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MNSES9100: Environmental Ethics

deborah.oughton@umb.no

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Case 1: Blind hens

In modern egg production, factory hens tend to attack each other. Crowding results in feather pecking, comb damage, and cannibalism, This results in both suffering for the hens and economic loss for the farmers

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Blind hens

Under similar conditions, studies have shown that blind hens are much more passive, show less signs of stress and cease to attack each other. They have no problem finding food and water, and because of the reduced activity they require 25% less food intake, while egg production increases by 13%. Thus farmers can produce cheaper eggs for consumers with less suffering for the hens.

A Norwegian company wishes to create a strain of blind hens through selective breeding and sell them for egg production. Should this be allowed?

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•Human introduction of goats to an island in the 1960’s is threatening the abundance of a rare orchid.•Without measures it is expectedthat the orchid will be extinct onthe island within the next 10 years•There is nowhere to move thegoats. Should they be exterminated?

Case 2: Wild Goats

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Case 3: GloFish®

GloFish are genetically modified fish that glow in the dark

They were originally created for use in ecotoxicological studies, but are now marketed commerically in the US.

Should they be permitted to be sold in Norway?

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Case 4: Mountain Resort

A company wishes to create a tourist resort at the above location on the edge of the Rondane National Park. Facilities will include hotels, cabins, a “outdoor” adventure theme park and shops. This will create 200 new jobs for the community, and bring in anexpected 100 million kroner a year to the area. The increased number of tourists is predicted to be about 500,000 a year.Should the development be allowed?

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What are we protecting and why?

Pollution control

Nature conservation

Resource exploitation

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Sources of Environmental Problems

Limits to Resources

Waste and Pollution

Change in Global Systems

Reduction in BiologicalDiversity

Ariansen

http://www.nsidc.org/news/press/2007_seaiceminimum/images/20070904_modis.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG

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What do environmental philosophers do?

• They question:• How should we value the environment?• Who or what has moral standing and why?

• They debate:• Anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric

views• Intrinsic and extrinsic value

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Definition of the Environment – Japan

The green fields

The Dark Forest

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Value and Moral Standing in Ethics

Inherent or intrinsic value

To have moral standing – to count in moral reasoning - to count as an “end in itself”

Instrumental or extrinsic value

To have value as a “means to an end” – to count because of some consequence for other moral entities

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Three Theories of Environmental Ethics

Anthropocentrism

Biocentrism

Ecocentrism

Why do humans think they rule the world?

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Western Christianity

Christian-Jewish religion has been cited as thesource of modern ecological destruction

Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over all the fish of the sea and over thefowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepth apon the earth(Genesis 1:26-30)

White, Science, 1967

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hands_of_God_and_Adam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Francisbyelgreco.jpg

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Other Sources of Human Arrogance

Patriarchal Society and Male Chauvinism

Greeks: Hubris and Nemesis

Technological Development (triumph over nature; the ”fortunate fall)

Reductionism in Science (Age of Enlightenment)

Ecology – From communities to ecosystems

Commerce, trade and capitalism (nature is resources to be exploited)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hetzel_front_cover.jpg

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Ethical Theory

Environmental Ethics

Anthropocentrism

Biocentrism

Ecocentrism

Overarching Ethical Theory

Utilitarianism/Consequentialism

Deontology/rights-based theories

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Anthropocentrism

Non-human species and the environment have value only in so much as they satisfy human interests – ”extrinsic value”(Frankena, Bookchin)

Humans are the only entities that have moral standingEnvironmental effects matter only to the extent that they affecthuman interests

Humans are the only “valuers”

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Value and Moral Standing in Ethics

Inherent or intrinsic value

To have moral standing – to count in moral reasoning - to count as an “end in itself”

Instrumental or extrinsic value

To have value as a “means to an end” – to count because of some consequence for other moral entities

Deontological ethics – entities that do not have rights can be used as a “means to an end”; Utilitarian ethics – only the instrumental consequences for those entities having moral standing count in utility calculations

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Utilitarianism/Consequentialism

“The greatest happiness of the greatest number” (Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832; John Stuart Mill 1806-1873).

Weighing positive and negative consequences

Ethical significance depends on outcomes, not on intrinsic values of acts themselves

Valuing the environment?

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Biocentrism (Animal Ethics)

Utilitarian (Peter Singer)– Ethical realm concerns all sentient creatures

“can they feel pain, do they suffer”

Kantian/deontological (Tom Regan)– animal rights, duty based ethics. Animals are

capable of experience, thus have similar claim to rights as humans

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Deontology

Rule based theory of ethics. e.g., Do not kill, lie, cheat, etc.;

Treat persons as ends in themselves, never as means to an end (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804)

Some actions are impermissible whatever the consequences (lying, killing, breaking promises)

Emphasis on rights, duties and constraints

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Bentham’s question (1789)”The day may come when the rest of the animal

creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason why a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum, are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason, or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day, or a week, or even a month, old. But suppose they were otherwise, what would it avail? The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?”

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Biocentrism

Who or what has moral status?– rationality

– sentinence

– inherent or instrumental worth

On what basis can we draw a moral distinction between humans and animals?

…or a heirarchy?

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”Regeringen har vedtatt å firedoble bjørnbestenden”

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Let theflowers live!

Leave the flowersfor others to enjoy!

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Ecocentrism

Ecosystems and/or their components have intrinsic or inherent value - “value in themselves” (Leopold, Callicott)

Humans have no right to interfere with the richness and diversity of the ecosystem except to satisfy vital needs (Næss)

Proponents of ecocentrism claim that both biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem can have moral standing -”holistic”

Disagree on the reasons for and solutions to environmental problems (human arrogance, male dominance, social and economic hierarchy)

Arne Næss

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Religious and Cultural Relevance

Biocentric and ecocentric views reflected in many religions and cultures

Need to recognise and preserve diversity

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Historical evolution in the realm of moral and legal standing in Western Philosophy

Citizens

Race

Tribe

NationGender

SpeciesEcosystem

Primates2000

400 BC

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Environment and Politics

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Case 1: The Skeptical Environmentalist- measuring the real state of the world

Published August 2001

Themes include– Climate change. Alarmist predictions. No

economic benefit of Kyoto protocol

– Biodiversity. No great threat to ”endangered”species. No significant extinctions over those expected from evolution

– Chemical pollution grossly overrated and most controls a waste of money

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Reaction

Scientific American published a series of articles criticising the basis and conclusions of Lomborg (www.ucsusa.org)

Climate change – too short sighted, erroneous accounting

Biodiversity (E.O. Wilson) omitted important references, deliberately focused on extinction as a criteria rather than endangered or threatened species

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The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty

January 2003 – found that accusations that Lomborg was guilty of scientific dishonesty could not be rejectedGeneral uproar from the scientific community – even those who had disagreed with LomborgPetitions from both natural and social scientistsDanish government suspended funds from the committeeLifetd in 2004 after further petition from the scientific community

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Ruling (www.forsk.dk/uvvu/)

”Objectively speaking, the publication of the work under consideration is deemed to fall within the concept of scientific dishonesty

”In view of the subjective requirements made in terms of intent or gross negligence, however, Bjørn Lomborg’s publication cannot fall within the bounds of this characterisation. Conversely, the publication is deemed clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice”

September 2007

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Oil drilling in the Barents Sea

Large untaped resources (Snøhvitfelt –3000 million cubic meters gass, BarentsSea 990 million Sm3 oil) Up to 4100 new jobsEconomic benefits for whole country4 out of 5 inhabitants in Finmark support drillingMarch 2006 MD launchedIntegrated Management Plan

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Opposition

Vulnerability of ecosystem

Uniqueness of ecosystem

Impacts on fishing (43000 jobs)

Impacts on tourism

Cultural changes

Risk of accidents

Lack of knowledge

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Precautionary Principle

‘In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.’

[Rio, 1992]

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Difficulties

There is no one definition of the precautionary principle

What is meant by ”serious and irreversible”?

How to distinguish between possible consequences and probable consequences?

How do the possible benefits weigh into the equation?

Does the PP help in the decision about drilling in Snøhvitfeldt?

MNSES9100: Environmental EthicsCase 1: Blind hensBlind hensCase 2: Wild GoatsCase 3: GloFish®Case 4: Mountain ResortWhat are we protecting and why?Sources of Environmental ProblemsWhat do environmental philosophers do?Definition of the Environment – JapanValue and Moral Standing in Ethics Three Theories of Environmental EthicsWestern ChristianityOther Sources of Human ArroganceEthical TheoryAnthropocentrismValue and Moral Standing in Ethics Utilitarianism/ConsequentialismBiocentrism (Animal Ethics)DeontologyBentham’s question (1789)Biocentrism”Regeringen har vedtatt å firedoble bjørnbestenden”EcocentrismReligious and Cultural RelevanceEnvironment and PoliticsCase 1: The Skeptical Environmentalist�- measuring the real state of the worldReactionThe Danish Committees on Scientific DishonestyRuling (www.forsk.dk/uvvu/)Oil drilling in the Barents SeaOppositionPrecautionary PrincipleDifficulties