle level

of supervisory staff.

Globally technology is changing very fast, and keep pace with those changes

well skilled work force will fulfill and meet the requirements of productions

and targets In technical fields. Effective working knowledge and use of

advance technology in the production system of various products will support

the growth of economic of Country.

Ghulam Abass ChannaGovernment Poly Technic Institute, THATTA

PAKISTAN

Technical and Technology Education in Pakistan

2.1 Developing Period of Education

Pakistan is one of the few developing countries that has countable progress at

very fast rate since its beginning and general perception is also same in

common Peoples but still more have to do in this field, by boosting the

technical and technology education to produce skilled wok force and

supervisory staff on large scale to face the Challenges of future and will have

sufficient techniques and knowledge for technical work. In this connection

several initiatives have been taken in the past, however they have not been fully

implemented as planned.

3. Formation of Policy Stages (Table-1)

3.1 Plan A Policy Formation Stage

After independence in 1947, the education system in the country based to

serve/protect the objectives of British colonial rule. At that time very limited

numbers of peoples were available to maintain the essential services in social

services departments. Only two Engineering colleges were the main sources of

Engineers and technicians, there was need to save the system from collapse so

the first education conference was held in 1947.A six years Education

development plan was prepared but not fully functioned.

3.2 Plan B Development Stage

This period started in 1959. On this stage major reforms of education were

taken based on recommendation of National Education Commission, the frame


work for the development of administration of technical education was

prepared during this stage and is functioning continue as a model.

3.3 Plan C Experimental Stage

The Government managed to formulate an education policy for 1972-79,

with many fostering approaches at different levels of education; new fields

were introduced such as B-Tech. and Agro-Tech. programmes which are

awarding on University levels.

3.4 Plan D Expansion Stage

A frame work prepared for an education policy in National Education

Conference held in 1977, this was the continuity of educational development

plan were framed during education policy 1972-79. The main features of policy

was the emphases on Islamization through curriculum revision on large scale in

the system, during this stage Asian development bank assisted projects for

improvement of technical education many Poly technic Institutes were up

graded, Poly Technic Institute for women and first technical teachers training

college was established in Islamabad.

3.5 Plan E Quality Improvement Stage

A National Education Conference was held in 1989. The focus was towards

decentralization of primary education expansion of Technical education at

grass root level and improving quality by providing necessary requirements and

enhances the capability of skills. Development of Technical education started

with technical education project in 1996. Assisted by Asian development bank

(ADB) necessary requirement were provided to Poly Technic and new

technologies were introduced and many institutes were developed.

3.6 Plan F Quality Improvement and Future Vision -2010

Continuity of policy 1979 and 1992, first priority to Islamization with science

and technology education, concentrate on teachers training programmes and

start work for improvement /development of curriculum to coverage private

sector for enhance literacy rate.


4. Education System in Pakistan

4.1 Existing Technical and Vocational Training System

At present Technical education and vocational training programmes are

administered by a number of federal, provincial and private agencies. Thus the

colleges of Technology Poly technic, Mono Technic, Vocational and

commercial training programmes are running under the administration of

provincial and district Government.

To reduce poverty, unemployment and make the youth useful for the world

of killed work through its programmes offered in Poly technic, Mono technic

Institutes, commercial and vocational centers by production skilled, semi-

skilled and supervisory level of work force.

The ministry of labor, Man power and overseas Pakistanis has established the

Skill Development Council (SDC) in big cities. The SDC asses the training

needs according area priorities, demand of markets and provide facilities of

training of workers through training provision in public-private sectors.


Machines in Workshop at Polytechnic Institutes

Students during workshop practice

4.2 Institutes of Technical Education

Presently following types of institutions are functioning in the country and all

are Running under Government management.

➢ Govt. Colleges of Technologies.

➢ Colleges of Education & Commercial Practice.

➢ Govt. Poly Technic Institutes (Male & Female).

➢ Govt. Mono Technic Institutes (Male & Female).

➢ Vocational Institutes/Schools (Boys & Girls).

➢ Govt. Commercial Training Institutes.

➢ Poly Trade Vocational Institutes.

➢ Technical Teachers Training Institutes/Wings.

4.3 Course offered by Technical Education

Technical education in Pakistan offered different courses in various

discipline with Collaboration of district Government.


5. Linkage between Industries & Institutions

Weak linkage between Industry and Institution has been identified as one of

the cause of poor out puts and results. Linkages with Industries is more essential

to identifying the problems of labor, planning, demand of market, improvement

of curriculum and opportunities of training of students and teachers.

Training/skill gap in demand and supply has remained a big issue and not fulfill

the real demands and perception of training requirements in industries.

The federation and industrial sector feel and realize to establish the strong

linkages between industry and institution, the existing system of students and

teachers should improve as practical training and periodical informational

tours/visits should be arranged for strengthening the links and exchange the

ideas of experts from industries and institutions.

5.1 Formation of TEVTA And NAVTEC

Keeping in view the facts, several steps have been taken by the Government and

Industrialist to minimize the gap in this field. Formation of Technical and

Vocational Training Authority TEVTA and National Vocational and Technical

Education Commission NAVTEC are the examples by giving attractive incentives

to beneficiaries for development of technical and technology education.


5.2 Function Of (TEVTA) Authority

The functions of the authority is to formulate technical education and vocational

training policy and plans in collaboration with the commission NAVTEC to wards

the objectives of strengthening and bringing these programs in consonance with

current industry requirements. To facilitate establishment of institutional linkage

with the industry to ensure that the multiple technical education and skill

development are aligned to current industry requirements both nationally and

internationally, to evolve and implement technical and vocational training

programs including their curriculum, standards and testing criteria. To provide

policy direction and facilitate resources including financial, manpower resources

for the technical education and vocational training programs, to undertake

restructuring of the technical education and vocational training institutions ,to

monitor and evaluate technical education And vocational training programs in

terms of their effectiveness and ability to cater to market need and facilitation of

skilled man power in the country , to facilitate public private collaboration for

furtherance of technical education and vocational training to make provision for

mandatory practical training for the students of poly technic, mono technic,

trainees of vocational training centers and colleges of technologies.

All matters of policy and administrations of authority will be administered by

the board, comprised chairman, vice chairman, while secretaries for education

and literacy, labor, finance, industry and four representatives from industries

one from NED university of engineering and technology and a professional will

act as M.D and secretary of the board.

6. Technical and Vocational Trainings and Development of Curriculum

National training board is working on federal level under the Ministry of

labor, man power and overseas Pakistanis. It coordinates the working of the

provincial boards, asses existing and future training needs and develop the

training syllabus, standards of national training and trade tests. The ministry of

science and technology through national institute of science and technical

education (NISTE) also impart science and technical education including

technical teacher training, development of curriculum, research and


development and cooperation of science and technical education activities at

national and international level.

6.1 Development & Research of Technology Education

The challenges in this field is to develop the curriculum and research work,

required much funds but mostly developing countries very low percent of their

GDP for research and development. Pakistan is focusing the target in technical

and technology education since last decade. Short courses of 3-6 months

duration in different trades / fields of technology have been started in whole

country by giving the attraction and facilities to the trainee near their home

places, but still much and more are to do in future.

6.2 Technology Education in Developing Countries

Due to lack of career guidance, the interest of students towards technology or

technical education are nominal at the primary school level there are not any

facilities for technology education then 20 / 30% limited schools at primary

level providing technology related facilities and subjects, but the relevant

teachers are not well trained or highly qualified. Same situation are in

secondary schools, teachers not trained in proper fields and main problem is

low remunerations or wages to the teachers at high level or technical (16 or 18

years of education). People concerns with technological institutes are not

awarded with handsome salaries instead of wages of employees in

management’s side and general administration; even they are only simple 14

years graduate and qualified in competitive examination.

We have to boost up technical and technology education must increase the

salary of technical teachers and create attraction for technically qualified person

by providing technical allowances and other incentives.

Otherwise obviously technology education will suffer in present

environment.

6.3 Future of Technology Education

Technology education in Pakistan is at growing stage, the change in choice of


technology is not surprising but increasing day by day. Government of Pakistan

also giving the priority by providing attractive opportunities to promote the

technology education and incentives to beneficiaries.

6.4 Problems In Terms Of Industrial Technology Education

6.4.1 Proper training and duration of training identified and must be

implemented to achieve the purpose.

6.4.2 Training must provided by highly qualified expert s/professionals are

may get the services of trained experts from developed countries.

6.4.3 Stability and implementation of decision taken for stipulated period by

authorities / governments for required training and purposes.

6.4.4 To develop the linkages in strengthen way between purposes.

6.4.5 After every 10 years changes/improvements in syllabus according

advancement of developed countries.

6.4.6 By fulfill the teaching staff positions in the institution and organize

combined workshop to solve the current problems/requirements and discussion

among the industries and institutes concerns.

6.5 International Co-Operation and Exchange Of Experience

Rapidly change and modifications in technology, and have to get benefits of

development in technological field, we have to share and transfer the

technology to each other, by providing opportunities of experience. We should

have opened the doors for one another.

References:

1) Education policy 1971-78. Ministry of Education, Govt. of Pakistan.

2) Education policy 1988 - 1998. Ministry of Education, Govt. of Pakistan.

3) Sindh technical education website, www/dtesindh.com

4) Fact finding study on post secondary TVET Institution (August 2006)

Courtesy, Japan International Cooperation Agency.


Overview on the New Technology and Design Course Programme in Turkey (6th - 8th Grades) 223

1. Overview of the Turkish Educational System

In Turkey, elementary and lower secondary schools 8 years, from the age of 6-7

to 14-15(compulsory), upper secondary schools or vocational schools (3-4 years),

universities; junior colleges 2-3 years, faculties 4 to 6 years.

2. Evaluation of Technology Education in Turkey

In some European countries and USA, the approach which anticipated the

emphasis on practical skills and named as “industrial arts” has been gradually

transformed into a form called “technology education” by comprising technological

processes and procedures in an integrative manner. Reflection of this approach and

applications has somewhat become evident in the context of the previous “work

education” courses of elementary and secondary education in Turkey.

Histrocial steps of Technology education in Turkey shown below (1, 2).

1910 - “Handicrafts” course in teacher training schools

1930 - “Science applications” course integrated with Science courses

1940 - « Village Institute » program that combines work and education

1949 - “Work Knowledge” course in secondary school program

1968 - “Art-Work” course that combines work and arts

1974 - Content extended “Arts and Work Education” course (Arts and crafts)

1981 - Compulsory “Work Education” course

1991 - Compulsory “Work Education” programme developed for elementary

and lower secondary schools (primary education)

2006 - Compulsory”Technology and Design” programme for the 6th, 7th and

8th classes

Mahmut IzcilerGazi University

TURKEY

Overview on the New Technology and Design CourseProgramme in Turkey (6th - 8th Grades)

“Work Education” course has been carried out from 1991 to 2006 by the

Ministry of Education on a national basis as the following(1).

- Initiated as 4 hours/week in 4th and 5th classes of elementary schools (1991)

- Initiated as 6 hours/week in 6th, 7th and 8th (lower secondary school-

second stage of the - primary school) classes (1991)

- Decreased to 3 hours/week in 1994 for lower secondary schools

- Decreased to 2 hours/ week in 1997 for lower secondary schools

- Increased to 3 hours/week in 1998,

- Diminished again to 2 hours/week in 2001.

“Work Education” in 4th and 5th Classes; the facilities of using materials

and tools that corresponds with the needs occurred during the mathematics,

science, social sciences and language learning were intensified. Pupils try to

produce things that they projected in their minds. By this means some of

intangible concepts were converted into tangible objects.

“Work Education” in 6th, 7th and 8th Classes; aimed at both preparing the

student for life and leading him or her towards adequate programs for higher

education. By improving individual’s interests and skills, contribution to the

selection of appropriate vocation and working life was targeted.

From 1990 to 2006 “Work Education” course was established within a package

(circling system) and included 4 different sub-courses as shown below figure;

Figure 1 Work Education sub-courses (1990-2006) (1)


3. The Vision of the New Program

The vision of the programme is to train creative individuals who are open to

change and developments, who are well aware of today’s problems and can

offer solutions in order to build a better future for the society; who are able to

think, question and express themselves.

The programme consists of 3 complementary steps which are repeated in the

sixth, seventh and eight grades.

Figure 2 Three complementary steps of New Turkish “Technology and

Design” curriculum(3)

The first two phase activities (arrangement and construction) are given in the

first term; the third(production) is given the second term. For the

implementation stage, each student is expected to perform at least one activity

for each focal point and also each student must keep a design diary for each

activity. The classes must not exceed 20 students. The pupils take guidance

from their teacher for the application process of their ideas and learning with

regard technology will be realised during these processes.

3.1 Evaluation of the Success

There is no written examination. The design making process and class

performance is assessed at least one grade point each term(Tool: Student

Observation Form). Assesment through students’ design diaries and research

files (at least Two grade points each term) (Tool: Progressive Grading Key). In


addition that, Core Evaluation Form(students’ self assesment) is taken into

consideration.

4. Fundemental Aspects of New “Technology and Design” Curriculum

Fundemental aspects of “Technology and Design” curriculum is explained

and shown below table.

Table 1 Arrangement, construction and production phases from 6th to

8th grades

Every phase can be explained from 6th to 8th grades as the following.

4.1 Arrangement Phase

6th Class: Take their first steptowards thinking/idea, form original arrangement

by using existing units.

7th Class : Form original arrangements (designs) by using invariable shapes

(square, circle, line).

8th Class: Express the concepts of color, direction and proportion through the

designs they formed of invariable shapes.


At the arrangement phase, students develop the ability to think and evaluate

things in their lives by looking from different perspectives. Taking nature, life

and themselves as starting points, students construct concepts such as place,

surface, unit, repetition, rhythm, order, harmony, integrity and community. By

using invariable shapes (square, circle etc.) students form original designs.

They express the concepts of color, direction and proportion through the

designs they formed of invariable shapes. They improve their creativity in the

process of learning through observation, research, inquiry and experimentation.

4.2 Construction phase

6th Class: In order to solve a problem, students outline their ideas and make

drawings.

7th Class : Students make drawings in a tangible manner so as to avoid

misunderstandings.

8th Class: They learn about intellectual property Rights / statutory protection.

For the construction phase students are expected to show the ability for;

-Creative thinking

-Moving from curiosity & imagination towards change, development and

facilitation

-Developing solution-oriented behavior

-Expressing their ideas through drawings and written works in a tangible

manner

-Sharing their ideas with others

-Learning about intellectual property rights.

4.3 Production phase

6th Class: By experiencing the design process they deliver concrete products.


7th Class : In order to bring a solution to a problem,they reflect their thoughts

and emotions to their works.

8th Class: They employ innovation and marketing techniques in order to

introduce their products.

At the production phase, students utilize the skills they have developed in the

previous phase to deliver products. Through observation, students detect

problems. By means of offering solutions to the problems students have

detected, students take steps towards the concretization of their designs.

Students experience the phase which starts from the specification of the

problem and lasts with the design of the product. They plan activities to present

their designs. In order to increase the marketing of their product, they use

innovation techniques.

5. The Expected Benefits

It is expected that the pupil centered and active learning structured program

will lead the pupil to:

Search, Reach to the information,

Interrogate, Analyse,

Decide,

Solve problems,

Produce new products and ideas.

6. Conclusions and Discussions

It is quite difficult to say that technology education has been able to acquire the

required position and impact in general education (elementary and lower secondary

education) from past to present even in latest platform of “work education” course

which has been given since 1991. The “Technology and Design” course is

introduced recently on May 2006. Under its proposed content the new technology

and design courses is not satisfactory and does not comply fully with the current

national needs and is not so much similarly available in international programs.


Other problems lie behind this situation are mostly related with the factors such as

the lack of approach and understanding, insufficiency of qualified teachers

(insufficient number of technology teachers will result in the fact that all of the home

economics and business teachers will be converted into “Technology and Design”

course teachers at the MOE), lack of equipment and sources, inadequate physical

conditions, in service training (It is arranged by the Ministry of Education in

Turkey), insufficient correlation between MOE and university that obstruct

functioning and divert the content from the objectives of the programme.

The need for the technology education teachers is increasing every year. In this

case, more faculties at the different universities must open new technology teacher

training departments. From june to Augoust 2006, Ministry of Education has done

so many in service training. However, during these in service trainings, the

Ministry of Education only gave information about the reasons for changing the

content of the course and told about the necessity for business and home economics

teachers to give technology and design course since their courses were taken off.

However, this situation will create handicaps in running the program properly since

business and home economics teachers lack the necessary qualifications to give

“Technology and Design Course”. Because, those teachers were not trained to carry

out such kind of course. Since their disciplines are totally different.

References

1) Izciler M., Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project, “New approches in technology

training development and integration of European modules in technology

training”, Prentation of Turkish Primary Education and Technology and

Design Course, June 2006. Greece.

2) Izciler M., Keskin H., Togay A., “Problems and Solutions of Technology

Education in Tukey and the Philosophy of Making Things”, IV.

International Education Technologies Symposium, Sakarya University, Vol.

II, 1204-1210, November 2004, ADAPAZARI.

3) Ministry of Education, Technology and Design Curriculum and Guidelines,

2007, Turkey.


First of all, I am very pleased that this symposium has been successfully

completed and I would like to express my gratitude to every one for kind

cooperation. All sorts of programs were combined in this Symposium; Keynote

lecture, Workshop, Commemorative lecture, Oral presentation, Poster

presentation and Panel discussion. I believe that this Symposium not only

attained its objectives but also gained more fruits than expected.

I would like to summarize the outcome of the Symposium. We could

successfully indicate diverse challenges concerning the contents and

methodology in industrial technology education that the participant’s countries

are faced with from multiple viewpoints. In particular, the following

perspectives are covered:

1. Individual advancement of technical education, engineering education and

professional education.

2. Formulation of specific contents and methodology for the above-

mentioned three fields of education of industrial technology.

3. Accumulation and exchanges of information concerning industrial

technology education.

These perspectives revealed several key points; as for No.1, development and

improvement of education system matching to the need of each country are

required. The necessity of developing updated core-curriculum, syllabus and

educational stage are suggested for No.2. Concerning the 3rd perspective, it

clarified the significance of establishing a structure for coordination and

continuous cooperation among administration, educational institution and the

industrial sector.

It is required to enhance the teacher training system so as to meet the demand

of each country. Teachers’ working conditions also need to be improved in

order to recruit good teachers. Moreover, we learned that introduction of

effective and efficient teaching methods suitable for each country is a critical

Working Together: Building Technological Cultures 231

Afterword

Challenges in Industrial Technology Education andActions toward their Solution

factor when you think of the education contents. Furthermore, with regard to

the partnership with the industrial sector, cultivating closer communication

between industry and educational institutions was suggested in terms of both

quality and quantity.

I have analyzed these factors from the viewpoint of international educational

cooperation and arranged the following matrix consisting of issues and

solutions.

For example, according to this matrix, Country A is going to cope with

“promotion of technical/engineering/professional education” by means of

domestic efforts toward reform whereas Country F will be tackling the

challenge of “formulation of specific contents and methodology for each

category of industrial technology education” by asking for support and

cooperation from the ministry of education. In the future, in order to link these

issues and their solutions, accumulation of information relating to industrial

technology education as database contents seems effective so that such

information can be used to produce curriculum, syllabus and educational stage

in the form of publications, disks and electronic information.

It would be fortunate if this Symposium offered an opportunity that can

contribute to the improved educational cooperation system on a global scale.

I thank you once again for your kind attendance, participation and

cooperation in this Symposium.

Hidetoshi Miyakawa, General Chair of Symposium

232 Afterword

model of technological creativity based on the …model of technological creativity based on the...

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